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JUL 1966
UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II
The Mediterranean Theater of Operations
SALERNO TO CASSINO
PREFACE - CLEARED
/ fOR OPEN PUBLICATIOIC
2 6 JlJL 1966 6 by OIR CTO!IAI L ' "'' "-"""'.t lifVIEW (OASH.{
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
Martin Blumenson
Draft Manuscript not to be reÂproduced in any form without permission from the Office of The Chief of Military History
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY
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Washington 25, D.C.
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.. PREFACE
Salerno to Cassino tells the story of the first eight months of
the Italian campaien, from the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland
in September, 1943, through the battles of the autumn and winter of
1943-44, to the eve oi the Allied spring offensive launched in !1ay,
1944. The period wau grim, not only for the Allies but also for the
Germans, for difficult terrain, bad weather, and chronic shortages of
resources hampered both opponents. What the Allies had hoped would ba
a swift advance fr . Naples to Rome and beyond became a l-lar of posi-
tion, static warfar0 at its lvorst, 'Whic: led directly to the risky
amphibious operation at Anzio and to the climactic struggle :L""J. the
shadow of Monte Cassino.
The focns of the Recount is tactical, specifically on the opera-
tions of the Fifth U.S. Army, though a strategic framework has been
provided to give meaning to the battlefield. The German point of view
has also been presented. For the same reason, the activities of the
Allied ground forces ~""ld of the naval and air forces have been sketched.
Many persons have helped in preparing this book, and my thanks
go to them. I wish I could list them all by name. Those whose assis-
tance 't·Tas vital and transcended the nor:nal bounds of duty include :t-rr.
RalphS. Mavrogord· to, who gave me the benefit of his research in the
German records; ·Miss Hary Ann Bacon, Chief of the Editorial Branch,
who edited the book; Mr. Billy C. Mossman, who drew the maps; Mrs. Lois
Aldridge and Sgt. ___ -----
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who helped provide the do~uments; Mrs. Constance Parham, who typed
the manuscript; and, most of all, Mr. Charles B. MacDonald, Chief of
the General History Branch, whose generous assistance at every stage
of this project has been a major source of inspiration.
For all errors of fact and interpretation, I alone am responsible .
Washingt . ,
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MARTIN BLUHENSON
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Chapter
CONTENTS
PART ONE
Background
I. THE ORIGJNS The Strategic Background Toward a Decision
ll. THE CHOICE The Concept The Decision The Place
III. THE PREPARATIONS Forces Lift
IV. THE START The Plans The Preliminarys
V. THE OPPOSITION: THE GERI·fANS IN ITALY
PART TIJO
Salerno
VI. THE LANDINGS The Last Few Miles of Sea "Zum Heil 11
The Initial American Haves The American Beaches The Results of the First Day SLAPSTICK
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Chapter VII: THE BEACHHEAD
Gern.an Build-up The Beachhead Developed The German Attack
VIII: THE BATTLE AT SALERNO Allied Build-up Stand-off The Avellino Mission
IX: THE END OF THE BATTLE The Crisis Resolved The Eighth Army Role Summary
X: BEYOND SALERNO Problems and Plans The Flanking M·arch The Main Effort Naples and Foggia -XI: THE STRATEGY Allied Intentions
.The German Decision Allied Problems
XII: THE VOLTURNO CROSSING The Immediate Situation The Attack Down the Calore Valley The Main Crossings The Crossing on the Right Flank The Crossings on the Left
XIII: INTO THE HINTER LINE Beyond the Volturno
. !(ountain l 1arfare The Second Volturno Crossing The Upper Volturno Valley The Coastal Zone More Mountain Warfare The Third Volturno Crossing The Germans at the BERNHARD Line Into the BERNHARD Line
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Chapter Xrf • THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME
Allied Reappraisal Hitler's Decision The Cairo and Tehran Conferences The Lull
XV. JN THE WINTER LINE The Sangre Front Plans to Breach the Hignano Barrier Camino-Difensa-Maggiore
XVI. SAN PIETRO The Cor>.ditions The First Attack The Second Attack The Aftermath The Other Fronts
PART FOUR
Anzio and Cassino
XVII. THE DECISION FOR ANZIO
XVIII.- THE PRELJMINARIES FOR ANZIO
XIX. T".tiE RAPIDO RIVER CROSSINGS
XX.- THE ANZIO LANDING Preparations The Landing German Reaction
XXI. THE ATTACKS ON CASSINO
XXII. THE OPENING BATTLES AT ANZIO The Allied Attack The Initial German Counterattack
..
XXIII. THE BOMBARDMENT OF THE ABBEY OF MONTE CASSmO
XXIV. THE TEST AT ANZIO The Major German Attack Change of Command The Last German Attack
XXV. THE BOMBING OF CASSINO
XXVI. RESULTS AND PROSPECTS
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APPENDIX B
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross
All pertinent Army records have baen scrutinized in an effort t o
include in the follouing list the name of ever.r soldier '\-Iho received
the Distinguished Service Cross for his part in the operations
recounted in this volume . Inasmuch as no complete listing of DSC
awards is malllta ined in any single Army file, it is possible that some
names may inadverte nt ly have been omitted.
Note: (P) indicates a posthumous a•:ard; * indicat.es a member of
the French Expeditionary Corps; # indicates a merrtber of the Canadian
Army.
f.1aj. Robert B. Acheson
Capt. Hersel R. Adams (P)
Maj. John E. Adams (Missing)
Capt. Carlos C. Alden, Jr.
Tech . Sgt. Robert 0. Alexander
Tech. Sgt . Rudolph F. Alexander
2d Lt. George A. Allen (P)
Sgt . James H. Archer
PFC Robert L. Arnett (P)
Capt. William P. Athas
1st Lt. Frederick Blake Atto #
Pvt. Masao Awakuni
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Sgt. Hike Bc.ranc k ~
PFC Ed-:.1ard F. Barker (}1issing)
1st Lt. i.lilliaM R. Barker
Capt. Charle3 M. Beacham
Pvt. Niles R. Backstrom
2d Lt. Alf~ed Belander (P)
Capt. Henri de Bel&~nce * Sgt. Jack G. Berry
2d Lt. Thomas F. Berteau
2d Lt. Herbert E. BilJman
S/Sgt. Oliver R. Birkner (Nissing)
2d Lt. Arnold C. Bjorklund
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S/ Sgt . Jack l<l. Bloomer
1st Lt. Wayne E. Boyce (P)
2d Lt. Randolph Bracey (P)
Cpl. Roy A. Braden
PFC Marvin H. Broach
Sgt. Harry L. Bromley
T/Sgt. Charles H. Bussey
Capt. Benjamin J. Butler
Col. Frederick B. Butler
S/Sgt. Robert A. Campagna
Pvt. Arthur C. Cato
Sgt. 'Robert L. Chudej
Tech 5th Gr. Carl R. Clegg
Cpl. Boggs G. Collins
Cpl. Thomas W. Corcoran
Pvt. William J. Crawford
Pvt. Melvin E. Danhaus
1st Lt. Jesse L. Davis
PFC Leslie B. Davis (Missing)
S/Sgt. Royce C. Davis
Lt. Col . Lyle J. Deffenbaugh
Maj. Don B. Dunham (P)
Lt~ Col. Ray J. Ericksen (P)
Capt. James G. Evans
Sgt. Carroll E. Fairclo
Pvt. Richard Ferris (P)
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Sgt. Edgar ~· Fines # (P)
Capt. Ralph c. Fisher (P)
PFC Chester W. Floyd
Sgt. vlilliam J. Fox
PFC Orlin A. Franklin
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Brig. Gen. Robert T. Frederick
PFC Walter A. Galary
Sgt. Fortunate Garcia (Hissing)
Pvt. Paul C. Gerlich (P)
Pvt. Francis H. Gisborne
PFC Joe P. Gomez
Sgt. Manuel S. Gonzales
2d Lt. David 0. Gorgol
2d Lt. Edlrin F. Gould
Lt. Col. Samuel S. Graham
Sgt. Charles I. Grant
PFC William Green
PFC Lloyd C. Greer (Hissing)
Sgt. Bennie L. Guffey
Pvt. Thomas S. Gugliuzza (P)
Pvt. Fred Guttilla
Sgt. Arlie J. Haines
Pvt. Charles R. Hanes (P)
1st Lt. Roy M. Hanna
2d Lt. Herbert A. Hansen (P)
PFC Harry C. Harpel (P)
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2d Lt. Vernon C. Harris (P)
Capt. Leroy A. Haselwood (P)
Pvt. Mikio Hasemoto (P)
Capt. Richard B. Hawk
Pvt. Shizuya Hayashi
T/Sgt. Robert H. Healer
lst Lt. Paul F. Heath
1st Lt. Robert T. Heflin
Sgt. Robert F. Heiser (P)
2d Lt. Max R. Hendon
Pvt. Edwin C. Hicks
1st Lt. William Hi ggins, Jr.
Sgt. Glen 0 Hiller
Chaplain (Capt.) Albert J. Hoffman
1st Lt. George E. Hodgdon
Cpl. Jesse D. Hollemon, Jr. (P)
Sgt. Burk B. Hunt (P)
1st Lt. Sylvester J. Hunter
Capt. Milton Jarr old
S/Sgt. Charles R. Johnsen
Sgt. Steward R. Johnson
2d Lt. Delmer C. Keck (Missing)
1st Lt. i-Jilliam C. Kellogg
Capt. John T. Kershner (P)
S/Sgt. Charles W. Keyser
Capt. Joe H. Kimble
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1st Lt. Dona~d E. Knowlton
PFC Henry C • Kranz
2d Lt . John T. Lamb
Capt. Alden S. Lance
1st Lt. Will iam J. Langston (P)
1st Lt. Stanley S. Lemon (P)
Sgt . George Lenkalis (P)
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2d Lt. John A. Liebenstein (Mi ssing)
2d Lt . Hot~rd R. Lieurance (P)
2d Lt . Hichael Ligus , Jr . (P)
Tech 5th Gr . Marvin B. Lindley
1st Lt. Hartin Luke
Pvt. Clement S. Mackowiak
Capt. Jack L. l1arinelli
Capt. Carl P. Hatney
S/Sgt. Richard E. McCaffrey
Capt. George N. NcCall
Capt. Clifton A. HcClain, Jr. (P)
Sgt. John H. Mcinnis #
1st Lt. James F. Hc}fahon
S/Sgt. Quillian H. HcMichen (P)
Sgt. Hugh H. Merritt (P)
Pvt. Andrew J. Mileham
Pvt. William F. Hiller
S/Sgt. Daniel W. Minton (P)
Maj. Merle M. Mitchell
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2d Lt. Orva F. Morris
Cpl. Burt G. Moulton
1st Lt. Orville 0. Mun~on
PFC :Hax L. Nebus, Jr. (P)
S/Sgt. Carroll T. 0 1Donald (P)
1st Lt. Howard W. O'Donnell (P)
S/Sgt. Allan M. Ohata
PFC Omar Page (P)
PFC William Page
PFC Howard E. Palmer
S/Sgt. ~oJ'illiam F. Parro t.t
Sgt. George S. Paudel
PFC Dallas D. Prather (P)
Sgt. John A. Rich
S/Sgt. John C. Ritso (P)
2d Lt. George T. Robi~son (P)
Lt. Col. William B. ~osson
1st Lt. Henry F. G. Rouse
T/Sgt. James A. Rutlec ,.e
Tech 5th Gr. Ben Santjer (P)
1st Lt. Bernard T. Schaefer
S/Sgt. Harold L. Schorg
PFC Leonard J. Schneider (P)
Sgt . Martin N. Schreck
Capt. Emile G. Schuster
Col. Harry B. Sherman
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1st Lt. James N. Sherrick (Missing)
T/Sgt. Sylvester D. Singlestad
Maj. James F. Skells
Cpl. James D. Slaton
Sgt. Willie B. Slaughter
T/Sgt. Walter G. Sleezer
Capt. Walker B. Sorrell
T/Sgt. Rolfe A. Spahr
2d Lt. William o. Sporbert
Capt. Harry J. Stons
Capt. Richard M. Strong
Cpl. Masaru Suehiro
PFC Richard M. Slvanson
Sgt. Ralph W. Suisher
Sgt-Chef Dominique Taddei * Sgt. Shigeo J. Takata (P)
2d Lt. Harry M. Thames
Pvt. Merwin A. Tobias
Capt. Charles D. Tool
Sgt. Fred Trotter (P)
Sgt. Anthony D. Trumpaitis
Col. Reuben H. Tucker
Sgt. Leslie Van Dine
Pvt. Carson L. Varner
Sgt. Gaither w. Vaughn
2d Lt. Thomas E. Vierheller (P)
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Sgt. Fred Vincent (P)
PFC John A. vlakefield
PFC Robert E. Watson
PFC Charles E. Wheeler (P)
2d Lt. Melvin F. Wiggins
S/Sgt. Harold D. Wilson (Missing)
Capt. James W. Wilson
PFC Thow.as I. Yamanaga ( P)
PFC Theodore Yuhasz
1st Lt. Thomas Zabski
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
I JUL 1966
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The main source of documentation for Salerno to Cassino is the
body of official records of the U.S. Army in the Mediterranean
theater, the files of reports, letters, and messages contained for
the most part in the Federal Records Center, Alexandria, Va., and
also in the Kansas City Records Center. Incidental files maintained
by the Gemral Reference Branch of OCHH were also helpful. Because
the bulk and extent of the official records impose the problem of
selection on the historian, it is necessary to add that the major
research was carried out in the files of the Operations (G-3) Sections
of the pertinent headquarters.
Compared to the records maintained later in the war and particu-
larly by those engaged in the European theater, the official records
of the Nediterranean theater are impersonal even though they are
copious. Telephone journals, which reveal not only the personalities
of commanders but their methods of operation, for example, are entirely
lacking. In their place are found occasional memorandums of record,
lmich may or may not disclose the significant details that permit
human characterization to be added to a narrative. All the major head-
quarters and units in the theater prepared monthly after action reports
supported by journals and journal files, in which are found directives,
operations instructions, periodic reports, messages, and the like.
The narrative reports vary in quality, that is, in the perception they
offer. The after action reports of the 3d, 34th, and 45th Divisions
concentrate on the movements of regiments and battalions and are
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deficient in exposing commanders' observations, estimates of the situ-
ation, and reasons for decisions made; the monthly reports of the 36th
Division are somewhat better, but not as good as the best ones pre-
pared by units later in the war. It would seem that as the war con-
tinued, the participants improved their reporting techniques and
learned increasingly how to present significant accounts of their
experience.
The best secondary source on the American operations in the Italian
campaign is the Fifth Army History, written by members of the Fifth
Army Historical Section and published shortly after the war in Ita~y.
An after action report in concept, the History gives a straightforward
account of operations, including material not only on the command
problems but also on the tactical details of the subordinate units.
The appendices contain personnel and ammunition figures and lists,
operations orders and directives, and other useful information; maps,
charts, and statistics are included. Volumes I through IV are rele-
vant for the period under consideration.
Unit histories are few in number. Excellent for local color and
tactical detail are Donald G. Taggart, ed., The History of the Third
Infantry Division in 't-lorld l,lar II (Washington: Infantry Journal Press,
1947); James J. Altieri, Darby's Rangers (Durham, N.C.: Seaman
Printery, 1945); Robert D. Burhans, The First Special Service Force
(V.lashington: Infantry Journal Press, 1947); and George F. Howe,
The Battle History of the 1st Annored Division (Washington: Combat
Forces Press, 1954). Unfortunately, published histories of the 34th,
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36th, and 45th Infantry Divisions do not seem to exist; nor are there
published accounts of the II and VI Corps operations.
Four pamphlets -- Salerno, The Volturno, The Winter Line, and
Anzio -- published by OGrlli in the American Forces in Action Series
give excellent accounts of particular segments of the Italian campaign.
They emphasize small unit action. Their clear maps and vivid illus-
trations make them particularly valuable. No similar study was made
of the fighting around Cassino.
For operations of the British Eighth A~ in Italy, I have relied
largely on Field Marshal Sir Bernard L. Montgomery's El Alamein to the
River Sangro (Germany: British Army of the Rhine, 1946), on the more
personal account of his chief of staff, Major-General Sir Francis de
Guingand, Operation Victory (New York: Scribner's, 1947), and on
Lt.-Col. G. W. L. Nicholson's The Canadians in Italy, 1943 - 1945
(vol. II of the OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE CANADIAN ARl·1Y IN THE SECOND
WORLD WAR, Ottawa, 1956). The operations of the French Expeditionary
Corps have been ably presented by General Marcel Carpentier, who was
General Juin's chief of staff, in his Les Forces Alliees en Italie
(Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1949).
The memoir literature for the period is extensive. Particularly
important are: Mark W. Clark, Calculated Risk (New York: Harper's,
1950); Lucian K. Truscott, Jr., Command Missions (New York: Dutton,
1954); Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton,
Mifflin, 1951); Albert Kesselring, A Soldier's Record (New York:
Morrow, 1954); and Siegfried Westphal, The German Army in the West
(London: Cassell, 1951).
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Not quite in the category of memoir literature because they are
less personal in their views are the published dispatches of Generals
Wilson and Alexander and Admiral Cunningham and the unpublished
dispatch of General Eisenhower on Mediterranean operations. All are
interesting for the analyses of the operations that these commanders
directed.
Official histories r elevant for the period include: Maurice
Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1943-1944, UNITED
STATES ARi'1Y IN 1ilORLD vlAR II (Washington, 1959); "Hesley F. Craven and
James L. Cate, eds., ~oue : TORCH to f()INTBLANK (vol. II, THE Aill-fY
AIR FORCES IN \'IORLD W.1'.R :c, Chicago, 1949), and Argument to V -E Day
(vol. III, THE ARI1Y AIR FORCES IN WORLD WAR II, Chicago, 1951); The
Tiger Triumphs: the Sto:~- of Three Great Divisions in Italy (His
Majesty's Stationery Offi•~e for the Government of India, 1946); John
Erhman, Grand Strategy (vol. V, August 1943 - September 1944, HISTORY
OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR, London, 1956); and Robert W. Coakley and
Richard M. Leighton, Global Logistics and Strategy: 1943 - 1945,
UNITED STATES RMY IN WORLD WAR II, which I was privileged to see in
manuscript.
The General Reference Branch of OCMH has collected personal
accounts written shortly after the war as studen theses by officers
attending the Advanced Courses at Fort Benning, Ga., and Fort Knox,
Ky. These studies detail the experience of junior officers in the
combat arms during the Italian campaign and give valuable impressions
of men urrler fire.
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.. The Mathews file in OCHH consists of miscellaneous materials
gathered by Dr. Mathews during the war, when he was a combat historian ~
in Italy, and afterwa::-ds. The Salmon file, also in OCHH, consists of
documents and records collected by Dr. Dvnght Salmon during the course
of his service as a ~~nior historian in the Mediterranean theater.
I have had the ~rivilege of consulting the wartime diaries of
General Jacob Devers, General Mark W. Clark, Major General John Lucas,
and Major General Fi~--d L. vJalker. I have also had access to notes made
by Dr. Howard MeG. S~yth from General Eisenhower's office diary.
Generals Clark and \· c1lker have been most gracious in their help not
only by giving me the i r personal impressions of incidents and events
but also by an~rering questions on the conduct of operations. In
Dr. Smyth, Dr. Philip A. Crowl, and others with some of the principal
commanders in the campaign.
The best short account of the Italian campaign is Chester G.
Starr, From Saler .o to the Alps (lvashington: Infantry Journal Press,
1948). Jacques Mordal 1 s Cassino (Paris: Amiot-D~ont, 1952) i s a
superb rendering of t he battles in that area. Fred Majdalany's
Cassino (Boston: !io .. 1ghton, Mifflin, ) is a beautifully written
account of the sam0 vubject, though somewhat unfair to certain American
commanders and unit.,; . 'VJynford Vaughan-Thomas ·gives a British point
of view in his Anz i o (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961).
My version, Anzio : the Gamble that Failed (Philadelphia: Lippincott,
1963), might be saiJ to have an American viewpoint. Two essays in
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Kent Roberts Greenfield, ed., Command Decisions (New York: Harcourt,
Brace, 1959) are relevant: Ralph S. Mavrogordato 1 s brilliant account
of 11Hi tler1 s Decision on the Defense of Italy, 11 and rrry study of
"General Lucas at Anzio .n
The German side of the story has been drawn largely from seven
manuscripts prepared by Mr. Mavrogordato for this volume, manuscripts
that are filed in OCMH. The docunentary basis of Mr. Mavrogordato's
l-lOrk is the body of official German records. He made particular use
of the diary and diary appendices of the Tenth Army, uhich reflect
events occurring belm~, at the corps level, and above, at army group
level. He found corps documents generally too detailed and somewhat
unbalanced. Host records of the army group have been lost. The
journal of telephone conversations between commanders and between
chiefs of staff on army group and army echelons -- not kept until the
middle of October, 1943 -- reveals personal attitudes and reactions,
as well as facts.
The war diary of the OKW Army Forces Operations Staff is the most
valuable source for strategic background and high-level policy. It
shol>TS how decisions "~o.>ere reached and details the differences of opinion
between Hitler and his Operations Staff (in particular Jodl and vlarli-
mont). Comments on the diary, written by Warlimont after the l-rar (in
OCMH files), form an important supplement that cannot be separated
from the diary itself.
Among the postwar narratives written by German officers, the best
ones for the period under study are Kesselring's (less an apology than
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his published book) and Westphal's (less tendentious than his book);
1 JUL 1966 21
these accounts in "Der Feldzug in Italian," a manuscript collection in
OCMH f i les, are interesting for their revelations of attitudes and
opinions rather than benefic~l for accuracy and completeness. Viet-
inghoff•s and Senger's comments, in the same manuscript collection,
are also useful for insights into German operations, though the former
is r ather concerned with defending the honor of the German soldier and
the latter turns strongly around critical evaluations of commanders
holding Nazi political beliefs. Hauser's manuscript and Mackensen's
comments are important for the period of the Anzio beachhead.
The Steiger manuscript, written by a member of the Canadian Arrrry
Historical Section, has been most helpful.
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