.Parts of Speech.and Phrases

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Chapter 3:

Parts of Speech in English Phrases

Every chapter of this book addresses the question: What do we (the readers and author of this book) know that makes it possible for us to produce and understand English? Chapter 1 showedthat we know about pronunciation and spelling, about word formation, about grammar, and aboutdiscourse structure. Chapter 2 looked more closely at what we know about the form, function,and meaning of morphemes and how they pattern together to form English words. Chapter 3introduced some key concepts needed to explain what we know about grammar (how words

pattern in phrases and how phrases pattern in clauses). This book focuses on grammar, and so inthis chapter we begin our detailed exploration of the grammatical structure of English phrases,clauses, and sentences. But before we take up the details, let us once more review the approachthat we will take, an approach rooted in the analysis and description of function and form,

patterns and choices.

In Chapter 1, I found it useful, and we hope you found it interesting, to look very closely at a poem by Emily Dickinson. Even though it was composed of only two short sentences totaling 19words, we spent several pages exploring the complexity of its language. Here is another passagefor you to read (and I hope enjoy). Its language is as straightforward and direct as was EmilyDickinson’s. In fact it is very spontaneous. It is a short excerpt from the writing journal of astudent in a first year college composition course. The student was instructed to write in the

journal often, using writing as a stimulus to looking more closely at the world around him and asa way to gather observations, ideas, and language that might provide the raw material forassigned essays in the course. Here is the passage:

3.1 A Passage from Doug Webb’s Journal

I bought a book today. My favorite kind. A paperback. Paperbacks are so much better than

hardbacks; they're not so heavy; they bend. But what is most peculiar about paperbacks is theway they never lie flat after they've been opened and read from a few times. It's almost as if theywere inviting you to jump back in, make a return visit, maybe get really acquainted this time.Hardback books are so big -- cumbersome too, and they're always just too big to go into your

biggest pocket. They seem to try to impress with their squared off corners and their unnecessarythickness. I sometimes feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me away and then laugh!And there's another thing hardbacks can't do -- they never quite take on the appearance of theirowners. You know the way a paperback gets because you carry it around all the time -- full of

papers, notes about assignments, scribbles and comments and underlinings. And the cornersalways get bent up and begin to separate into layers, and they always get dirty around the edges,and better than that, they're full of funny little memories like coffee stains and little pieces ofcoconut and sometimes even bubble gum. Paperbacks can be almost like friends because you get

to know them so well, I guess; that's probably the reason I have a house full of them. Buthardbacks, they're hopeless. You never get to know them; they're just too impersonal. Maybethey just don't approve of me; they're probably even snobbish towards my paperbacks that alwayssurround and outnumber them. I bet they don't like having to be so close to the swinishmultitudes. But I bet my paperbacks have more fun.

As delightful and spontaneous as the language of this passage is, we will find out that aspectsof its grammar are so subtle and intricate that we will not have explained them fully even by theend of this book. On the other hand, the passage contains many examples of some of the more

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PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH PHRASES

common grammatical structures in English, and thus provides us with some excellent examples tostart our discussion of parts of speech and their roles in the grammar of English phrases. (Inorder to focus on a particular point we may wish to make, we will at times make small revisionsin a selection from Doug’s passage, but in every case, the parts of speech and the grammatical

patterns in my revisions will closely parallel the ones that Doug used when he composed the passage.)

Let us begin by examining several noun phrases that appear in Doug’s passage.

3.2 paperbacksa bookmy favorite kindyour biggest pocketthe swinish multitudescoffee stains

What did Doug Webb have to know about the grammar of the English noun phrase in order to

compose these phrases, and what do we have to know in order to understand them? Think aboutthis question and read the phrases in 3.2 one more time before you read on. In order to write orunderstand such phrases, Doug knew and we must, of course, know the meanings of the words,

but that is not the focus of grammar. The focus of grammar is on what we have to know in orderto produce or understand, say, my favorite kind as an English noun phrase in a way that wewouldn’t interpret kind favorite my as an English noun phrase, even though it contains the samewords with the same meanings.

The display in 3.3 below lists the first kind of thing we need to know: (1) patterns of positionsin the noun phrase (given here with examples of Doug Webb’s noun phrases that contained the

positions).

3.3noun phrase > HEAD (paperbacks)noun phrase > DETERMINER + HEAD (a book)noun phrase > MODIFIER + HEAD (coffee stains)noun phrase > DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEAD (my favorite kind)

The arrowhead symbol in each of the above four patterns can be read to mean “the formal phraseor clause category named to the left of the arrowhead may have within it the functional positionslisted to the right of the arrowhead, in the order listed.”

The display in 3.4 below lists the second kind of thing we need to know in order to produceand understand English noun phrases: (2) available choices of the parts of speech that can occupy

each position in each noun phrase pattern (again with examples of words in Doug Webb’s noun phrases that belong to those part-of-speech categories).

3.4HEAD : noun (paperbacks, book, kind, pocket, multitudes, stains)DETERMINER : definite article (the)DETERMINER : indefinite article (a)DETERMINER : possessive article (my, your),MODIFIER : adjective (favorite, bookish, swinish)

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MODIFIER : noun (coffee)

The colon symbol in each of the above choice lines can be read to mean “into the position namedon the left of the colon, one can choose to place a word belonging to the part of speech listed onthe right of the colon.”

Using the patterns in 3.3 and the choices in 3.4, we can construct an analysis of the noun phrase my favorite kind that would look like 3.5:

3.5noun phrase (my favorite kind)

DETERMINER possessive article (my)MODIFIER adjective (favorite)HEAD noun (kind)

A speaker of, say, French or Spanish (where most MODIFIER adjectives follow HEAD nouns)who was trying to learn English would be likely to say my kind favorite , instead of my favoritekind , at least until the English patterns and choices were mastered.

In the remainder of this chapter, we will discuss and define 23 English parts of speech. In sodoing, we will also look more closely at the grammar of the phrases within which the parts ofspeech occur, beginning with the noun phrase. Several parts of speech that can occupyfunctional positions in the noun phrase will be defined in detail. Then several other parts ofspeech that occupy functional positions in the prepositional phrase, the verb phrase, the linkingverb phrase, the adjective phrase, and the adverb phrase will be discussed and defined.

NOUN PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

The patterns and choices that we use in constructing and interpreting noun phrases are so

complex that no grammar book has ever fully described them. The patterns and choicesdiscussed in this chapter (even though more complex than in the brief introductory discussion wehave just concluded) will be greatly simplified versions of what actually happens in the Englishlanguage. (In Chapter 8, after we have sharpened our skills at grammatical analysis, we will takeyet another look at some of those complexities of the noun phrase.) In 3.6 below you will findthe noun phrase patterns that we will be working with for the next few chapters.

3.6noun phrase > HEADnoun phrase > DETERMINER + HEADnoun phrase > POST DETERMINER + HEADnoun phrase > MODIFIER + HEAD

noun phrase > DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEADnoun phrase > DETERMINER + POST DETERMINER + HEADnoun phrase > POST DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEADnoun phrase > DETERMINER + POST DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEADnoun phrase > HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > DETERMINER + HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > POST DETERMINER + HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > MODIFIER + HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > DETERMINER + POST DETERMINER + HEAD + POST MODIFIER

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noun phrase > DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > POST DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEAD + POST MODIFIERnoun phrase > DETERMINER + POST DETERMINER + MODIFIER + HEAD + POSTMODIFIER

That certainly looks like a formidable dose of terminology to try to digest! Let me list the patterns again in the same order, but this time using abbreviations and giving examples:

3.7np> H:(books)np> D: + H:(the books)np> POD: + H:(three books)np> M: + H:(large books)np> D: + M: + H:

(the large books)np> D: + POD: + H:(the three books)np> POD: + M: + H:(three large books)np> D: + POD: + M: + H:(the three large books)np> H: + PM:(books from the library)np> D: + H: + PM:(the books from the library)np> POD: + H: + PM:

(three books from the library)np> M: + H: + PM:(large books from the library)np> D: + POD: + H: + PM:(the three books from the library)np> D: + M: + H: + PM:(the large books from the library)np> POD: + M: + H: + PM:(three large books from the library)np> D: + POD: + M: + H: + PM:(the three large books from the library)

That is a little less formidable (once you become comfortable with the abbreviations). Notice thatthe abbreviation for the noun phrase (np>) has the arrowhead attached to it, signifying that thenoun phrase, like all phrases and clauses, by definition, has patterns of functional positionsassociated with it. Notice that the abbreviations for functional positions like DETERMINER,POST DETERMINER, MODIFIER, HEAD, and POST MODIFIER have a colon attached tothem, signifying that functional positions, by definition, have one or more choices associated withthem. That is, at each functional position in a pattern, a speaker of a language knows what formalcategories -- parts of speech, phrases, or even clauses -- can occupy that position. More aboutthis shortly.

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Let us now take a look at an even simpler way to represent the fourteen patterns in theEnglish noun phrase that were displayed in 3.6 and 3.7:

3.8np> (D:) + (POD:) + (M:) + H: + (PM:)

All sixteen patterns are summarized in this one line. This is made possible by the use of parentheses. If you look at the fourteen patterns listed with complete functional labels in 3.6 andwith abbreviations for those functional labels in 3.7, you will notice that only HEAD (H:) appearsin all of them. This means that a noun phrase must contain a HEAD. However, all of the otherfunctional labels appear in some patterns but not in other patterns. This means that thosefunctional positions are optional in the noun phrase. We showed this in 3.8 by placing theabbreviations for those functional positions in parentheses. Any functional position in

parentheses may or may not occur in a given noun phrase. If it does occur, it must occur in theorder indicated by the pattern. For Example, DETERMINERS are always first and POSTMODIFIERS are always last; POST DETERMINERS follow any co-occurring DETERMINERSand precede any co-occurring MODIFIERS, etc. We could also represent all of the examples

given in 3.7 by using parentheses:

3.9(the) (three) (large) books (from the library)

All sixteen example noun phrases listed in 3.7 are implicitly represented in 3.9.

Now that we have an efficient way of representing fourteen patterns that occur in Englishnoun phrases, let us take a closer look at the choices that are available at each of the positions inthose patterns. We will begin by looking at some of the parts of speech that can occupy theHEAD position in a noun phrase. At this point we will look closely at only four of the many

parts of speech that can do so: the noun (n...), the personal pronoun (perspro...), the demonstrative

pronoun (dempro...), and the possessive pronoun (posspro...). Notice that abbreviations for part-of-speech labels are in lower case letters and have three unspaced ellipsis dots attached to them.This will help to distinguish them from the abbreviations of all functional positions (which are inupper case letters and have colons attached to them) and from the abbreviations for other formalcategories, those for phrases and clauses, (which have arrowheads attached to them).

Here is how the grammar of the noun phrase is displayed when it includes both the patternsand the choices available at the HEAD position:

3.10Some Patterns in the English Noun Phrasenp> (D:) + (POD:) + (M:) + H: + (PM:)

Some Choices Available at the HEAD Position in the English Noun Phrase H: n...H: perspro...H: dempro...H: posspro...

An alternate way of listing the choices available at the HEAD position that would allow us to listthe abbreviation H: only once would be this:

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3.11Some Choices Available at the HEAD Position in the English Noun PhraseH: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...

Instead of listing each choice on a separate line, all choices can be listed on one line separated bycommas -- as long as we remember that only one of the items separated by commas may bechosen.

We have already looked at the definition of nouns in some detail (early in Chapter 3);however, we will define them again, along with personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and

possessive pronouns, in the succinct format that we will use to define parts of speech throughoutthis chapter, and in later chapters.

3.12nouns (n...)(a) Form: All nouns are defined formally by listing (pure form): air, bee, car, dog, egg, fan, goat,etc. We can also identify the form of some nouns by noting that the last derivational suffix in the

word is one that creates nouns, for example: -er as in worker, -or as in director, -ment as intreatment, -ness as in happiness, -ity as in sanity, etc. We can also identify the form of manynouns by noting that they have one of two inflectional suffixes that can be attached to nouns: (i)

plural , as in churches, tacks, thumbs, oxen, teeth, fish, etc., and (ii) possessive , as in Mary's, Pat's, Tom's, etc. (The plural and possessive inflectional suffixes can occur together on a noun, but are usually signaled by one “s” followed by an apostrophe as in my friends’ houses . On rareoccasions, both inflectional suffixes can be separately signaled as in the word children’s , whereen signals the presence of the plural inflectional suffix and ’s signals the presence of the

possessive inflectional suffix.)

(b) Function: Nouns may function as the HEAD (H:) of a noun phrase (np>), e.g., the youngdoctor ; they may also function as a MODIFIER (M:) in a noun phrase (np>), e.g., coffee stains.

(c) Meaning: Nouns typically name persons (John, Fatima, worker), places (Chicago, Disneyland, library), things (pen, door, milk, house), qualities (redness, strength, humility),actions (resistance, arrival), abstract concepts (idea, truth), etc.

3.13 personal pronouns (perspro...)

(a) Form: Personal pronouns are defined formally only by listing (pure form): I, you, she, he, it,we, you, they, me, you, her, him, it, us, you, them. (Because this is a closed class, this can be, andis, a complete list.)

(b) Function: Personal pronouns function as HEAD (H:) of a noun phrase (np>), e.g., They havearrived; John saw them . Personal pronouns differ from nouns in that they cannot be preceded byDETERMINERS, POST DETERMINERS, or MODIFIERS (*the you, *three us *happy they ).(An asterisk -- * -- in front of a cited word, phrase, clause, or sentence indicates that the word orwords so marked do not conform to some principle of English structure.)

(c) Meaning: Personal pronouns express information about (i) case (i.e., grammatical function inthe clause): I, you, she, he, it, we, they are nominative (i.e., they HEAD noun phrases thatfunction as SUBJECT -- She arrived -- or SUBJECT COMPLEMENT -- The winner was she -);

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me, you, her, him, it, us, them are accusative (i.e., they HEAD noun phrases that function asDIRECT OBJECT -- I saw her --, INDIRECT OBJECT -- I gave her some money --, or OBJECTOF A PREPOSITION -- I gave some money to her ); (ii) number : I, she, he, it, me, her, and himare singular; we, they, us, and them are plural; you may be either singular or plural; (iii) person : I,me, we, and us are first person (i.e., they include reference to the speaker); you is second person(i.e., it refers to the person or persons addressed by the speaker); she, he, it, her, him, they, andthem are third person (i.e., they refer to a person, thing, or persons spoken about); and (iv)gender : she, and her are feminine; he, and him are masculine; it is neuter. Here is a listing of the

personal pronouns, with the various meanings that they convey:

nominative, singular, first person (I)nominative, singular, second person (you)nominative, singular, third person, feminine (she)nominative, singular, third person, masculine (he)nominative, singular, third person, neuter (it)nominative, plural, first person (we)nominative, plural, second person (you)nominative, plural, third person (they)

accusative, singular, first person (me)accusative, singular, second person (you)accusative, singular, third person, feminine (her)accusative, singular, third person, masculine (him)accusative, singular, third person, neuter (it)accusative, plural, first person (us)accusative, plural, second person (you)accusative, plural, third person (them)

3.14demonstrative pronouns (dempro...)

(a) Form: Demonstrative pronouns are defined formally only by listing (pure form): this, that,these, those . (Because this is a closed class, this can be, and is, a complete list).

(b) Function: Demonstrative pronouns function as HEAD (H:) of a noun phrase (np>), e.g., This is the library; She saw that . Like most other pronouns, demonstrative pronouns cannot be

preceded by DETERMINERS, POST DETERMINERS, or MODIFIERS (*the this, *three these*happy those ).

(c) Meaning: Demonstrative pronouns express information about (i) number : this and that aresingular and these and those are plural, and about (ii) place : this and these are relatively near tothe speaker; that and those are not near. Here is a listing of the demonstrative pronouns with the

meanings that they convey:

singular, near (this)singular, not near (that)

plural, near (these) plural not near (those)

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3.15 possessive pronouns (posspro...)

(a) Form: Possessive pronouns are defined formally only by listing (pure form): mine, yours,hers, his, its, ours, yours, theirs. (Because this is a closed class, this can be, and is, a completelist.)

(b) Function: Possessive pronouns function as HEAD (H:) of a noun phrase (np>), e.g., Minehave arrived; John saw theirs . (Possessive pronouns differ from nouns in that they cannot be

preceded by DETERMINERS , POST DETERMINERS, or MODIFIERS *the yours, *three ours*happy theirs. )

(c) Meaning: All possessive pronouns refer to an entity as being possessed by the person or persons that the pronoun refers to (e.g., mine could refer to a pencil that is possessed by me); theyalso express information about the number, person, and, in some cases, the gender of the

possessor. Here is a listing of the possessive pronouns with the meanings that they convey:

possessed, singular, first person (mine)

possessed, singular, second person (yours) possessed, singular, third person, feminine (hers) possessed, singular, third person, masculine (his) possessed, singular, third person, neuter (its) possessed, plural, first person (ours) possessed, plural, second person (yours) possessed, plural, third person (theirs)

Now that we have defined four parts of speech that can occupy the HEAD position in thenoun phrase let us take a look at some parts of speech that can occupy the DETERMINER

position in the noun phrase. Here is how the grammar of the noun phrase is displayed when itincludes, in addition to the patterns, the choices available at both the DETERMINER and the

HEAD positions:


Some Choices Available at the DETERMINER and HEAD Positions in the English Noun Phrase D: dart..., iart..., demart..., possart...H: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...

In 3.16, we have printed the line describing the choices available at the DETERMINER positionin boldface type. The abbreviations stand for the following four parts of speech: the definite

article (dart...), indefinite articles (iart...), demonstrative articles (demart...), and possessivearticles (possart...). You will find definitions of those parts of speech in 3.17 to 3.20.

3.17the definite article (dart...)

(a) Form: The definite article is defined formally only by listing (pure form): the. (This word isthe only member of this part of speech), e.g., the book.

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(b) Function: The definite article functions as DETERMINER (D:) in a noun phrase (np>), e.g.,the book, the beautiful flower.

(c) Meaning: When the definite article is the DETERMINER in a noun phrase, it conveys theidea that the speaker or writer of the sentence thinks that the listener or reader can identify the

particular entity or entities referred to by the HEAD noun; e.g., if someone says, I bought a pencil, the speaker may have a very specific pencil in mind, but does not think that the listenercan identify it; if however, the same speaker were to say, I bought the pencil , referring to thevery same specific pencil, the speaker is also conveying the idea that the listener also knowsexactly which pencil (e.g., the one you and I saw at the mall yesterday . . . ).

3.18indefinite articles (iart...)

(a) Form: Indefinite articles are defined only by listing (pure form): a/an, some, and any are themost common; however, several other words belong to this part of speech: all, each, every, either,neither and no.

(b) Function: Indefinite articles function as DETERMINER (D:) in a noun phrase (np>), e.g., a new car, some old houses (note that every word listed in (a) can substitute for either a or some inthe examples just given.

(c) Meaning: Indefinite articles display a complex array of meanings. All of the meanings relateto the HEAD noun that they DETERMINE: (i) They can have the feature universal , e.g. all newcars , or partitive , e.g., some new cars . (ii) They can be singular , e.g. a new car , or plural , e.g.some new cars . (iii) Indefinite articles that occur with nouns that can be counted (and made

plural) have the feature count , e.g., a new car , some old houses ; those that can occur with nounsthat can’t be counted or made plural have the feature noncount , e.g. some information , any information , no information (but not *an information ). (iv) Some indefinite articles have anegative (as opposed to positive ) meaning: neither and no. (v) The indefinite article any

typically occurs in negative or interrogative contexts, and is thus said to be nonassertive , e.g. Shedoesn’t have any money, Does she have any money? In the affirmative sentence corresponding tothese sentences, some would be used: She has some money , and is thus given the semanticfeature assertive . (vi) The indefinite articles, either and neither are singular and countable; weneed the semantic feature “ of two ” to distinguish their meanings from no and any , respectively:no book vs. neither book and any book vs. either book . Several indefinite articles can, in differentcontexts, have more than one of the meanings just discussed, as the following listing indicates.Examine the list and try to invent sentences where the indefinite article has the meaning listed ineach line.

[universal, positive, count, singular, every] every (book) [universal, positive, count, singular, each] each (book)

[universal, positive, count, plural] all (books)[universal, positive, noncount] all (information)[universal, negative, count, singular] no (book)[universal, negative, count, singular, of two] neither (book)[universal, negative, count, plural] no (books)[universal, negative, noncount] no (information)[partitive, assertive, count, singular] a (book) ~ an (apple)[partitive, assertive, count, plural] some (books)[partitive, assertive, noncount] some (information)

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[partitive, nonassertive, count, singular] any (book)[partitive, nonassertive, count, singular, of two] either (book)[partitive, nonassertive, count, plural] any (books)[partitive, nonassertive, noncount] any (information)

3.19demonstrative articles (demart..)

(a) Form: Demonstrative articles are defined formally only by listing (pure form): this, that,these, those. (Because this is a closed class, this can be, and is, a complete list.)

(b) Function: Demonstrative articles function as DETERMINER (D:) in a noun phrase (np>),e.g., This book is in the library; She saw that movie.

(c) Meaning: Demonstrative articles express information about (i) number : this and that aresingular and these and those are plural and about (ii) place : this and these are relatively near tothe speaker; that and those are not near. Here is a listing of the demonstrative articles with themeanings that they convey:

singular, near (this)singular, not near (that)

plural, near (these) plural, not near (those)

3.20 possessive articles (possart...)

(a) Form: Possessive articles are defined formally only by listing (pure form): my, your, her, his,its, our, your, their. (Because this is a closed class, this can be, and is, a complete list.)

(b) Function: Possessive articles function as DETERMINER (D:) in a noun phrase (np>), e.g.,her car, my old hat, their fire engine.

(c) Meaning: Possessive articles convey information about case , number , person , and gender ,as with personal pronouns. The number , person , and gender meanings are in fact the same aswith personal pronouns; the case , however is always and only genitive. The term genitive means“DETERMINER and possessor of the HEAD noun.” Here is a listing of the possessive articleswith the meanings that they convey:

genitive, singular, 1st person (my)genitive, singular, 2nd person (your)genitive, singular, 3rd person, feminine (her)

genitive, singular, 3rd person, masculine (his)genitive, singular, 3rd person, neuter (its)genitive, plural, 1st person (our)genitive, plural, 2nd person (your)genitive, plural, 3rd person (their)

Now that we have defined some parts of speech that can occupy the HEAD position in thenoun phrase and some parts of speech that can occupy the DETERMINER position, let us take alook some parts of speech that can occupy the POST DETERMINER position in the noun phrase.

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Here is how the grammar of the noun phrase is displayed when it includes, in addition to the patterns, the choices available at the DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, and HEAD positions:


Some Choices Available at the DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, and HEAD Positions inthe English Noun Phrase D: dart..., iart..., demart..., possart...POD: crdnum..., ordnum..., genord...H: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...

In 3.21, we have printed the line describing the choices available at the POST DETERMINER position in boldface type. The abbreviations stand for the following three parts of speech:cardinal numerals (crdnum...), ordinal numerals (ordnum...), and general ordinals (genord...).You will find definitions of those parts of speech in 3.22 to 3.23.

3.22cardinal numerals (crdnum...)

(a) Form: Cardinal numerals are defined formally only by listing (pure form): one, two, three, four, etc.

(b) Function: Cardinal numerals function as POST DETERMINER (POD:) in a noun phrase(np>), e.g., the three winners, his one bad habit.

(c) Meaning: Cardinal numerals specify the number of members of the class designated by theHEAD noun.

3.23ordinal numerals (ordnum...)

(a) Form: Ordinal numerals are defined formally only by listing (pure form): first, second, third, fourth, etc.

(b) Function: Ordinal numerals function as POST DETERMINER (POD:) in a noun phrase(np>), e.g., her third novel, the ninth floor.

(c) Meaning: Ordinal numerals specify the position of the HEAD noun in a numbered sequence.

3.24 general ordinals (genord...)

(a) Form: General ordinals are defined formally only by listing (pure form): another, other, next,last, past, previous, etc.

(b) Function: General ordinals function as POST DETERMINER (POD:) in a noun phrase(np>), e.g., the next book, the other flower.

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(c) Meaning: General ordinals typically specify the position of the HEAD noun in anunnumbered sequence.

So far in this section, we have defined some parts of speech that can occupy the HEAD,DETERMINER, and POST DETERMINER positions. Let us now look at the parts of speechthat can occupy the MODIFIER position in the noun phrase. Here is how the grammar of thenoun phrase is displayed when it includes, in addition to the patterns, the choices available at theDETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, MODIFIER and HEAD positions:


Some Choices Available at the DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, MODIFIER, and HEAD Positions in the English Noun Phrase D: dart..., iart..., demart..., possart...POD: crdnum..., ordnum..., genord...M: adj..., n... H: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...

In 3.25, we have printed the line describing the choices available at the MODIFIER position in boldface type. The abbreviations stand for the following two parts of speech: adjective (adj...)and noun (n...). You will find a definition of the adjective in 3.26, immediately below. We have,of course, already defined the noun, and the short version of its definition appeared above in 3.12.

3.26adjectives (adj...)

(a) Form: Adjectives are defined formally by listing (pure form): angry, bad, big, clear, dark, good, etc. We can also identify the form of some adjectives by noting that the last derivational

suffix in the word is one that creates adjectives, for example: -y in watery, -ful in helpful, -less incareless, -en in golden, -able in breakable, -ous in glorious, -ish in childish , etc. We can alsoidentify the form of many one- or two-syllable adjectives by noting that they have one of twoinflectional suffixes that can be attached to adjectives: (i) -er, as in angrier, worse, bigger,clearer, darker, better etc. (ii) -est, as in angriest, worst, biggest, clearest, darkest, best, etc.

(b) Function: Adjectives have two functional positions: (i) MODIFIER (M:) in a noun phrase(np>): the young doctor, and (ii) HEAD (H:) in an adjective phrase (adjp>): she was very angry .

(c) Meaning: Adjectives typically describe qualities of associated nouns, e.g., size (large), color (blue), shape (round), emotional state (angry), etc., etc.

So far in this section, we have defined some parts of speech that can occupy the HEAD,DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, and MODIFIER positions in the noun phrase. The oneremaining position, the POST MODIFIER position, which follows the HEAD position, does notallow individual parts of speech to occupy it. Only phrases and clauses can occupy it. At this

point, we will look only at one of the types of phrases that can occupy the POST MODIFIER position, the prepositional phrase. Here is how the grammar of the noun phrase is displayed whenit includes, in addition to the patterns, some choices available at all of the positions in those

patterns: DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, MODIFIER, HEAD, and POST MODIFIER:

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Some Choices Available at the DETERMINER, POST DETERMINER, MODIFIER, HEAD, and POST MODIFIER Positions in the English Noun Phrase D: dart..., iart..., demart..., possart...POD: crdnum..., ordnum..., genord...M: adj..., n...H: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...PM: pp>

In 3.27, we have printed the line describing the choices available at the POST MODIFIER position in boldface type. The abbreviation pp> stands for prepositional phrase. Earlier, in 3.7,we listed several example noun phrases containing the POST MODIFYING prepositional phrase

from the library. The longest of the examples was the three large books from the library . The prepositional phrase has two functional positions within it, the RELATER (R:) position and theOBJECT OF A PREPOSITION (OP:) position. The RELATER position is occupied by a

preposition (p...), for example, from in from the library, and the OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION position is typically occupied by a noun phrase, for example the library in from the library . Hereis the complete grammar of the prepositional phrase (patterns and choices):

3.29The Only Pattern in the English Prepositional Phrase

pp> R: + OP:

Choices Available at the RELATER and OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION Positions in the English Prepositional PhraseR: p...OP: np>

In 3.30 you will find the definition of the preposition as a part of speech.

3.30 prepositions (p...)

(a) Form: Prepositions are defined formally only by listing (pure form): at, after, before, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with (and many others) .(b) Function: Prepositions function as RELATER (R:) in prepositional phrases (pp>), e.g., at themovies, from the library, with her best friend.

(c) Meaning: Prepositions have a variety of concrete and abstract relational meanings, e.g.,

concrete location (at the movies, on the table ), abstract location (on time ), direction (to themoon ), source ( from the south ), and many, many more.

Here, for reference and comparison, are the grammars of the English noun phrase and theEnglish prepositional phrase as developed in this section:


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Some Choices in the English Noun Phrase D: dart..., iart..., demart..., possart...POD: crdnum..., ordnum..., genord...M: adj..., n...H: n..., perspro..., dempro..., posspro...PM: pp>

3.32The Only Pattern in the English Prepositional Phrase

pp> R: + OP:

Choices Available at the RELATER and OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION Positions in the English Prepositional PhraseR: p...OP: np>

Here is a grammatical analysis of the noun phrase the three large books from the library

based on 3.31:

3.33noun phrase (the three large books from the library)

DETERMINER definite article (the)POST DETERMINER cardinal numeral (three)MODIFIER adjective (large)HEAD noun (books)POST MODIFIER prepositional phrase (from the library)

Here is a grammatical analysis of the prepositional phrase from the library based on 3.32:

3.34 prepositional phrase (from the library)

RELATER preposition (from)OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION noun phrase (the library)

The noun phrase the library would, in turn, be analyzed as follows:

3.35noun phrase (the library)

DETERMINER definite article (the)HEAD noun (library)

The three separate analyses in 3.33, 3.34, and 3.35 could be combined into one, using theoutlining principle that calls for indenting any items that are subparts of a higher item:

3.36noun phrase (the three large books from the library)

DETERMINER definite article (the)POST DETERMINER cardinal numeral (three)MODIFIER adjective (large)HEAD noun (books)

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POST MODIFIER prepositional phrase (from the library)RELATER preposition (from)OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION noun phrase (the library)

DETERMINER definite article (the)HEAD noun (library)

There is an alternate way of displaying the grammatical analysis of a noun phrase like thethree large books from the library. This alternate display format uses the abbreviations that wehave proposed for the functional positions and formal categories in the noun phrase. As we sawin Chapter 3, it is called a grammatical tree diagram . Here is how the patterns and choices inthe three large books from the library would be represented in such a display:

3.37np>

D: POD: M: H: PM:dart… crdnum… adj… n… pp>

R: OP: p… np>

D: H:dart… n…

the three large books from the library

Notice that, in a grammatical tree diagram, the positions within a phrase are represented by solidlines drawn from immediately beneath a phrase label such as np> or pp> (or, we will see later, aclause label) to the abbreviation for the name of the relevant position such as D:, POD:, M:, H:

and PM:. It would actually be more accurate to write a position label, such as M: forMODIFIER, directly on the line , because that is exactly what the label applies to: the position represented by the line. To put it another way, the line and the M: that label the position of theword large in the three large books from the library are labels for the space within the noun

phrase between the words three and books ; this space (position) is, of course, occupied by theword large . The label adj..., on the other hand, labels the form -- the letters l-a-r-g-e -- as

belonging to the part of speech, adjective. Notice also, that a part of speech label like adj... doesnot have positions within it and thus does not have an arrowhead attached to it and consequentlyis not connected to large with a solid line. The dotted line that connects adj... to large simplyindicates that the word large is a member of the part-of-speech category adj... (adjective). Thedotted line is also a reminder that a set of defining semantic features in square brackets could beincluded in the diagram between the part-of-speech label and the spelling of the word (cf. the last

section in Chapter 3).

Grammatical tree diagrams such as the one in 3.37 were already discussed in the section onconstituent structure in Chapter 3 and will be discussed in additional detail in Chapter 6. Theywill appear from time to time throughout this book. They are especially useful when we need tolook at a grammatical structure that contains several levels of phrases within phrases, or evenclauses within clauses. Most grammatical issues can be examined and discussed using thedisplay format we have been using up to this point, where the unabbreviated formal label of a

phrase or clause is written in front of the phrase or clause to be analyzed (which itself is written in

49




parentheses). Then, indented on the next several lines, each position within that phrase or clauseis listed along with the formal label of the word or words occupying that position; then the actualword or words to which the functional and formal labels apply are written at the end of the line in

parentheses.

In 3.38, we have used this format, which we will refer to as the “outline” format, to analyzeone of the noun phrases from the passage by Doug Webb that appeared toward the beginning ofthis section: the appearance of their owners .

3.38noun phrase (the appearance of their owners)

DETERMINER definite article (the)HEAD noun (appearance)POST MODIFIER prepositional phrase (of their owners)

RELATER preposition (of)OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION noun phrase (their owners)

DETERMINER possessive article (their)HEAD noun (owners)

PRACTICE 10 (TWO TYPES OF CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS)

Carefully examine the analysis presented immediately above in 3.38 of the noun phrase theappearance of their owners. See if you can translate that analysis into a tree diagram like the onein 3.37.

PRACTICE 11 (TWO TYPES OF CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS II)

Try using both the outline format and the tree diagram format to analyze these two othernoun phrases from the Doug Webb passage (a) notes about assignments , and (b) little pieces of

coconut .

PRACTICE 12 (STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH)

In this section of this chapter, we have defined 13 parts of speech that can appear in Englishnoun phrases: nouns, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, definitearticles, indefinite articles, demonstrative articles, possessive articles, cardinal numerals, ordinalnumerals, general ordinals, adjectives, and prepositions. In order for you to understand thegrammar developed throughout this book, to analyze the English sentences using it, and to teach

both of these skills to others, you must now take up a task that will occupy you throughout thischapter: You must LEARN (in the sense of know for the rest of your life and never forget ) allthe details of the form, function, and meaning of the thirteen parts of speech in the noun phrase

(and of any additional parts of speech we examine from here on out). When we tell this to ourstudents, one of them invariably asks, “You mean we have to memorize all of these three-partdefinitions?” My answer is “No, memorizing isn’t good enough . Things that you memorize,you tend to forget after a test; you must learn those definitions in such a way that you will neverforget them.” How might you go about doing that?

Here is a suggestion: Using half slips of paper or five-by-eight-inch index cards, make threestudy cards for each part of speech (a total of 39 study cards for the thirteen parts of speech in thenoun phrase). On the blank side of the card write the name and abbreviation of the part of

50




speech, e.g., “noun (n...),” and underneath that the word “form” on the first card, “function” onthe second card, and “meaning” on the third card. On the lined side of the card copy in pen inyour best handwriting (do not type or photocopy) the relevant part of the definition of that part ofspeech (copy all of it; don’t leave out any detail or example). Remember, you must make threesuch cards for each of the 13 parts of speech -- a total of 39 cards. Shuffle the cards. It is veryimportant to shuffle the cards so that you can learn each definition part out of context. If youdon’t shuffle them, then there is no point in making cards; you could study the matter as itappears in the book. Then begin studying them the way you study any set of “flash cards.” Placea marker card on the bottom so that you will know when you have worked completely throughthe stack; then begin. Look at the unlined side where you have written, e.g., “noun (n...) form.”Try to say or write what is on the other side of the card; if you cannot do so, and you won’t beable to the first few times through, then turn the card over and study it. If you didn’t know it,then put it on the bottom of the stack to be shuffled and studied again when you have workedthrough the stack completely. When you can say or write what is on the other side of the card, setit aside, because you now know it. Keep working on the stack, until you can say and write all theinformation on the backs of all 39 cards. It will take several study sessions to be able to do this.

There is no short cut to achieving complete mastery of the details of these definitions. Andyou MUST achieve such mastery if you are going to be able to understand and use the content of

the remaining chapters of this book. (And here is another source of motivation: Most users of this book are preparing to be teachers, and the one thing that people in the real world -- parents ofyour students, your fellow teachers, your supervisors, and business and community leaders --expect an English teacher to know is how to define parts of speech, so why not get the bulk ofthat knowledge behind you as you work through this chapter!)

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 10(TWO TYPES OF CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS)

np>

D: H: PM:dart… n… pp>

R: OP: p… np>

D: H: possart… n…

the appearance of their owners

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 11(TWO TYPES OF CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE DIAGRAMS II)

(a) noun phrase (notes about assignments)HEAD noun (notes)POST MODIFIER prepositional phrase (about assignments)

RELATER preposition (about)OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION noun phrase (assignments)

HEAD noun (assignments)

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np>

H: PM:n… pp>

R: OP: p… np>

H:n…

notes about assignments

(b) noun phrase (little pieces of coconut)MODIFIER adjective (little)HEAD noun (pieces)POST MODIFIER prepositional phrase (of coconut)

RELATER preposition (of)OBJECTOF A PREPOSITION noun phrase (coconut)

HEAD noun (coconut)

np>

M: H: PM:adj… n… pp>

R: OP: p… np>

H:n…

little pieces of coconut

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 12(STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH)

In the remaining sections of this chapter, ten additional parts of speech will be introduced.When each one is defined, make three study cards for it just like the ones you have made for the13 parts of speech in the noun phrase. Shuffle the new cards in with the old ones and keepstudying until you have no more cards in the study stack (because you will have set them asideinto the stack of “learned” cards). The test that we give our students at the end of this chapter hastwo parts. The first is a set of short essays requiring definitions of parts of speech that includeexample sentences containing them. The second part is a set of sentences in which we underlinewords and require my students to write the abbreviation of the function and the part of speechlabel of each underlined word into designated spaces on the test sheet. Following the finalsection of this chapter, we will provide some practice sentences in which you can perform thiskind of labeling on all of the parts of speech that we will have examined up to that point.

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VERB PHRASES AND LINKING VERB PHRASES

Here is the passage from Doug Webb’s journal that we examined in the last section. Read itagain. After you do so, we will use some of Doug’s sentences to help us examine English verb

phrases and linking verb phrases.

3.39 (= 3.1 ) A Passage from Doug Webb’s Journal

I bought a book today. My favorite kind. A paperback. Paperbacks are so much better thanhardbacks; they're not so heavy; they bend. But what is most peculiar about paperbacks is theway they never lie flat after they've been opened and read from a few times. It's almost as if theywere inviting you to jump back in, make a return visit, maybe get really acquainted this time.Hardback books are so big -- cumbersome too, and they're always just too big to go into your


papers, notes about assignments, scribbles and comments and underlinings. And the cornersalways get bent up and begin to separate into layers, and they always get dirty around the edges,and better than that, they're full of funny little memories like coffee stains and little pieces ofcoconut and sometimes even bubble gum. Paperbacks can be almost like friends because you getto know them so well, I guess; that's probably the reason I have a house full of them. Buthardbacks, they're hopeless. You never get to know them; they're just too impersonal. Maybethey just don't approve of me; they're probably even snobbish towards my paperbacks that alwayssurround and outnumber them. I bet they don't like having to be so close to the swinishmultitudes. But I bet my paperbacks have more fun.

In 3.40 you will find some of Doug’s sentences (sometimes adapted) that contain verb phrases (which we have italicized), and in 3.41 you will find some of his sentences that contain

linking verb phrases (also italicized).

3.40Some Sentences with Verb Phrases Italicized (from the Passage by Doug Webb)(a) They bend .(b) I bought a book today.(c) They have been opened .(d) They were inviting you.

3.41Some Sentences with Linking Verb Phrases Italicized (from the Passage by Doug Webb)(a) Hardbacks are hopeless.

(b) That is the reason.(c) Paperbacks can be friends.(d) They get dirty around the edges.(e) They seem to try to impress.(f) I sometimes feel as if a hardback is trying to scare me away.

What do Doug’s verb phrases and linking verb phrases tell us about the grammar of those two phrases in English? First of all, they tell us that both types of phrases can be composed of oneword as in the verb phrases, bend and bought , and the linking verb phrases, are, is, get, seem , and

53




feel . Whether or not either a verb or linking verb is the only word in its respective phrase, welabel its functional position MAIN PREDICATER (MP:). This is a position comparable to theHEAD position in a noun phrase: Like a HEAD noun, a MAIN PREDICATER verb or linkingverb can constitute an entire phrase all by itself. In 3.42 you will find statements of patterns andchoices for both the verb phrase and the linking verb phrase that capture this insight:

3.42 A Pattern in the English Verb Phrase vp> MP:

A Choice in the English Verb PhraseMP: v...

A Pattern in the English Linking Verb Phrase lvp> MP:

A Choice in the English Linking Verb PhraseMP: lv...

Here are definitions of verbs and linking verbs as parts of speech; reading these definitionswill also help you to understand something about the distinction between the verb phrase and

linking verb phrase, in which they function respectively as MAIN PREDICATERS:

3.43verbs (v...)

(a) Form: Verbs are defined formally by listing (pure form): arrive, build, carve, etc. We canalso identify the form of some verbs by noting that the last derivational suffix in the word is onethat creates verbs: -ize as in symbolize, -ify as in verify, -ate as in demonstrate, etc. We can alsoidentify the form of many verbs by noting that they have one of four inflectional suffixes that can

be attached to verbs: (i) present tense, as in fizz, fizzes; hit, hits; carve, carves; etc. (ii) past tense,as in sighted, fussed, rammed, chose, taught, had, did, etc. (iii) -ing participle, as in hitting,choosing, having, etc. (iv) -en participle, as in sighted, fussed, rammed, had, chosen, eaten,

done, known, etc. (Take note that many verbs spell the past tense and past participle form thesame: In She sighted a UFO , sighted has the past tense inflectional suffix; however in She has

sighted a UFO or A UFO was sighted , sighted has the -en participle inflectional suffix.)

(b) Function: Verbs function as MAIN PREDICATER (MP:) in a verb phrase (vp>), e.g., Hewas studying , She should have eaten , It arrived .

(c) Meaning: Verbs typically express actions (build, run, say), processes (grow), or states(own), etc.

3.44linking verbs (lv...)

(a) Form: Linking verbs are defined formally by listing (pure form): be, become, look, seem, feel, appear, smell, taste etc. (In principle, we should be able to identify the form of some linkingverbs by noting that the last derivational suffix in the word is one that creates linking verbs, but infact, few, if any, such derived linking verbs seem to exist in English – a student of mine oncesuggested that personify or exemplify might fill the bill: Lincoln personified honest/honesty .) Wecan also identify the form of many linking verbs by noting that they have one of four inflectionalsuffixes that can be attached to linking verbs: (i) present tense, as in appear, appears; am, is, are;

feel, feels; etc. (ii) past tense, as in appeared; was, were; became; felt; seemed; etc. (iii) -ing

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participle, as in appearing, being, becoming, feeling, seeming, etc. (iv) -en participle, as inappeared, been, become, felt, seemed, etc. (Take note that some linking verbs spell the past tenseand past participle form the same: In She seemed happy , seemed has the past tense inflectionalsuffix; however in She has seemed happy , seemed has the -en participle inflectional suffix.)

(b) Function: Linking verbs function as MAIN PREDICATER (MP:) in a linking verb phrase(lvp>), e.g., He has seemed very happy. She is becoming a doctor. It is a book. Linking verb

phrases may be followed by a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT noun phrase ( She is becoming adoctor ) or adjective phrase ( He has seemed very happy ), which is linked back to the SUBJECT

by the linking verb that is the MAIN PREDICATER in the linking verb phrase.

(c) Meaning: Linking verbs typically express states of being (be, look, appear, seem) or becoming (become); they may also express certain sense experiences (feel, smell, taste).

The following sentences, cited above from the Doug Webb passage, indicate that other partsof speech (called auxiliaries) may precede a verb or linking verb in their respective phrases:

Paperbacks can be friends, They have been opened , They were inviting you. 3.45 you will findanalyses of the verb phrase or linking verb phrase in these sentences.

3.45(a) Paperbacks can be friends.linking verb phrase (can be)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (can)MAIN PREDICATER linking verb (be)

(b) They have been opened .verb phrase (have been opened)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (opened)

(c) They were inviting you.verb phrase (were inviting)

PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (were)MAIN PREDICATER verb (inviting)

Notice that we cannot change the order of the two auxiliaries in 3.45b; we cannot say *They beenhave opened . In fact, all four types of auxiliaries listed in 3.45 can occur in one verb phrase, butwhen they do, they must occur in a fixed order. In 3.46 you will find a pattern that expresses boththe possibility that up to four auxiliaries may precede a verb and a specification of the fixed orderin which they must occur:

3.46vp> and lvp> (MODHP:) + (PERFHP:) + (PROGHP:) + (PASSHP:) + MP:

This pattern represents the essence of the structure of the verb phrase and linking verb phrase:The pattern indicates that there must be a MAIN PREDICATER (MP:) and that it is in the final

position; we know this because its abbreviation is not in parentheses and is listed after all theother abbreviations. The four HELPING PREDICATERS are all optional . Any one or more ofthem may or may not appear in a given verb phrase or linking verb phrase. However, when twoor more occur together, they must occur in the indicated order: MODAL HELPING

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PREDICATER (MODHP:), PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER (PERFHP:), PROGRESSIVEHELPING PREDICATER (PROGHP:), and PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER (PASSHP:).(PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATERS do not, in fact, occur in linking verb phrases.) Here is asimplified representation of the choices in the verb phrase and linking verb phrase that relate tothe positions specified by the patterns in 3.46:

3.47MP: v..., lv...MODHP: modaux... can, may, will, shall, must, . . . PERFHP: perfaux... have word-en PROGHP: progaux... be word-ing PASSHP: passaux... be word-en

The MAIN PREDICATER is always and only a verb or linking verb; the MODAL HELPINGPREDICATER is always and only a modal auxiliary; the PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER isalways and only a perfect auxiliary; the PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER is alwaysand only a progressive auxiliary, and the PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER is always and onlya passive auxiliary.

Here is a sentence in which all four types of auxiliaries occur:

3.48Those criminals should have been being prosecuted .verb phrase (should have been being prosecuted)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (should)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (been)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (being)MAIN PREDICATER verb (prosecuted)

And here are part-of-speech definitions of these four types of English auxiliaries:

3.49modal auxiliaries (modaux...)

(a) Form: Modal auxiliaries are defined formally both by listing (pure form): can, may, will, shall, could, might, would, should, must (and a few others) and by allowing two inflectionalsuffixes: (i) the present tense suffix, as in can, may, will, shall, must , e.g., She can speak French.(but note that the third-person-singular-agreement 's' variant of the present tense inflectionalsuffix morpheme does not occur with modal auxiliaries -- e.g., we do not say *She can s speak

French .) -- and (ii) the past tense inflectional suffix, as in could, might, would, should , e.g.,Yesterday, she said she could speak French.

(b) Function: Modal auxiliaries function as MODAL HELPING PREDICATER (MODHP:) in averb phrase (vp>) or linking verb phrase (lvp>), e.g., Those criminals should have been being

prosecuted . The position labeled by MODHP: is always and only the first position in the phrase.

(c) Meaning: Modal auxiliaries express the speaker's attitude about what is going on in asentence: ‘ability’ (She can fly jets) , ‘possibility’ (It may rain) , ‘certainty’ (The sun will risetomorrow) , ‘obligation’ (Americans must pay income taxes) , etc.

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(b) Function: PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER (PASSHP:) in the verb phrase (vp>), e.g.,Those criminals should have been being prosecuted . The position labeled by PASSHP: is thefourth position in the phrase if all three other auxiliaries co-occur, the third position if only two ofthem co-occur, the second position if only one of them co-occurs, and the first position otherwise(i.e., if it is the only auxiliary).

(c) Meaning: The presence of the passive auxiliary in the verb phrase indicates that theSUBJECT of the sentence is not performing the action signaled in the PREDICATER, but is

being acted upon by some other entity, explicitly named in a prepositional phrase beginning withby, e.g., They have been captured by the enemy , or implicitly implied by the understood

prepositional phrase, by someone, e.g., Those criminals should have been being prosecuted ( bysomeone) .

The structures of the verb phrase and linking verb phrase are further complicated by the factthat a SENTENCE NEGATER negative not can occur after whatever auxiliary happens to be firstand by the fact that the PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary ( do, does, or did ) will

precede not if no other auxiliary is available. Here are some examples from Doug Webb’s passage on paperback books:

3.53(a) Hardbacks can not do another thing.verb phrase (can not do)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (can)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (do)

(b) They do not approve of me.PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary (do)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (approve)

Here is what the pattern with a PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary would look like:

3.54vp> and lvp> PROHP: + SN: + MP:

Here are the choices that are related to the above pattern:

3.55PROHP: proaux... do, does, did SN: neg... not MP: v..., lv...

The two above example sentences from Doug Webb’s journal point out the fact that there are twoseparate do morphemes that can appear in English words; both are spelled do, does , or did : theMAIN PREDICATER verb do as in Hardbacks can not do another thing , and the PROHELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary do as in They do not approve of me. Both can occur inthe same sentence, e.g., He did not do his homework . Another way of understanding the

positioning of the SENTENCE NEGATER negative not in English is to imagine yourselfexplaining how English makes sentences negative to an international friend who is living withyour family while studying English. You would tell your friend this: “To make a sentence

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negative, put the word not after the first auxiliary, and if there is no auxiliary, then you need to“invent” the auxiliary do, does or did just so that you can place not after it.” Here are thenegative versions of all of the sentences from Doug Webb’s journal that were cited at the

beginning of this section.

3.56 Negative Versions of some of Doug Webb’s Verb Phrases(a) They do not bend .(b) I did not buy a book today.(c) They have not been opened .(d) They were not inviting you.

3.57 Negative Versions of some of Doug Webb’s Linking Verb Phrases

(a) Hardbacks are not hopeless.(b) That is not the reason.(c) Paperbacks can not be friends.

(d) They do not get dirty around the edges.(e) They do not seem to try to impress.

Did you notice in sentences 3.57a and 3.57b that the SENTENCE NEGATER negative notfollows the MAIN PREDICATER linking verb be when it is the only word in a linking verb

phrase? That is, we do not say *Hardbacks do not be hopeless , as we would with other linkingverbs and with verbs. To account for this we need to add the following pattern and choice to thegrammar of the lining verb phrase as so far discussed:

3.58 A Pattern in the Linking Verb Phrase lvp> MP: + SN:

Some Choices in the Linking Verb Phrase Related to the above PatternMP: lv... beSN: neg...

In a the next section of this chapter, after we have defined adverbs and looked at the structureof the adverb phrase, we will look at yet another complication: verb phrases and linking verb

phrases can also contain adverb phrases that function as MEDIAL CLAUSE COMPLEMENTS,as in 3.59.

3.59She has just recently completed her degree.

verb phrase (has just recently completed)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (has)MEDIAL CLAUSE COMPLEMENT adverb phrase (just recently)MAIN PREDICATER verb (completed)

For now, we will ignore such possibilities. Think of the grammar of the verb phrase ashaving the relatively simple patterns and choices represented in this section -- with the caveat thata SENTENCE NEGATER negative not can occur after whichever one of the five types ofHELPING PREDICATERS is the first HELPING PREDICATER in its verb phrase or linking

59




verb phrase, or after the MAIN PREDICATER linking verb be if it is the only word other thannot in its linking verb phrase.

The following displays, numbered 3.60 and 3.61, contain part-of-speech definitions of the proauxiliary and the negative.

3.60The proauxiliary (proaux...)

(a) Form: Proauxiliaries are defined by listing: Only one word belongs to this part of speech: do.It may occur with two inflectional suffixes attached: (1) -prs as in They do not speak French and She does not speak French and (2) -pst as in They/she did not speak French. The name“proauxiliary” is parallel to the name “pronoun”; i.e., proauxiliaries stand in for auxiliaries (e.g.,in negative sentences when another auxiliary is not available) the way pronouns stand in for nouns. The English prefix pro- comes from the Latin word pro , which means “for.”

(b) Function: Proauxiliaries function as PRO HELPING PREDICATER (PROHP:) in a verb phrase (vp>) or linking verb phrase (lvp>) -- though never in a linking verb phrase whose MAIN

PREDICATER is be. There will never be any other auxiliaries, when do occurs. It typicallyoccurs before SN: neg... not when there is no other auxiliary available (as in the sentences givenas examples under Form ) It also occurs in interrogative clauses ( Does she speak French? Whatlanguage does she speak? ).

(c) Meaning: When do, does, or did appears, the stem do has no meaning of its own; it reallyserves as a “carrier” of the meaning of the present or past tense inflectional suffix.

3.61The negative (neg...)

(a) Form: The negative is defined by listing: Only one word really belongs to this part of speech:

not (although never seems to fit into many of the same positions and conveys a similar meaning).It takes no suffixes of any kind. Some grammar books refer to this part of speech as the “negative

particle” or the “negative adverb.” (b) Function: The negative functions as SENTENCE NEGATER (SN:) in the verb phrase (vp>)and linking verb phrase (lvp>), e.g., The mail has not arrived. That statement is not true.

(c) Meaning: It actually denies the truth of the entire sentence (even though it is a constituent ofthe vp> or lvp>). For example, The mail has not arrived means that it is not true that the mailhas arrived; the word not doesn’t just refer, say, to the word arrived .

In 3.62, 3.63, and 3.64 you will find a summary of the patterns and choices in the English verb phrase and linking verb phrase that were discussed in this section:

3.62 Patterns> in the Verb Phrase(a) vp> MP:(b) vp> MODHP: + (SN:) + (PERFHP:) + (PROGHP:) + (PASSHP:) + MP:(c) vp> PERFHP: + (SN:) + (PROGHP:) + (PASSHP:) + MP:(d) vp> PROGHP: + (SN:) + (PASSHP:) + MP:(e) vp> PASSHP: + (SN:) + MP:(f) vp> PROHP: + SN: + MP:

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3.63 Patterns> in the Linking Verb Phrase(a) lvp> MP:(b) lvp> MODHP: + (SN:) + (PERFHP:) + (PROGHP:) + MP:(c) lvp> PERFHP: + (SN:) + (PROGHP:) + MP:(d) lvp> PROGHP: + (SN:) + MP:(e) lvp> PROHP: + SN: + MP: [Except when MP:lv... be.](f) lvp> MP: lv... be + SN: [Instead of the pattern in the previous line.]

3.64 CHOICES: in the Verb Phrase and Linking Verb Phrase (a) MP: v..., lv...(b) MODHP: modaux... can, may, will, shall, must, . . . (c) PERFHP: perfaux... have word-en (d) PROGHP: progaux... be word-ing (e) PASSHP: passaux... be word-en (Passive auxiliaries do not occur in the lvp>.)(f) PROHP: proaux... do

(g) SN: neg... not

PRACTICE 13 (STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH II)

We have examined eight new parts of speech in this section: verbs, linking verbs, modalauxiliaries, the perfect auxiliary, the progressive auxiliary, the passive auxiliary, the proauxiliary,and the negative. Make three study cards for each part of speech, as you did with the parts ofspeech in the noun phrase, shuffle those cards in with any noun phrase cards that you have not yetmastered, and begin studying them intensively.

PRACTICE 14(DIAGRAMMING VERB PHRASES AND LINKING VERB PHRASES)

Below, you will find several analyses of English verb phrases and linking verb phrases in theoutline format. Each of these has already appeared in the section just completed. Translate theminto the tree diagram format. If you have trouble getting started, don’t be afraid to take a peek atthe answer to the first item in the feedback section following this section.

(a) They have been opened .PREDICATER verb phrase (have been opened)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (opened)

(b) Paperbacks can be friends.PREDICATER linking verb phrase (can be)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (can)MAIN PREDICATER linking verb (be)

(c) They were inviting you.PREDICATER verb phrase (were inviting)

PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (were)

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MAIN PREDICATER verb (inviting)

(d) Those criminals should have been being prosecuted .PREDICATER verb phrase (should have been being prosecuted)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (should)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (been)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (being)MAIN PREDICATER verb (prosecuted)

(e) Hardbacks can not do another thing.PREDICATER verb phrase (can not do)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (can)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (do)

(f) They do not approve of me.PREDICATER verb phrase (do not approve)

PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary (do)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (approve)

PRACTICE 15(ANALYZING VERB PHRASES AND LINKING VERB PHRASES)

Identify the verb phrase or linking verb phrase in each of the declarative clauses listed below, andthen analyze it in either the outline format or the tree diagram format. Immediately following thelist of declarative clauses you will find an analytical procedure that can help you determine thecorrect version of the tree diagram of the verb phrase or linking verb phrase in each of thesentences.

(a) Edgar should have solved the problem.

(b) Maria may be the best teacher.(c) The graduates gave some books to the library.(d) Emily has been reciting poetry.(e) I have been having headaches.(f) The message was decoded.(g) The witness was being stubborn.(h) Canada will be negotiating with France.(i) The cake should have been eaten.(j) The dean had been an anthropologist.(k) The grades have not been posted.(l) Mary did not arrive.(m) We are not studying German.(n) Those students do not know the answer.

(o) The mail may not have been delivered.

An Analytical Procedure for Diagramming Verb Phrases and Linking Verb Phrases

Step One:Begin the analysis by copying the declarative clause onto a separate sheet of paper leaving a

few inches of blank working space above it. Then place square brackets around the whole verb phrase or linking verb phrase. The verb phrase or linking verb phrase may be composed simply of

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a verb or linking verb without any accompanying words. It may also have one or more auxiliaries preceding it (after the first of which, the word not might appear). Or it could consist of a presentor past tensed form of the linking verb be followed by not.

As we saw in Chapter 3, every verb phrase or linking verb phrase functions as aPREDICATER (P:) in its clause, and so we will place that label above the vp> or lvp> label thatwe assign to the verb phrase or linking verb phrase.

Begin the actual diagram by writing P: high in the space and directly above the bracketedwords. Write the label vp> directly under the P: (you may later decide to change vp> to lvp>).When you have finished doing that, determine the functional and formal label of every word inthe vp> or lvp> and draw the solid and dotted lines as appropriate. Here are some additionalsteps that can help you do that until it becomes second nature (in doing steps two to five, ignorethe word not if it appears):

Step Two:Is the first word inside the left bracket a modal auxiliary (modaux... can, may, will, shall,

could, might, would, should, or must )? If so, it is a MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal

auxiliary; diagram as follows:

P:vp>

MODHP:modaux…

word

Step Three:Do have, has, or had appear followed by a word with the -en participle inflectional suffix

attached to it ? (For many common verbs, linking verbs, and auxiliaries that suffix is spelled"en" or "ne"; for most verbs, it is spelled the same as the past tense inflectional sufix -- with "d"or "ed" or even "t.") If so, it is a PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary; diagramas follows:

P:vp>

(MODHP:) PERFHP: perfaux…

word

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Step Four:Do am, is, are, was, were, be, or been appear followed by a word with the -ing participle

inflectional suffix attached to it ? (For all English verbs, linking verbs, and auxiliaries, thissuffix is spelled "ing.") If so, it is a PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressiveauxiliary; diagram as follows:

P:vp>

(MODHP:) (PERFHP:) PROGHP: progaux…

word

Step Five:Do am, is, are, was, were, be, being, or been appear followed by a word with the -en

participle inflectional suffix attached to it ? (For many common verbs, that suffix is spelled"en" or "ne"; for most verbs, it is spelled the same as the past tense inflectional suffix -- with "d"or "ed" or even "t.") If so, it is a PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary; diagramas follows:

P:vp>

(MODHP:) (PERFHP:) (PROGHP:) PASSHP: passaux…

word

Step Six: Now focus on the last word inside the right bracket. Its functional label is MAIN

PREDICATER (MP:), and its part-of-speech label is either verb (v...) or linking verb (lv...).Decide which (by referring to the definitions of verb and linking verb on pp. 81 and 82), anddiagram as appropriate in one of the following ways (there may or may not be one or moreauxiliaries already in the diagram). If the MAIN PREDICATER is indeed a linking verb (lv...),

be sure to change the phrase label under P: from vp> to lvp>.

P:vp>

(MODHP:) (PERFHP:) (PROGHP:) (PASSHP:) MP:v…

word

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P:lvp.

(MODHP:) (PERFHP:) (PROGHP:) (PASSHP:) MP:

lv…

word

Step Seven:In negative declarative clauses not appears after the first auxiliary; its functional label is

SENTENCE NEGATER (SN:), and its part-of-speech label is negative (neg...):

P:(l)vp>

?HP: SN: (…)?aux… neg…

word not

Step Eight:In addition to the four types of auxiliaries referred to in steps two to six, the proauxiliary

(proaux...) may also appear in negative declarative clauses: If do, does, or did appears precedingSN:neg..., its functional label is PRO HELPING PREDICATER (PROHP:), its part-of-speechlabel is proauxiliary (proaux...), and it is diagrammed as follows:

P:(l)vp>

PROHP: SN: MP: proaux… neg… (l)y…

do, does, did not word

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 13(STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH II)

You should alternate work on studying your part-of-speech definition cards with work on practicing the analysis of verb phrases and linking verb phrases. Because you will have begun tostudy the defining facts of form, function, and meaning of each part of speech, you will find iteasier to recognize them when doing analyses. Conversely, because you will have worked onsuch analyses, you will find, when you go back to studying the cards, that the contents of thecards are something more than just words -- they will connect to actual hands-on experiences.

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FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 14(DIAGRAMMING VERB PHRASES AND LINKING VERB PHRASES)

(a)P:vp>

PERFHP: PASSHP: MP: perfaux… passaux… v…

They have been opened

(b) P:lvp>

MODHP: MP:modaux… ly…

Paperbacks can be friends

(c) P:vp>

PROGHP: MP: progaux… v….

They were inviting you.

(d) P:vp>

MODHP: PERFHP: PROGHP: PASSHP: MP:modaux… perfaux… progaux… passaux… v…

Those criminals should have been being prosecuted.

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(e) P:vp>

MODHP: SN: MP:modaux… neg… v…

Hardbacks can not do another thing.

(f) P:vp>

PROHP: SN: MP: proaux… neg… v…

They do not approve of me .

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 15(ANALYZING VERB PHRASES AND LINKING VERB PHRASES)

The answers are presented here in outline format. If you used the analytical procedure towork out the answers in the tree diagram format, you should have little difficulty evaluating thecorrectness of your tree diagrams by comparing them to the answers given in the outline format.

(a) Edgar should have solved the problem.PREDICATER verb phrase (should have solved)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (should)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)

MAIN PREDICATER verb (solved)

(b) Maria may be the best teacher.PREDICATER linking verb phrase (may be)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (may)MAIN PREDICATER linking verb (be)

(c) The graduates gave some books to the library.PREDICATER verb phrase (gave)

MAIN PREDICATER verb (gave)

(d) Emily has been reciting poetry.PREDICATER verb phrase (has been reciting)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (has)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (reciting)

(e) I have been having headaches.PREDICATER verb phrase (have been having)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (having)

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(f) The message was decoded.PREDICATER verb phrase (was decoded)

PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (was)MAIN PREDICATER verb (decoded)

(g) The witness was being stubborn.

PREDICATER linking verb phrase (was being)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (was)MAIN PREDICATER linking verb (being)

(h) Canada will be negotiating with France.PREDICATER verb phrase (will be negotiating)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (will)PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (be)MAIN PREDICATER verb (negotiating)

(i) The cake should have been eaten.PREDICATER verb phrase (should have been eaten)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (should)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (eaten)

(j) The dean had been an anthropologist.PREDICATER linking verb phrase (had been)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (had)MAIN PREDICATER linking verb (been)

(k) The grades have not been posted.PREDICATER verb phrase (have not been posted)

PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)

SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (posted)

(l) Mary did not arrive.PREDICATER verb phrase (did not arrive)

PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary (did)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (arrive)

(m) We are not studying German.PREDICATER verb phrase (are not studying)

PROGRESSIVE HELPING PREDICATER progressive auxiliary (are)

SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (studying)

(n) Those students do not know the answer.PREDICATER verb phrase (do not know)

PRO HELPING PREDICATER proauxiliary (do)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)MAIN PREDICATER verb (know)

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(o) The mail may not have been delivered.PREDICATER verb phrase (may not have been delivered)

MODAL HELPING PREDICATER modal auxiliary (may)SENTENCE NEGATER negative (not)PERFECT HELPING PREDICATER perfect auxiliary (have)PASSIVE HELPING PREDICATER passive auxiliary (been)MAIN PREDICATER verb (delivered)

ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB PHRASES

Here, again, is the passage from Doug Webb’s journal that we examined in the last twosections. Read it one last time. After you do so, we will use some of Doug’s sentences to help usexamine English adjective phrases and adverb phrases.

3.65 (= 3.1 ) A Passage from Doug Webb’s Journal

I bought a book today. My favorite kind. A paperback. Paperbacks are so much better thanhardbacks; they're not so heavy; they bend. But what is most peculiar about paperbacks is theway they never lie flat after they've been opened and read from a few times. It's almost as if theywere inviting you to jump back in, make a return visit, maybe get really acquainted this time.Hardback books are so big -- cumbersome too, and they're always just too big to go into your


papers, notes about assignments, scribbles and comments and underlinings. And the cornersalways get bent up and begin to separate into layers, and they always get dirty around the edges,and better than that, they're full of funny little memories like coffee stains and little pieces of

coconut and sometimes even bubble gum. Paperbacks can be almost like friends because you getto know them so well, I guess; that's probably the reason I have a house full of them. Buthardbacks, they're hopeless. You never get to know them; they're just too impersonal. Maybethey just don't approve of me; they're probably even snobbish towards my paperbacks that alwayssurround and outnumber them. I bet they don't like having to be so close to the swinishmultitudes. But I bet my paperbacks have more fun.

In 3.66 you will find some of Doug’s sentences (sometimes adapted) that contain adjective phrases (which we have italicized), and in 3.67 you will find some of his sentences that containadverb phrases (also italicized).

3.66

Some Sentences with Adjective Phrases Italicized (from the Passage by Doug Webb)(a) They are hopeless .(b) Hardback books are so big .(c) They are too impersonal .(d) They always get dirty around the edges .(e) That is most peculiar about paperbacks .

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3.67Some Sentences with Adverb Phrases Italicized (from the Passage by Doug Webb)(a) I sometimes feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me away and then laugh.(b) They almost always get dirty around the edges.(c) That’s probably the reason I have a house full of them.(d) You never get to know them.(e) My paperbacks always surround them.

The grammars of both the adjective phrase and the adverb phrase are much simpler than thegrammars of the noun phrase, verb phrase, and linking verb phrase. Let us look at each in turn.

In 3.68 below you will find a partial grammar (some patterns and choices) of the Englishadjective phrase. Here, in plain English, is what the patterns and choices assert: An adjective

phrase must have a HEAD adjective, which may or may not be preceded by a MODIFIERintensifier and may or may not be followed by an ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT prepositional

phrase. (The grammar of the prepositional phrase is the same as when it occurs as POSTMODIFIER in a noun phrase.)

3.68Some Patterns in the English Adjective Phraseadjp> (M:) + H: + (ADJC:)Some Choices in the English Adjective PhraseM: int...H: adj...ADJC: pp>

Here are the adjective phrases in Doug Webb’s five sentences analyzed according to the patterns and choices in 3.68; please examine them carefully noting how each of the optionsrepresented in 3.68 is exemplified by one or more of them:

3.69(a) They are hopeless .adjective phrase (hopeless)

HEAD adjective (hopeless)

(b) Hardback books are so big .adjective phrase (so big)

MODIFIER intensifier (so)HEAD adjective (big)

(c) They are too impersonal .adjective phrase (too impersonal)

MODIFIER intensifier (too)HEAD adjective (impersonal)

(d) They always get dirty around the edges .adjective phrase (dirty around the edges)

HEAD adjective (dirty)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT prepositional phrase (around the edges)

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(e) That is most peculiar about paperbacks .adjective phrase (most peculiar about paperbacks)

MODIFIER intensifier (most)HEAD adjective (peculiar)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT prepositional phrase (about paperbacks)

Here is a reprint of the part-of-speech definition of adjectives, which we already examined inthe section on noun phrases; it was presented there because, in addition to the function we arecurrently discussing (HEAD of an adjective phrase), adjectives can also function as aMODIFIERS in noun phrases:

3.70 (= 3.26 )adjectives (adj...)

(a) Form: Adjective are defined formally by listing (pure form): angry, bad, big, clear, dark, good, etc. We can also identify the form of some adjectives by noting that the last derivationalsuffix in the word is one that creates adjectives, for example: -y in watery, -ful in helpful, -less incareless, -en in golden, -able in breakable, -ous in glorious, -ish in childish , etc. We can also

identify the form of many one- or two-syllable adjectives by noting that they have one of twoinflectional suffixes that can be attached to adjectives: (i) -er, as in angrier, worse, bigger,clearer, darker, better etc. (ii) -est, as in angriest, worst, biggest, clearest, darkest, best, etc.

(b) Function: Adjectives have two functional positions: (i) MODIFIER (M:) in a noun phrase(np>): the young doctor, and (ii) HEAD (H:) in an adjective phrase (adjp>): she was very angry .

(c) Meaning: Adjectives typically describe qualities of associated nouns, e.g., size (large), color (blue), shape (round), emotional state (angry), etc., etc.

Here is the definition of the new part of speech that occurs in adjective phrases, theintensifier:

3.71intensifiers (int...)

(a) Form: Intensifiers are defined by listing : quite, rather, somewhat, so, too, very (and severalothers)

(b) Function: Intensifiers function as MODIFIERS (M:) in both adjective phrases (adjp>) (e.g.,very happy ) and adverb phrases (advp>) (e.g., rather carefully ).

(c) Meaning: They intensify the meaning of the adjective or adverb which they MODIFY. (Seeexamples in (b) immediately above.)

In 3.72 below you will find a partial grammar (some patterns and choices) of the Englishadverb phrase. Here, in plain English, is what the patterns and choices assert: An adverb phrasemust have a HEAD adverb, which may or may not be preceded by a MODIFIER intensifier.

3.72Some Patterns in the English Adverb Phraseadvp> (M:) + H:

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Some Choices in the English Adverb PhraseM: int...H: adv...

Here are the adverb phrases in three of Doug Webb’s sentences analyzed according to the patterns and choices in 3.72; please examine them carefully noting how each of the optionsrepresented in 3.72 is exemplified by one or more of them:

3.73(a) I sometimes feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me away and then laugh.adverb phrase (sometimes)

HEAD adverb (sometimes)

(b) They almost always get dirty around the edges.MODIFIER intensifier (almost)HEAD adverb (always)

(c) That is probably the reason I have a house full of them.

HEAD adverb (probably)

Here is the part-of-speech definition of adverbs followed by a reprint of the definition ofintensifiers, the two parts of speech that occur in adverb phrases:

3.74adverbs(adv...)

(a) Form: Adverbs are defined by listing (pure form): afterwards, beautifully, carefully, probably, sometimes, then, there, etc. We can also identify the form of some adverbs by notingthat the last derivational suffix in the word is one that creates adverbs, for example: -ly incarefully , -wise in clockwise , -ways in sideways , -ward in backward, etc. We can also identify

the form of a few one-syllable adverbs by noting that they have one of two inflectional suffixesthat can be attached to such adverbs: (i) -er, as in quicker, faster, and very few others. (ii) -est, asin quickest, fastest, and very few others.

(b) Function: Adverbs function as HEAD (H:) in an adverb phrase (advp>): She writes verycarefully . They have recently moved.

(c) Meaning: Adverbs typically indicate time (then), place (here, there), manner (carefully,quietly), etc.

3.75 ( = 3.71 )intensifiers (int...)

(a) Form: Intensifiers are defined by listing : quite, rather, somewhat, so, too, very (and severalothers)

(b) Function: Intensifiers function as MODIFIERS (M:) in both adjective phrases (adjp>) (e.g.,very happy ) and adverb phrases (advp>) (e.g., rather carefully ).

(c) Meaning: They intensify the meaning of the adjective or adverb, which they MODIFY. (Seeexamples in (b) immediately above.)

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All of the adverb phrases in Doug Webb’s passage were inside verb phrases or linking verb phrases in the middle of his sentences. In fact, adverb phrases also commonly occur at the beginning or end of sentences, e.g., Sometimes I feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me ; I feel a hardback book is trying to scare me sometimes. Furthermore, adverb phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence can have MODIFIER intensifiers, e.g., Very quietly , the cat was stalking the mouse ; The cat was stalking the mouse very quietly . The last two example sentencesare not from Doug Webb’s passage; we made them up. The third member of the set, with theadverb phrase inside the verb phrase, would be The cat was very quietly stalking the mouse . Inall three sentences, the internal structure of the adverb phrase is the same: very is a MODIFIERintensifier and quietly is a HEAD adverb. Early in Chapter 5, when we examine the patterns inthe declarative clause, we will see that the function of the adverb phrase is labeled CLAUSECOMPLEMENT in all three DECLARATIVE CLAUSES, but we use the specific labelsINITIAL CLAUSE COMPLEMENT, MEDIAL CLAUSE COMPLEMENT, or FINALCLAUSE COMPLEMENT depending on whether the adverb phrase is at the beginning, in themiddle, or at the end of the declarative clause. When it is “in the middle,” it is actually inside theverb phrase or linking verb phrase, immediately following the first auxiliary, if there is one, andthe SENTENCE NEGATER negative not if it occurs.

PRACTICE 16(STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH III)

We have examined two new parts of speech in this section: intensifiers and adverbs. Makethree study cards for each part of speech, as you did with the parts of speech in earlier sections,shuffle those cards in with any of the earlier part-of-speech cards that you have not yet mastered,and begin studying them intensively.

PRACTICE 17 (DIAGRAMMING ADJECTIVE PHRASES)

Below you will find three declarative clauses that were cited in this section. Each one contains anadjective phrase that has been analyzed in the outline format. Translate the analysis of each ofthe three adjective phrases into the tree diagram format.

(a) They are too impersonal .adjective phrase (too impersonal)

MODIFIER intensifier (too)HEAD adjective (impersonal)

(b) They always get dirty around the edges .adjective phrase (dirty around the edges)

HEAD adjective (dirty)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT prepositional phrase (around the edges)

(c) That is most peculiar about paperbacks .adjective phrase (most peculiar about paperbacks)

MODIFIER intensifier (most)HEAD adjective (peculiar)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT prepositional phrase (about paperbacks)

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PRACTICE 18 (DIAGRAMMING ADVERB PHRASES)

Below you will find two declarative clauses that were cited in this section. Each one containsan adverb phrase that has been analyzed in the outline format. Translate the analysis of each ofthe two adverb phrases into the tree diagram format.

(a) I sometimes feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me away and then laugh.adverb phrase (sometimes)

HEAD adverb (sometimes)

(b) They almost always get dirty around the edges.MODIFIER intensifier (almost)HEAD adverb (always)

PRACTICE 19 (CHAPTER REVIEW: LABELING PARTS OF SPEECH)

Following this paragraph you will find some practice sentences to work on. The meaning of

each sentence follows more or less coherently from the preceding sentences, and together they parallel the content of Doug Webb’s passage about paperback books. However, we have greatlyrevised Doug’s passage because it contains many more parts of speech than the 23 we havelooked at in this chapter and because several of the parts of speech we have defined appear infunctional positions in Doug’s passage that we have not yet discussed. Only the six phrase typesthat we have discussed in this chapter appear in these practice sentences, and all of the sentencesare simple declarative clauses. Remember that we have learned that prepositional phrases canappear as POST MODIFIERS within noun phrases and as ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTSwithin adjective phrases. Adverb phrases can also appear inside verb phrases and linking verb

phrases, but we have not yet actually looked at the patterns that account for this. Your specificanalytical task in working with these sentences is this: Determine the functional label and part-of-speech label of each word in each sentence, and then write each sentence with the labels of each

word preceding the word. (You should probably write each word and its labels inside a set ofsquare brackets just to make it clear to which word a given set of labels applies.) Sentence (a)would look like this:

(a) [H: perspro... I ] [PERFHP: perfaux... have ] [PROGHP: progaux... been ] [MP: v... buying ] [D:iart... some ] [H: n... books ] [H: adv... recently ].

To perform this task, you need already to have done several rounds of studying what is now atotal of 69 flash cards. You will also need constantly to reread and study the various sections ofthis chapter that talk about the patterns and choices in the various English phrases in which thischapter’s 23 parts of speech appear. Please forgive us if we remind you one last time: There is noshort cut to achieving the kind of mastery of this chapter that you MUST have if you are going to

be able to understand and use the content of the remaining chapters of this book, and if you aregoing to present yourself to the world as an English language professional.

(a) I have been buying some books recently.(b) They are my favorite kind of books.(c) They are inexpensive paperbacks.(d) Paperbacks are not so heavy.(e) One quality is very peculiar about paperbacks.(f) They never lie flat.

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(g) Yesterday, I was reading two paperbacks from the library simultaneously.(h) That inspired me.(i) I should become more comfortable with visits to libraries(j) Hardback books do not understand my system of values.(k) Rigidity is their first attribute.(l) They are always too big for my biggest pocket.(m) Their square corners seem arrogant.(n) Excessive thickness is their next attribute.(o) Occasionally, I have felt uncomfortable about hardback books.(p) Quite frequently, I read the paperbacks in my backpack.(q) Some paperbacks in my possession may have been borrowed.(r) Often, funny comments have been scribbled in them.(s) Mine are full of coffee marks.(t) Little pieces of coconut sometimes appear in the pages of my paperback books(u) Those hardback books are hopeless.(v) You never become familiar with them.(w) Quite arrogantly, they do not tolerate the swinish multitudes.(x) I know one important thing.

(y) My paperbacks have a huge amount of fun.

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 16(STUDYING THE DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH III)

Let us reinforce a point that we made earlier. Why have we suggested that you make threeseparate cards for each part of speech (one for form, one for function, and one for meaning)?And why have we suggested that you shuffle all of your part-of-speech cards together each timeyou begin a study cycle? We have some students who are very uncomfortable shuffling thecards, insisting on studying the information in the same order in which it was presented in the

book. But if you do that, there is no reason to make cards, you should just study the book! The

reason to make the cards, and to write them rather than type or photocopy the information, is thatadditional neural networks in your brain are stimulated to learn by the very act of writing. It isalmost as if information travels through your pen or pencil, up your arm, and to your brain in away that it doesn’t when just coming in through your eyes. The reason to shuffle the cards eachtime you study them is this: You want to learn the information about the form, function, andmeaning of each part of speech as independent, context-free information. If you study it only inthe context of the whole definition, as presented in this book, your knowledge of it is dependenton the context (e.g., what the book says about the form of a noun helps you remember what itsays about a noun’s function). When you keep encountering the information in different contexts,

by shuffling the cards, you will learn it better and remember it longer.

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 17 (DIAGRAMMING ADJECTIVE PHRASES)

(a)adj>

M: H:int… adj…

They are too impersonal

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(b) adjp>

H: ADJC: pp>

R: OP: p… np>

D: H:dart… n…

They always get dirty around the edges.

(c) adjp>

M: H: ADJC:int… adj… pp>

R: OP: p… np>

H:n…

That is most peculiar about paperbacks

FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 18 (DIAGRAMMING ADVERB PHRASES)

(a) advp>

H:adv…

I sometimes feel as if a hardback book is trying to scare me away and then laugh.

(b) advp>

M: H:int… adv…

They almost always get dirty around the edges.

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FEEDBACK TO PRACTICE 19(CHAPTER REVIEW: LABELING PARTS OF SPEECH)

(a) [H: perspro... I ] [PERFHP: perfaux... have ] [PROGHP: progaux... been ] [MP: v... buying ] [D:iart... some ] [H: n... books ] [H: adv... recently ].

(b) [H: perspro... They] [MP: lv... are ] [D: possart... my] [M: adj... favorite ] [H: n... kind ] [R: p...of ] [H: n... books ].

(c) [H: perspro... They] [MP: lv... are ] [M: adj... inexpensive ] [H: n... paperbacks ].(d) [H: n... Paperbacks ] [MP: lv... are ] [SN: neg... not ] [M: int... so] [H: adj... heavy ].(e) [POD: crdnum... One ] [H: n... quality ] [MP: lv... is] [M: int... very] [H: adj... peculiar ] [R: p...

about ] [H: n... paperbacks ].(f) [H: perspro... They] [H: adv... never ] [MP: lv... lie] [H: adj... flat ].(g) [H: adv... Yesterday ], [H: perspro... I] [PROGHP: progaux... was] [MP: v... reading] [POD:

crdnum... two] [H: n... paperbacks] [R: p... from] [D: dart... the] [H: n... library] [H: adv...simultaneously].

(h) [H: dempro... That ] [MP: v... inspired ] [H: perspro... me].(i) [H: perspro... I] [MODHP: modaux... should] [MP: lv... become] [M: int... more] [H: adj...

comfortable ] [R: p... with ] [H: n... visits ] [R: p... to] [H: n... libraries ].(j) [M: n... Hardback ] [H: n... books ] [PROHP: proaux... do] [SN: neg... not ] [MP: v...

understand ] [D: possart... my] [H: n... system ] [R: p... of ] [H: n... values ].(k) [H: n... Rigidity ] [MP: lv... is] [D: possart... their ] [POD: ordnum... first ] [H: n... attribute ].(l) [H: perspro... They] [MP: lv... are ] [H: adv... always ] [M: int... too] [H: adj... big ] [R: p... for ]

D: possart... my] [M: adj... biggest ] [H: n... pocket ].(m) [D: possart... Their ] [M: adj... square ] [H: n... corners ] [MP: lv... seem ] [H: adj...

arrogant ].(n) [M: adj... Excessive ] [H: n... thickness ] [MP: lv... is] [D: possart... their ] [POD: genord... next ]

[H: n... attribute ].(o) [H: adv... Occasionally ], [H: perspro... I ] [PERFHP: perfaux... have ] [MP: lv... felt ] [H: adj...

uncomfortable ] [R: p... about ] [M: n... hardback ] [H: n... books ].

(p) [M: int... Quite ] [H: adv... frequently ], [H: perspro... I ] [MP: v... read ] [D: dart... the ] [H: n... paperbacks ] [R: p... in] [D: possart... my] [H: n... backpack ].

(q) [D: iart... Some] [H: n... paperbacks] [R: p... in] [D: possart... my] [H: n... possession][MODHP: modaux... may] [PERFHP: perfaux... have ] [PASSHP: passaux... been ] [MP: v...borrowed ].

(r) [H: adv... Often ], [M: adj... funny] [H: n... comments ] [PERFHP: perfaux... have ] [PASSHP: passaux... been ] [MP: v... scribbled ] [R: p... in] [H: perspro... them ].

(s) [H: posspro... Mine ] [MP: lv... are ] [H: adj... full ] [R: p... of ] [M: n... coffee ] [H: n... marks ].(t) [M: adj... Little ] [H: n... pieces ] [R: p... of ] [H: n... coconut ] [H: adv... sometimes ] [MP: v...

appear ] [R: p... in] [D: dart... the ] [H: n... pages ] [R: p... of ] [D: possart... my] [M: n... paperback ] [H: n... books ].

(u) [D: demart... Those ] [M: n... hardback ] [H: n... books ] [MP: lv... are ] [H: adj... hopeless ].

(v) [H: perspro... You] [H: adv... never ] [MP: lv... become ] [H: adj... familiar ] [R: p... with ] [H: perspro... them].

(w) [M: int... Quite ] [H: adv... arrogantly ], [H: perspro... they] [PROHP: proaux... do] [SN:neg... not ] [MP: v... tolerate ] [D: dart... the ] [M: adj... swinish ] [H: n... multitudes ].

(x) [H: perspro... I ] [MP: v... know] [POD: crdnum... one ] [M: adj... important ] [H: n... thing ].(y) [D: possart... My] [H: n... paperbacks ] [MP: v... have ] [D: iart... a ] [M: adj... huge ] [H: n...

amount ] [R: p of] [H: n fun]

.Parts of Speech.and Phrases

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