TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Intensive Grammar..........................................................................................................31.1 Parts of speech...........................................................................................................4

2. Sentence review...............................................................................................................5Mixed Constructions..................................................................................................12

3. Grammar: Verb Tenses..................................................................................................133.1 The Present Simple Tense.......................................................................................133.2 The Present Progressive Tense................................................................................153.3 The Past Simple Tense.............................................................................................153.4 The Present Perfect Tense.......................................................................................173.5 The Future Tenses....................................................................................................183.6 ERRORS IN SENTENCES.....................................................................................19

3.6.1 SENTENCE FRAGMENT...............................................................................193.6.2 Misplaced Period..............................................................................................193.6.3 Incomplete Sentence.........................................................................................193.6.4 COMMA SPLICE. (Comma Fault or Run-on).................................................193.6.5 FUSED SENTENCES......................................................................................20

3.6.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure...........................................................203.6.7.1 General Mixed Constructions....................................................................203.6.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction.............................................................203.6.7.4 Doubled Preposition..................................................................................21

3.6.8 FAULTY PARALLELISM..............................................................................214. Writing Skills.................................................................................................................25

4.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing..............................................................................254.2 Paragraph Development...............................................................................................25

What is a paragraph?.................................................................................................254.3 How to Write a Paragraph...........................................................................................25

4.3.1 Writing a Paragraph..............................................................................................264.3.2 Editing a Paragraph...............................................................................................264.4 Transitional Signals.................................................................................................26

4.4.1 Words that Show Addition...............................................................................264.4.2 Words that Show Time.....................................................................................264.4.3 Words that Show Contrast................................................................................274.4.4 Word that Show Comparison............................................................................274.4.5 Words that Show Illustration............................................................................274.4.6 Words that Show Location...............................................................................274.4.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect..................................................................274.4.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude.................................................................27

4.5 Punctuation Rules........................................................................................................28Period.........................................................................................................................28Question Mark...........................................................................................................28Comma.......................................................................................................................28

Quotation Marks........................................................................................................294.6 Capitalization Rules.....................................................................................................29

First words.................................................................................................................29Personal Names.........................................................................................................29

4.7 Letter Writing..............................................................................................................304.11 Report Writing...........................................................................................................30

4.11.1 What makes a good report?................................................................................304.11.2 Planning..............................................................................................................314.11.3 Defining Your Aim.............................................................................................314.11.4 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas.....................................................................324.11.5 Structuring the Document...................................................................................324.11.6 How can you produce a good structure?............................................................33

4.12 Presenting a Report Professionally............................................................................334.12.1 Presentation.........................................................................................................35

6. ORAL SKILLS..............................................................................................................376.1 How to spell the plural of most common nouns......................................................37

6.2 Enabling skills.......................................................................................................376.2.1 Using a Dictionary................................................................................................376.2.2 How to use Encyclopedia....................................................................................38

6.3 How to Write Critiques................................................................................................396.4 Patterns for Presenting Information........................................................................41

CHAPTER ONE

1. Intensive Grammar

1.1 Parts of speech

"Parts of speech" are the basic types of words that English has. Most grammar books say that there are eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections. We will add one more type: articles. It is important to be able to recognize and identify the different types of words in English, so that you can understand grammar explanations and use the right word form in the right place. Here is a brief explanation of what the parts of speech are:

NounA noun is a naming word. It names a person, place, thing, idea, living creature, quality, or action. Examples:cowboy, theatre, box, thought, tree, kindness, arrival

VerbA verb is a word which describes an action (doing something) or a state (being something). Examples:walk, talk, think, believe, live, like, want

AdjectiveAn adjective is a word that describes a noun. It tells you something about the noun. Examples:big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important

AdverbAn adverb is a word which usually describes a verb. It tells you how something is done. It may also tell you when or where something happened. Examples:slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, tomorrow, here, everywhere

PronounA pronoun is used instead of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. Examples:I, you, he, she, it, we, they

ConjunctionA conjunction joins two words, phrases or sentences together. Examples:but, so, and, because, or

PrepositionA preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase. It joins the noun to some other part of the sentence. Examples: on, in, by, with, under, through, at

InterjectionAn interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it often stands alone. Interjections are words which express emotion or surprise, and they are usually followed by exclamation marks. Examples:Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha!

ArticleAn article is used to introduce a noun. Examples:the, a, an

CHAPTER TWO

2. Sentence review

2.1 What is a simple sentence?

A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with no dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well. Examples:

He understood. S + Pred.

He and I understood. S + S+ Pred. (compound subject)

He understood my meaning and departed from the house. S + Pred. + Pred. (compound predicate)

2.2 What is a compound compound sentence?

A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction. Examples: He finally read the book , or so I thought.

The two independent clause are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction "or."

Either he goes , or I go.

The compound sentence is held together by a comma and the correlative conjunction "either ... or."

Mary understands math ; she has studied it for years.

Here, the two are joined by a semicolon, with no conjunction.

2.3 What is a complex sentence?

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause, and one or more dependent clauses. The clauses are connected through either a subordinate conjunction or a relative

pronoun. The dependent clause may be the first or second clause in the sentence. If the first clause in the sentence is dependent, a comma usually separates the two clauses. Example:

We had to go inside when it started raining.

Independent clause Dependent clause

The independent clause comes first, and is linked to the subordinate (dependent) clause with the subordinating conjunction "when."Example:

As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.

Dependent clause Independent clause

The dependent clause is in first position, so there is a comma separating the two. The dependent clause begins with the subordinating conjunction "as long as."

Reminder:

Compound Sentence: at least two independent clauses; no dependent clauses Example: He finally read the book , or so I thought.

The two independent clause are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction "or."

2.4 What is a compound-complex sentence?

A compound-complex sentence is made up of at least one dependent clause, and two or more independent clauses. Examples:

I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him.

Indep. clause Indep. clause Dep. clause

Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.

Dep. clause Indep. clause Indep. clause

2.5 What is a sentence fragment?

Sentence fragments occur when a sentence is missing a subject, verb, or main clause. Except in very rare cases, you should avoid sentence fragments.Problem: Missing Subject fragment: He was just too eager. And called me about 18 times. "And called me about 18 times" is a fragment since it has no subject.

sentence: He was just too eager. And he called me about 18 times.

The addition of the subject "he" turns the fragment into a sentence. (A sentence can begin with a coordinating conjunction, but there still must be a subject.)

Problem: Missing Verb A sentence must contain a finite verb. A non-finite verb, or verbal, does not refer to a definite or limited action or condition. Therefore, a verbal cannot be used as the verb element in a sentence. fragment: Julia studied modernist theory as well. To supplement her paper on postmodernism. The second sentence does not contain a verb, and thus is a fragment (it is also missing a subject!). "To supplement" is an infinitive, or verbal, not a verb.

sentence: Julia studied modernist theory as well to supplement her paper on postmodernism.or Julia studied modernist theory as well. She did so to supplement her paper on postmodernism.Problem: Missing Main Clause fragment: I ate the whole pie. Because I felt like it.

This is a subordinate clause since it is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because." The clause is

a fragment because it is not attached to an independent or main clause.

sentence: Because I felt like it, I ate the whole pie.or I ate the whole pie because I felt like it.

The clause "because I felt like it" needs another clause to depend on in order to form a complete sentence.

2.6 What is a Modifier?

A modifier is a word or group of words that limits, describes, or qualifies the other word or group of words attached to it .

Problem: Because word order determines which word(s) the modifier modifies , the meaning of a sentence can become unclear if you choose the wrong word order.

Adjective phrases and clauses:

Make sure phrases and clauses which act as adjectives follow the noun you want them to modify. misplaced: She bought an outfit for her sister from Holt Renfrew.

Because of its placement, the prepositional phrase "from Holt Renfrew" applies to the noun "sister" in this sentence instead of to "outfit" which it is meant to modify--so the sister, rather than the outfit, is from Holt Renfrew!

correction: She bought an outfit from Holt Renfrew for her sister.

Adverbs of degree:

Adverbs of degree such as almost, even, hardly, just ,only, and nearly are placed immediately before the words they modify. Examples:

incorrect - I only walked as far as I had to.correct - I walked only as far as I had to.

incorrect - I almost waited an hour for my brother.correct - I waited almost an hour for my brother.

incorrect - Her outfit was suitable for hardly a funeral

correct - Her outfit was hardly suitable for a funeral.

Problem: Ambiguous Placement

Sometimes, a modifier is placed so that it is unclear which of two things it modifies.

Solution:

This ambiguity can be resolved by moving the modifier to where it can refer only to the appropriate word or group of words. ambiguous: I watched him frequently walk around the park.

Because of its placement, "frequently" could be referring to how often "I watched him" or to how often he walked around the park.

clear: I frequently watched him walk around the park.

"Frequently" in this sentence can only refer to how often "I watched him."

I watched him walk frequently around the park.

Here, "frequently" can refer only to the walking, not the watching.

Dangling Modifiers (Gerund, Infinitive, Participial, Elliptical

Problem: dangling modifiers

A dangling modifier is a modifier which is not placed closely enough to what it modifies or which modifies something which is not explicitly included in the sentence.

Solution:

Rearrange the sentence or add the missing words.Avoid dangling participial phrases dangling: Walking down the street, the street lamps came on.

The placement of the participial phrase "walking down the street" implies that thestreet lamps were walking.

correction: As we walked down the street, the street lamps came on.

or Walking down the street, we noticed the street lamps come on.

Avoid dangling phrases containing gerunds dangling: After looking out the window for hours, the storm passed.

Since there is no other noun phrase for it to modify, the gerund "looking" appears to modify "storm."

correction: After looking out the window for hours, we saw that the storm had passed.

or After we looked out the window for hours, the storm passed.

Avoid dangling infinitive phrases dangling: To wash the car, soap and water is needed.

There is no one in the above sentence who will wash the car.

correction: To wash the car, you will need soap and water.

or If you want to wash the car, you need soap and water.

Elliptical Clauses An elliptical clause is one in which the subject or verb is implied rather than stated. The subject of the clause has to be the same as the subject of the main clause or else it is dangling. dangling: While driving down the street, the car stalled.

correction: While I was driving down the street, my car stalled.

or: While driving down the street, I stalled my car.

Dangling Modifiers Type in the letters of the sentences which contain no dangling modifiers. Separate the letters of your answer by using a comma, but no space (e.g. a,b,d). If your response shows as "Incorrect" in the status bar, the correct answer will appear in the blank.

What is a shift?

Shifts are unnecessary changes in a sentence which cause confusion or inconsistency. Avoid shifts when constructing a sentence.

Shift in Subject Example: As we canoed down the river, white water could be seen.Correction: As we canoed down the river, we could see white water.

Shift in Verb tense, voice or mood Tense: Bewildered and frightened, I go to my room, fall down on the bed and cried.Correction: Bewildered and frightened, I went to my room, fell down on the bed and cried.

Voice: The woman chased the robber and he was caught.Correction: The woman chased the robber and caught him.

Mood: First stand still; then you should jump up and down.Correction: First stand still; then jump up and down.

Shift in person and number of pronouns

Example: If one lives in a palace, you expect certain luxuries.Correction: If one lives in a palace, one expects certain luxuries.

Mixed Constructions

Problem: Mixed constructions Mixed constructions occur when a writer begins a sentence with one construction and, without realizing it, finishes the sentence with another.

Solution: Use the following guidelines to avoid mixed constructions:Do not use an adverbial clause as complement where a noun or noun clause is required. Example: The reason that I left was because I was sick. A fight is when two people disagree violently.Correction: I left because I was sick. A fight is a situation between two people who disagree violently.

Do not begin with a phrase or clause and then convert a noun from that phrase or clause into the subject of the sentence. Example: With all my efforts in the matter grew more complex.Correction: With all my efforts in the matter, it grew even more complex.

Do not begin with one subject, use a phrase or clause, then continue as if there were a different subject which remains implicit.Example: A house without heat can have serious consequences.Correction: A house without heat can be extremely cold at night.Do not begin with an indirect statement or question and conclude with a direct statement or question (or vice versa). Example: He asked if we lived at home and were we happy.Correction: He asked if we lived at home and whether we were happy.Do not begin with an adverbial or other dependent clause and end with a clause which assumes that the initial clause was independent. Example: Since you came to my room; therefore, you love me.Correction: You came to my room; therefore, you love me.Do not begin with an adverbial clause which incorrectly becomes the subject of the sentence; only a noun or noun clause can be the subject. Example: Because we love nature means a lot to our friends.Correction: Our love of nature means a lot to our friends.

CHAPTER 3

3. Grammar: Verb Tenses

3.1 The Present Simple Tense

The Simple Present Tense is used in English to express habitual or repetitive actions, customs, and universal truth. It is important to remember that tense is not the same as time and that the actions started in the past, continue now and will go on in the future. To conjugate verbs in this tense we have to make a difference between all the verbs and the verb "to be". This is how the verb "to be" is conjugated since it is an irregular verb: I am You are He is She is It is You are We are They are The verb to be is mainly used to express states or feelings, descriptions, definitions or general truth. To make questions using the verb "to be" you simply place it in front of the sentence. For example the sentence:She is a happy person.------> would be ------> Is she a happy person? To make the verb "to be" negative simply add "not"to the verb and you have: I am no (I'm not) You are not (aren't) He is not (isn't) She is not(isn't) It is not (isn't) You are not (aren't) We are not (aren't) They are not (aren't) Now you know how the verb to be changes in different situations. The other verbs in English, however, have a completely different form. Let's look at these sentences: Kelly works in the university. Andrew and Tim watch tv after lunch. Her brother studies a lot in the afternoon.Notice that when you are using the third person (he, she, it) you have to add -s or -es at the end of the verb. This change applies for all the verbs in English. To make questions with these verbs you have to use an auxiliary word. In this case the words are: DOES for the third person and DO for the other persons. You place this word at the beginning of the sentence: DOES Kelly work in the university? DO Andrew and Tim watch tv after lunch? DOES her brother study a lot in the afternoon?Another change you might have noticed is that in interrogative form our verbs appear in infinitive. That's right! When you use an auxiliary word, the verb goes in infinitive form. And that's all you need, you are ready to build your own interrogative sentences in present simple.

Finally, if you want to write a negative sentence you use again the auxiliary words DO or DOES, but this time you just place them after the subject and add the negative word NOT. Look at the examples: Kelly does not work in the university. Andrew and Tim do not watch tv after lunch. Her brother does not study a lot in the afternoon.When you use this structure in spoken language it is common that the words DO + NOT becomes DON'T and DOES + NOT becomes DOESN'T. The meaning remains the same.

3.2 The Present Progressive Tense

This tense is used to describe actions that are happening in this moment. In other situations it can also be used to express future actions. The structure of this tense is simple. You only need the verb to be and the -ing ending for the main verb. Let's see the examples: Mom and dad are cooking dinner. The students are reading the examples right now. She is writing a letter for her family. The kids are playing in the street in this moment. These examples illustrate the sense of future: My friends and I are going to the movies later. She is finishing her homework after the tv news. I am visiting my grandparents tonight.As you can see, the structure is the same in both situations. Time expressions like tonight or right now help you differentiate the use of the tense.Let's see what happens when you want to change these sentences into interrogative ones: The verb to be is found in the sentences right? Now, do you remember how to change to interrogative form the sentences with the verb to be? Correct! You have to move the verb to be to the beginning of the sentence and the rest of the sentence does not change. Are mom and dad are cooking dinner? Are the students reading the examples right now? Is she writing a letter for her family? Are the kids playing in the street in this moment? Is she finishing her homework after the tv news? Finally, to form negative sentences, add the negative word not after the verb to be: Mom and dad are not cooking dinner. The students are not reading the examples right now. She is not writing a letter for her family. The kids are not playing in the street in this moment. My friends and I are not going to the movies later. She is not finishing her homework after the tv news. I am not visiting my grandparents tonight.Always remember to add the -ing particle at the end of the main verb.

3.3 The Past Simple Tense

The simple past is a tense used to describe complete actions or events that took place in some time before now. The time can be specified by using some adverbs, for example: yesterday, last night, last week, last month, last year, and so on. It is important to keep in mind that the formation of this tense is different if you are working with the verb to be or if you are working with the rest of the verbs. Let's begin then with the verb To Be. Although the past form of the verbs is the same for all the personal pronouns, the verb "to be" has two forms: I was he was she was it was you were they were we were you wereWAS for I, he, she, it and WERE for we, you , they. Look at these examples: She was worried about her grades in school. Maurice and Martha were in Washington last week. Joseph was very tired, but now he is fine. Last christmas we were in my grandma's house. Yesterday they were very busy.Remember that the past tense of "to be" follows the same structure we explained before. So, when you want to turn these sentences into questions you have to do the same changes you do for the present tense. Look: Was she worried about her grades in school? Were Maurice and Martha in Washington last week? Was Joseph was very tired? Were they in your grandma's house last christmas? Were they very busy yesterday?In the same way, if you want to change an affirmative sentence to negative you just have to add the negative particle not after the verb "to be": She was not worried about her grades in school. Maurice and Martha were not in Washington last week. Joseph was not very tired, but now he is. Last christmas we were not in my grandma's house. Yesterday they were not very busy.Remember that the contractions of the verb "to be" and the negative word not are common in spoken language. The past tense for the other verbs in English is a little more complicated. Some are regular verbs and follow one rule. Others are irregular verbs and their forms are very different from the infinitive.It requires that you learn the past form of every verb.Let's begin with the regular verbs:

These verbs form their past by adding the particle -ed at the end of the infinitive. For example: want -------> wanted copy -------> copied sign -------> signed fade -------> faded watch -------> watched

Now, see the verbs in context:

My mother and her sister wanted to go shopping yesterday. She copied many things and now she does not have money. You signed a contract with a very important company. Congratulations! The snow flakes faded slowly. My family always watched "The Wonder Years".You already know that to make interrogative sentences we need an auxiliary. In the present we used DO and DOES For the past tense we use DID: Did your mother and her sister want to go shopping yesterday? Did she copy many things and now she does not have money? Did you sign a contract with a very important company? Congratulations! Did the snow flakes fade slowly? Did your family always watch "The Wonder Years"?Just apply the structure of the present tense to the past to form negative sentences: My mother and her sister did not want to go shopping yesterday. She did not copy many things and now she has money. You did not sign a contract with a dishonest company. Congratulations! The snow flakes did not fade slowly. My family did not watch "Pokemon".Do not forget that when you use an auxiliary the main verb remains unchanged. It is time now to see what happens to irregular verbs. Basically, they follow the same structure of the regular verbs, but you cannot just add -ed to the infinitive. These verbs have their own form for the past: write -------> wrote see -------> saw bring -------> brought take -------> took sing -------> sang come -------> came

These examples illustrate the changes:

Monica wrote a nice article. We did not see your parents yesterday. I brought many presents from Australia. Ana's brother did not take a difficult test. That boy sang awfully in school.

Did they come home late last night?

3.4 The Present Perfect Tense

This tense is used to describe actions that began in the past, still go on in the present and possibly in the future. The structure of this tense needs the auxiliary "have" and the past participle of the verb. Let's look at the examples: We have studied here for three months. They have lived in Bogota since 1996. She has worked at the university for a long time. My father and my brother have played soccer in many cities.Let's check the interrogative form of this tense. Up to now we have tried to show you the use of auxiliaries; in this case the verb "to have" is also needed to produce interrogative and negative sentences: Have you studied here for three months? Have they lived in Bogota since 1996? Has she worked at the university for a long time? Have your father and brother played soccer in many cities?As you can see you only need to invert the order of the pronoun and the auxiliary. English is easy, don't you think?Probably you have already figured out the structure of negative sentences.Here are the precedent sentences in negative form: We have not studied here for three months. They have not lived in Bogota since 1996. She has not worked at the university for a long time. My father and my brother have not played soccer in many cities

3.5 The Future Tenses

There are basically two forms of the future tense in English. Both forms are used to express actions or states in the future. The first form is made up by the verb "to be" plus "going to" plus the verb in base form. I am going to write a letter for you tomorrow. She is going to travel to England next month. Cecile and Arnaud are going to cook a French dish called ratatuie. We are going to study tonight.To construct an interrogative sentence in this tense you simply place the verb to be in front of the pronoun. Like this: Are you going to visit your grandmother next summer? Is she going to travel to England next month? Are Cecile and Arnaud going to cook a French dish called ratatuie? Are we going to study tonight?To form the negative structure of this tense add the word not to the verb to be. I am not going to go to class on Monday. She is not going to travel to England next month.

Cecile and Arnaud are not going to cook an American dish. We are not going to go out tonight.The other tense used to express future in English is formed with the auxiliary "will" followed by a verb in the infinitive form of the main verb. The difference between these two tenses is understood in every day communication. We use will as the auxiliary for this tense. Here is the structure of the affirmative sentences: It's cold in here. I will close the door. Doris and Rose will call you tonight, don't forget it. Patty will marry Joseph in two months. I will take the English course next year.To form a negative sentence in this tense won't is used. Like this: I won't open the door just because you tell me so. I won't be home to take the call. You won't be invited to their wedding. That class won't be offered next semester.

3.6 ERRORS IN SENTENCES

3.6.1 SENTENCE FRAGMENT

Make sure that each sentence contains an independent clause--a group of words that includes a subject and a verb and that can stand alone. 3.6.2 Misplaced Period

Avoid creating a sentence fragment by inserting a period into what would otherwise be a complete sentence (e.g., "Inflation is a difficult problem. Although it is not impossible to solve." "Capital punishment should be abolished. The reason being that it is ineffective.") To correct such fragments, link the ideas, using appropriate punctuation, e.g., a comma, a colon (:), or a dash.  3.6.3 Incomplete Sentence.

Some incomplete sentences cannot be combined with adjoining sentences. Such sentences must be completely rethought and rewritten, as is the case with in the following example: "An underdeveloped country, in which many are uneducated. We must help such countries as much as we can." 3.6.4 COMMA SPLICE. (Comma Fault or Run-on). Do not use a comma to join two ideas that could each stand alone as a sentence (e.g., "We could make better use of our land, parks and recreation areas could be set aside.") To correct comma splices, change the comma to a period or semicolon (;) (or, in some cases, a colon). Another option is to add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or for) after the comma. If a conjunctive adverb such as however, therefore, or likewise is used

to join the ideas, a comma is still insufficient punctuation; a semicolon or period is required.  3.6.5 FUSED SENTENCES.

Do not run two sentences together with no punctuation (e.g., "He had forgotten how empty the prairies are after two years in Toronto he had grown used to skyscrapers.") Correct fused sentences by adding a period, colon, semicolon, or a comma with a coordinating conjunction.

3.6.6 OVERLOADED SENTENCE. 3.6.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure.

If well-constructed, a sentence may be long without being overloaded. However, a long, clumsily-constructed sentence can be almost unreadable: e.g., "Meanwhile the poor student, who couldn't keep up the grades (possibly because of the way courses are taught) drops out because of this and the money, or lack of, for tuition, and gets a job in a trade he learns through the knowledge passed to him on the job, or goes on welfare." 3.6.6.2 Too Many Ideas.

A fairly short sentence may be overloaded if it contains more ideas than can be clearly expressed in the space of a few words. Often, the ideas need expanding. A sentence such as the following example should probably be made into two or three sentences: "Students should realize that they are unique, each starting from a different point, and that they may end up with a career that wasn't pre-planned." 3.6.7 MIXED CONSTRUCTION. 3.6.7.1 General Mixed Constructions

Avoid shifting from one sentence pattern to another in mid-sentence; for example, the sentence "By exercising makes you fit" needs to be rewritten as "By exercising, you can become fit" or "Exercising makes you fit." 3.6.7.2 "This-is-when" Construction.

When used as a linking verb, "is" must join two nouns (e.g., "A good day is one on which ..."), not a noun and a "when" clause (e.g., "A good day is when...) 

3.6.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction.

Though common in speech, the "reason is because" is both ungrammatical and redundant. Correct the problem by deleting "the reason is" or by changing the word "because" to "that". For example, the sentence "The reason I am living at home is because I want to save money" should be rewritten as "I am living at home because I want to save money," or as "The reason I am living at home is that I want to save money." 3.6.7.4 Doubled Preposition.

Don't use a construction such as in which or to whom and then repeat the preposition at the end of the sentence, as in the following examples: "To whom do I talk to?" "In which country was he born in?"

3.6.8 FAULTY PARALLELISM.

Use the same grammatical form for words, phrases or clauses that form a pair or a series and are alike in function. For example, rewrite "She likes swimming, cooking, and to play squash" as 'She likes swimming, cooking and playing squash" or as "She likes to swim, to cook, and to play squash." Often, clarity is added by repeating words like "because" or "that" to signal parallel structure, as in the following example: "Britain is in economic trouble because it is no longer a major power and the changed values of its youth." Correction: ". . . because it is no longer a major power and because the values of its youth have changed." DANGLING MODIFIER. Modifying words and phrases are said to 'dangle' if the subject they describe is not directly stated in the sentence; the resulting sentence can be unclear or even nonsensical (e.g., "Swimming across the lake, the sun set.") Here is another example: "Denied this love, the reaction of the dog can be harmful." (This sentence implies that the "reaction of the dog"--not the dog itself--is "denied this love.") MISPLACEMENT OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS. Misplaced Modifier. Place modifying words and phrases as close as possible to the subject they describe; adverbs (e.g., only ) can be particularly tricky. Check that your placement of modifiers conveys your intended meaning. For example, the sentence "Jones became ill after he married and died' should be rewritten as "After he married, Jones became ill and died." Misplaced Example. Don't tack examples onto the end of a sentence when the idea being illustrated is elsewhere. For example, the sentence "Economic problems are difficult to cope with such as inflation and unemployment" should be rewritten as "Economic problems such as inflation and unemployment are difficult to cope with."

SHIFT OF NUMBER OR PERSON. 

Shift of Number. Unless required by context, avoid shifting from singular to plural (or vice versa), as in the following example: "The Olympics challenge athletes. The athlete has to work hard and make many sacrifices to reach the Olympics." Shift of Person. Unless required by context, avoid shifting between first person (I, we), second person (you) and third person (one, he or she, they, students, etc.), e.g., "When one is healthy, you shouldn't worry about being poor." One possible revision would be "When people are healthy, they shouldn't worry about being poor." Note: use "I" sparingly and avoid using you in academic writing. SHIFT OF TENSE, MOOD OR VOICE. Shift of Tense. Unless required by context, do not shift between past, present, and future tenses. The following example illustrates a tense shift: "Housing prices will rise and many people are left without places to stay." Shift of Mood. Depending on the verb form chosen sentences can express statements (indicative mood), commands (imperative mood), or hypothetical conditions or wishes (subjunctive mood, e.g., "If I were you . . ."). Avoid unnecessary shifts in mood. For example, do not switch to the imperative: "Students should review their notes thoroughly. Don't forget to get a good sleep." Shift of Voice. Active voice places the agent of the action before the verb (e.g., "The cat ate the rat"); passive voice reverses the sentence order (e.g., 'The rat was eaten by the cat"). Avoid unnecessary shifts in voice. For example, the sentence 'The committee members disliked each other [active], and their time was wasted in wrangling [passive]" could be rewritten entirely in the active voice: "The committee members disliked each other and wasted their time in wrangling." Active voice generally adds liveliness and impact to writing.

OMISSIONS. Avoid omitting words through carelessness. Omitted Connectives. Connectives, especially that, are often omitted in speech (e.g., "I thought [that] she had left") but should be included in written work. Omissions can cause confusion or invite misreading, as the following example shows: "An advantage to taking part in athletic activities is [that] a person's attitudes and awareness will improve." Incomplete Compound Constructions.

You can omit duplicated words in constructions such as "He likes to ski and [to] fish." You cannot do so, however, if different prepositions are required. For example, in the following sentence, in cannot be left out: "She was more interested in, and in fact better at, skiing than her friend." Incomplete Comparisons. Make all comparisons complete and logical by including all words necessary to make the relationship clear. For example, do not write, "The University of Alberta has a better Engineering program." (Better than what?) Similarly, do not write, "Our program is like the University of Lethbridge." (How is a program like a university?) Correct to "Our program is like the University of Lethbridge's program.") LACK OF VARIETY. Try to vary your sentence structure to prevent your writing from being repetitious and dull. In particular, avoid series of short, choppy sentences.

ILLOGICAL SENTENCE. Unclear Logical Connections. Ensure that ideas joined by connectives have a clear and logical relationship; beware of words such as with, regarding and involves, which are often vague. For example, in the sentence "The shortage involved a loss of consumer confidence," it is unclear whether the shortage caused or resulted from a loss of consumer confidence. No Apparent Logical Connection. Check that your sentences make sense. Consider the following sentence: "The opinions of politics, which are actually messages, vary from financial and physical aid through to threats and declarations of war." Such sentences usually have to be rethought and completely rewritten. Co-ordination of Logical Unequals. When listing items, avoid introducing items that are subcategories or that simply don't belong. Note the problem in the following example: "He studied mathematics, science, chemistry and biology." (The term "science" encompasses both chemistry and biology.) Illogical Predication. Make sure that the subject of your sentence makes sense with the verb. Avoid sentences like "America was founded by the moral fibres of devoted Christians." Use metaphors carefully. 

Ambiguity. Avoid constructing sentences that can be understood more than one way. Consider the following example: "Bob did not hire her because she was a woman." (Did Bob not hire her or did he hire her for other reasons?) Hint: check if moving the because clause to the

beginning of the sentence adds clarity. Also, watch words like as, which can mean while or because. Faulty Co-ordination. When you co-ordinate clauses--e.g., when you join clauses with and, or, or but--you signal that the ideas in the clauses are related and of relatively equal importance. Do not co-ordinate clauses that are unrelated or use a co-ordinating conjunction that signals the wrong relationship, as the but's in the following examples do: "The theatre company has had international respect for years, but Smith was a major figure in this success and took the company on a world tour." "It was a sad occasion but everyone looked mournful." Faulty Subordination. Write precisely; use subordinate conjunctions--e.g., because, although, unless, while--to express relationships clearly and to place emphasis where it belongs: in the main clause. For example, consider the precision of "Because the road was slippery, we went into the ditch" compared to "The road was slippery and we went into the ditch." Note that as well as imprecision and misplaced emphasis, logical problems can result from faulty subordination, as the following example shows: "Susan studied hard for her final exams although it was very important that she do well on them." (Here, although should be replaced by because or as.) 

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Writing Skills

4.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing

Writing is the key to communicating knowledge and expressing ideas. It is a primary medium for creation and the storage of thought.Being able to effectively organize and write down your thoughts is important in succeeding in school, your job and even your personal life. Also, if you are very good at writing or really enjoy written communications, you may even choose writing as a profession.

4.2 Paragraph Development

What is a paragraph?

One of the central components of a paper is the paragraph. When most students think of a paragraph, they hold onto the old myths about length: a paragraph is at least 5 sentences, a paragraph is half a page, etc. A paragraph, however, is "a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit”. Length or appearance is not a factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. In fact, it is not the number of sentences that construct a paragraph, but it is the unity and coherence of ideas among those sentences that makes a paragraph a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be one sentence. As long as that sentence expresses the paper's central idea, that sentence can serve the function of a paragraph. Ultimately, strong paragraphs contain a sentence or sentences unified around one central, controlling idea. When the paragraph reaches completion it should serve to bring the reader into your paper and guide his/her understanding of what has been read. Whether that completion happens with one sentence or with twenty, the end result is still a paragraph.

4.3 How to Write a Paragraph

Prewriting a Paragraph The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing. There are six steps involved in this process. They are the following: Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: "What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I make this paragraph interesting? What facts can be stated to support this topic? Write your answers to the above questions and do not need to spend a lot of time doing this. Just write enough to help you remember why and how you are writing. Collect facts related to your topic. Write down facts that will help you answer your questions. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What other things can I include about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?

Find the main idea of your paragraph: Chose the most important point. If you cannot decide which is the most important one, just chose one and stick to it throughout your paragraph. Organize your facts and ideas to develop your topic, find the best way to tell the reader about it. Decide which facts will support the main idea.

4.3.1 Writing a Paragraph

The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences and you communicate them. Some important steps are the following: Write a topic sentence, some supporting sentences, and one closing sentence Make sure that the sentences are clear, simple, and they express what you really mean Focus on the main idea of your paragraph Re-read what you wrote and see if the idea is clear and you can read it with ease

4.3.2 Editing a Paragraph

The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them. Do not forget to do the following: Check your grammar and spelling Read your text again and make sure each sentence makes sense See if your paragraph is interesting to read

4.4 Transitional Signals

Transition signals can be compared to traffic signs. They are words that tell you to go forward, to turn, to slow down and to stop. Better said, they help the reader when to you are giving a similar idea, an opposite idea, an example, a result, or a conclusion. As a writer it is important to use these types of words to help you follow your ideas coherently.

Types of Transitional Signals

Transition words can be classified taking into account they type of help they might offer a writer. They can be classified in the following types:

4.4.1 Words that Show Addition

They aid the writer when he or she wants to present two or more ideas that continue along the same line of thought. Some common adition words are: and, also, another, in addition, moreover, first of all, second, third, furthermore, finally.

4.4.2 Words that Show Time

They indicate a time relationship. They tell us when an specific event took place in relation to another. Some of these words are: First, then, often, since, next, before, after, soon, as, now, until, previously, while, during, immediately, frequently.

4.4.3 Words that Show Contrast

They signal a change in the direction of the writer's thought. They tell us a new idea will be different in a significant way from the previous one. Some contrast words are: but, however, yet, although, in contrast, instead, still, in spite of, despite, on the other hand, on the contrary.

4.4.4 Word that Show Comparison

These words are used when a writer wants to point out a similarity between two subjects. They tell us that the previous idea is similar to the next one in some way. Some words that show comparison are: like, as, just like, just as, in like manner, equally, similarly, in a similar fashion, in the same way.

4.4.5 Words that Show Illustration

These words are used if you as a writer want to provide one of more examples to develp and clarify a given idea. They tell us that the second idea is an example of the first. Some illustration words are: for example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, such as, to be specific, including. 4.4.6 Words that Show Location

Location transitions show a relationship in space. They tell us where something is in relation to something else. Some of these words can be: next to, in front of, in back of, below, between, inside, outside, opposite, on top of, across, beneath, in the middle of, on the other side, at the end of, ahead of, over, under, behing, near, far.

4.4.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect

These types of words are useful if an author wants to describe a result of something. They tell us what happened or will happen because something else happened. These type of words are: because, if... then, as a result, consequently, accordingly, therefore, since, so.

4.4.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude

These types of words are used when the idea that follows will sum up the entire writing or a final statement will be written as a conclusion. These words are: in summary, in conclusion, in short, all in all, in brief, in other words, on the whole, to conclude, to sum up.

4.5 Punctuation Rules

One of the most important aspects to take into consideration when you write is punctuation. It will tell your reader when to stop or when to change the interpretation of your paper. Speakers use intonation and writers use punctuation. Some of the most common marks in English are the following:

Period

- Use a period after a statement or command. Turn on the television. We are studying English. - Use a period after most abbreviations. Mr. Ms. Dr. Exceptions: UN NATO IBM AIDS

Question Mark

Use a question mark in an interrogative statement. In a direct quotation, the question mark goes before the quotation mark. He said, "Are you coming home?"

Comma

- Use a comma before a conjunction (and, or, so, but) that separates two independent clauses. She wanted to learn to cook, so she decided to buy herself a book. - Don't use a comma before a conjunction that separates two incomplete sentences. She worded in the library and studied at night. - Use a comma to separate interrupting expressions from the rest of the sentence. Do you know, by the way, what time it is? - Use a comma after yes and no in answers. Yes, my father is a doctor. - Use a comma to separate an apposite form the rest of the sentence.

Mr. Smith, the new teacher, really knows how to teach. Would you like to try a taco, a traditional Mexican dish?

Quotation Marks

- Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of exact quotations. He said, "I'm going to get married." - Use quotation marks before and after titles of stories, articles, songs, and TV shows. Do you want to watch "Friends" on TV? My favorite song is "Disappear" by INXS.

4.6 Capitalization Rules

We use a capital letter in the following cases:

First words

- Capitalize the fist word of every sentence. - Capitalize the first word of a quotation.

Personal Names

- Capitalize the names of people including initials and titles of address. - Capitalize family words if they appear alone of followed by a name. Let's go, Dad. Where's Grandma? - Do not capitalize family words with a possessive pronoun or article. My uncle An aunt - Capitalize names of God. Allah Jesus Christ Place Names - Capitalize the names of countries, states, provinces, cities, lakes, rivers, islands, mountains Mexico Mt. Everest the Amazon Lake Ontario - Do not capitalize the names of seasons summer spring fall winter

4.7 Letter Writing

4.11 Report Writing

In higher education and work, formal reports communicate information to others without the need for meetings. If you are required to explain your work to others in this way, effective reports are vital. Effective reports will give you a professional image and get others to take your work seriously.

Report writing in Higher Education

You may be required to produce written reports as part of your course, so you will have opportunities to enhance your report writing skills. Reports can form a regular part of assessed work and can be needed if you're involved in extra-curricular activities with societies or external groups.

Report writing at workReports are a way of informing and persuading people as well as initiating change. You might prepare or contribute to annual, project or progress reports. A well-structured report that has clear objectives will get more attention and is more likely to produce the intended results.

Reports have their own structure and this is distinct from the form of an essay.Essays are mainly used to allow you to demonstrate your ideas and arguments to tutors. Written reports provide specific research-based information which results in a course of action being decided and acted on. Reports are designed to give information concisely and accurately. A formal report has an impersonal and objective "tone of voice". The main argument is clear and uses a minimum of words. Accurately presented facts are in the main body of the report - your evaluation of these is in the "conclusions" and "recommendations" sections.

Reports tend to follow a standard structure but much depends on the circumstances in which they are being written. It helps to ask your lecturers, employers or mentors what they expect - there may be an accepted way of writing a report appropriate to either your course, employment or professional body.

4.11.1 What makes a good report?

The following comments have been made by senior managers in a large engineering company about what they look for in a good report. You might like to ask your tutor if they would agree with these observations.

4.11.2 Planning

Before you start to write, you need to be clear about what you want to achieve and what you want to say. This will involve some planning. If you plan a report well, it will save time - and will save much drafting and redrafting.To plan well, you will need to follow several steps:Define your aim Collect your ideas Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts Structure your ideas You will then find it much easier to write.

4.11.3 Defining Your Aim

Start by asking yourself some questions:Why am I writing this?What do I want to achieve?Who will read this?What does my reader want to know?How will this be used?When is this needed?

Once you have answered these questions, you should be clear about the kind of document needed.

4.11.4 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas

Collecting Your Ideas

Start by jotting down ideas in note form. Do not write sentences at this stage. Remember your aim and concentrate on the questions in the readers' minds. This will help you to include only those ideas which are relevant, rather than writing everything you know about the subject.Not all of your ideas will come at once, so plan to meet your deadline. Be prepared to spend some time on noting initial ideas and then set the document aside. When you come back to it later, you will find that your ideas have gelled and that you can see the way ahead more clearly.

Selecting Your Ideas

Review the content of the document. Are all the ideas relevant? Is there anything which you need to cut out? Think about using appendices or attachments to cover detail which the reader may need at a later stage, but does not need in order to understand the main message. Decide how to show the significance of your facts. Would some graphs or diagrams help the readers understand your message? What visual material will you use? How will you produce it?

4.11.5 Structuring the Document

You will need to structure the content in a logical and clear way if you are going to help the readers take in your message.Make sure you have a sequence of headings and sub-headings which will act as signposts to help the readers find the information they need.Also, if you structure a piece of writing well, you will find it easier to choose the words to express your ideas.

A report should be divided into sections and sub-sections, each of which should have a clear heading. If you structure a report well, it will not only help your readers find the information they need but it will also help you when you start writing.

How will it help readers?How will it help you? Many readers may not want to read the whole report; they will want to read the parts that are relevant to them. A well structured report will help them to find information quickly.A good structure will help you to decide where to put each fact or idea.

It will help you to think clearly.

Your readers will want to concentrate on only one aspect at a time.You will be able to start writing at any point - you will not necessarily have to start at the beginning. If different people are contributing to the report, they will know what to cover.

Good headings will tell your readers about the subject in each section.The main headings and sub-headings will give your readers an overview of your plan.A good structure will make it easier for your readers to refer back to specific sections of your report

4.11.6 How can you produce a good structure?

Make sure the structure is complete. It must cover all the facts and ideas. Dustbins like General or Other Notes usually show that the design is the wrong one. Your headings must be helpful and clear - they must tell the readers about the information in each section. One-word headings are often vague and misleading. Don't be afraid of using headings that are eight or nine words long - they will help you to be more certain of what to put in each section, and will help your readers to find the details they need.

Your sections should be watertight. Each point should fit logically into only one section. This is not always possible - you may need to remind your readers of something you said earlier - but don't give up easily. Over-repetition may indicate a bad design. Do not have too much material in each section - or too many headings in a string. Your readers will only be able to cope with a maximum of about six points, if they are going to remember the points you are making.

4.12 Presenting a Report Professionally

A report should be written in the third person - this means not using "I" or "we". Often more formal, lengthy reports are written in sections which have sub-headings and are numbered.Reports are broken into the following elements, but it should be noted that not all these elements are needed in all reports. For example, an index is only needed for long reports where readers need to locate items; a glossary of terms may help if the readers are unfamiliar with terms used, but not otherwise.As previously mentioned, the way in which you present your report will vary according to what you are writing and for whom. This section gives general guidance but you should follow advice given by tutors and others.

This will include the title of the report, who has written it and the date it was written/submitted.

Thanks to the people or organisations who have helped.  

As in a book, this lists the headings in the report, together with the page numbers showing where the particular section, illustration etc. can be located.  

This is a most important part of many reports and may well be the only section that some readers read in detail. It should be carefully written and should contain a complete overview of the message in the report, with a clear summary of your recommendations.

This section sets the scene for your report. It should define the scope and limitations of the investigation and the purpose of the report. It should say who the report is for, any constraints (for example your deadline, permitted length) - in other words, your aims and objectives - the overall purpose of your report and more specifically what you want to achieve.

This section outlines how you investigated the area. How you gathered information, where from and how much (e.g. if you used a survey, how the survey was carried out, how did you decide on the target group, how many were surveyed, how were they surveyed - by interviews or questionnaire?)

This will help to tune your readers in to the background of your report. It is not another name for a summary and should not be confused with this. They can be two separate sections or combined: background detail could include details of the topic you are writing about. You could take the opportunity to expand on your Terms of Reference within the introduction, give more detail as to the background of the report - but remember to keep it relevant, factual and brief.

This is the main body of the report, where you develop your ideas. Make sure that it is well structured, with clear headings, and that your readers can find information easily. Use paragraphs within each section to cover one aspect of the subject at a time. Include any graphs or other visual material in this section if this will help your readers. The nature of this section will depend on the brief and scope of the report. The sections should deal with the main topics being discussed - there should be a logical sequence, moving from the descriptive to the analytical. It should contain sufficient information to

justify the conclusions and recommendations which follow. Selection of appropriate information is crucial here: if information is important to help understanding, then it should be included; irrelevant information should be omitted.

These are drawn from the analysis in the previous section and should be clear and concise. They should also link back to the Terms of Reference. At this stage in the report, no new information can be included. The conclusions should cover what you have deduced about the situation - bullet points will be satisfactory.

Make sure that you highlight any actions that need to follow on from your work. Your readers will want to know what they should do as a result of reading your report and will not want to dig for the information. Make them specific - recommendations such as "It is recommended that some changes should be made" are not helpful, merely irritating. As with the Conclusion, recommendations should be clearly derived from the main body of the report and again, no new information should be included.

References are items referred to in the report. The Bibliography contains additional material not specifically referred to, but which readers may want to follow up.

Use these to provide any more detailed information which your readers may need for reference - but do not include key data which your readers really need in the main body of the report. Appendices must be relevant and should be numbered so they can be referred to in the main body.

Provide a glossary if you think it will help your readers but do not use one as an excuse to include jargon in the report that your readers may not understand.

4.12.1 Presentation

Good presentation can make a report clearer. Consider the following points when writing your report:

Overall impact – typed or word processed reports are generally preferred, and should be presented in a folder or plastic wallet - whatever you think is suitable.Headings – should be clearly ranked. Look at the example below and you can see there are three styles of headings - one for main sections, one for sub-sections, and one for further sub-sections.Numbering –

numbering your sections makes the report easier to follow. A common system is to number a main section, then for sub-sections to place a dot after the main section number and begin to number again. You can continue to a further level. This makes it easier to refer the reader to a specific part of the report, e.g. paragraph 3.2.2, rather than to say "about half way down page 5". Example from a report reviewing methods of payment in car parks:

Note in this example that the Executive Summary does not form part of the numbering system. This is normal practice in report writing - the summary should "stand alone" from the rest of the report.

CHAPTER five6. ORAL SKILLS

6.1 How to spell the plural of most common nouns

The plural of most nouns is formed by adding -s to the end of the noun. For example dog, plural dogs - light, plural lights If the noun ends in -s, -z, -x, -ch or -sh, then the plural is formed by adding -es to the noun.

For example watch, plural watches; glass, plural glasses

How to spell the plural of nouns ending in -y

Nouns ending in -y are a little more difficult to change. When -y is preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the -y into -ies. For example city, plural cities; cranberry, plural cranberries When the -y is preceded by a vowel, the -y is not changed in the plural form -ys. For example holiday, plural holidays; monkey, plural monkeys

How to spell the plural of a noun ending in -o

Some nouns that end in -o add -s to form the plural. For example piano, plural pianos. Some add -es to form the plural.

For example potato, plural potatoes; tomato, plural tomatoes

6.2 Enabling skills

6.2.1 Using a Dictionary

How to check the spelling of a word

The best way to learn how to spell a word is to find it in the Dictionary. To find words in the Dictionary it is important to know the alphabet well. You will need to be able to judge quickly whether any word comes before or after another one, this is called alphabetical order. If the first letters of two words are the same, look at the next letters to decide the correct order.

Example: dare, dart, darn - in the case of these three words, 'dare' comes first, 'darn' second, and 'dart' last. The first three letters 'd', 'a', and 'r' are the same in all three words so the correct alphabetical order is based on the fourth letter.

How to find a word in the Dictionary

Words are printed in large bold type at the upper top left-hand and right-hand corner of any page to help you quickly find a word in the Dictionary. The first of these two words show you which is the first word on that page, the second shows you which is the last words to be found on that page.

Example: You are looking for the word 'signal'. You can find 'signal' on the page which has the two words Signac and silage (example taken from the Collins English Dictionary) printed at the upper top left-hand and right-hand corner.

Understanding definitions

Once you have found the word you are looking for you need to understand a few common conventions to make best use of your dictionary. Here is an example entry in a dictionary:

feat (fi:t) n. a remarkable, skillful, or daring action; exploit; achievement: feats of strength... (example taken from the Collins English Dictionary)

feat - the defined word (fi:t) - a phonological transcription of the word (the correct pronunciation), usually using the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

n. - the part of speech, in this case 'n.' means noun (look for a list of abbreviations used in your Dictionary usually included on one of the first few pages).

a remarkable, skillful, or daring action; exploit; achievement: definitions of the word. Different meanings of a word will be separated by numbers. feats of strength - an example sentence using the defined word

6.2.2 How to use Encyclopedia

The Columbia Encyclopedia is easy to use All articles are arranged alphabetically with each article heading in boldface type. The headings of biographical articles are inverted and alphabetized by the subject's surname, with the exception of articles on some historical figures. Thus, William Faulkner appears as Faulkner, William, but Joan of Arc is listed as Joan of Arc.

The problem of alphabetizing names that include de, van, von, and the like has been resolved by employing as the heading the most commonly used form of the name. Accordingly, the composer Ludwig van Beethoven is entered as Beethoven, Ludwig van, while the painter Vincent Van Gogh is under Van Gogh, Vincent, with a cross-reference from Gogh, Vincent Van.M', Mc, and Mac are listed as if they were spelled Mac. Thus the political leader McAdoo, William Gibbs, precedes the Scottish king Macbeth, who precedes the U.S. Secretary of Defense McNamara, Robert Strange. All three therefore precede Madonna. In each instance it is the letter or letters after the Mc or Mac that determine the alphabetical order. Exceptions to this rule are African names beginning with M'; they are listed in strict alphabetical order: M'Ba, Mbandaka, M'Bour, Mdina, etc.

Abbreviations are alphabetized as though they were spelled out (e.g., St. is alphabetized as Saint). Therefore, the heading St. Clair, Arthur is listed before Saint Clair, Lake, which precedes St. Denis, Ruth and the Dutch island Saint Eustatius. Again, in each case the first letter of the word after Saint determines the alphabetical order.

When two or more articles have the same heading, entries are alphabetized by category: persons, places, and things. Thus, if one were to look for an article heading with the name Chicago, Chicago, Judy (person) would precede Chicago, city (place), and that would precede Chicago, University of (thing). The order of entry for persons of the same name is determined by rank: saints, popes, emperors, kings, followed by titled nobility, such as crown prince, duke or count, baron, baronet, and so forth. Monarchs of the same name are listed numerically and alphabetically by country: Charles X, king of France, appears before Charles III, king of Naples, who in turn precedes Charles III, king of Spain.

Within some articles in The Columbia Encyclopedia, related material is introduced by subheadings in smaller boldface type. For example, in the article antiparticle there is a description of antimatter. The main heading contempt contains two boldface subheadings: contempt of court and contempt of Congress. If a reader wishes to have information on any one of these subheadings, it can be found directly without reading the entire article.

This method is also used for family articles. The Bach family article contains subheadings for seven members; three of these are cross-references to separate articles on Johann Sebastian Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, and Johann Christian Bach.

Boldface numbers are also used in some multiple entries. For example, when several U.S. cities have the same name, they are listed alphabetically by state in a single article.

6.3 How to Write Critiques

Introductions: discuss passage and author

Summarize author's purpose and main points

Analyze presentation for:

accuracy significance fair interpretation careful definition of terms fair use of information logical arguments

Agree/Disagree with author's views Support with reasons

Conclusion -- discuss overall validity

Each critique should a paragraph (no more than half a page) long. For every paper, we want you to write two critques. The purpose of a critique is not to summarize the paper; rather you should choose a point about the work that you found interesting. Examples of questions that you might address are:

What problem does this paper solve, and what are the strengths and limitations of its approach?

Is the evaluation fair? Does it achieve it support the stated goals of the paper?

Does the method described seem mature enough to use in real applications? Why or why not? What applications seem particularly amenable to this approach?

What good ideas does the problem formulation, the solution, the approach or the research method contain that could be applied elsewhere?

What would be good follow-on projects and why?

Are the paper's underlying assumptions valid?

Which important issues in the field does this paper illuminate and how?

Did the paper provide a clear enough and detailed enough description of the proposed methods for you to be able to implement them? If not, where is additional clarification or detail needed?

Avoid unsupported value judgments, like ``I liked...'' or ``I disagreed with...'' If you make judgments of this sort, explain why you liked or disagreed with the point you describe. Avoid comments on form/style of paper. We want you to critique the content.

This is an important exercise, and this skill of critical reading and concise articulation will do you well in life, besides of course, this class.

6.4 Patterns for Presenting Information

 Critiques

Many teachers regularly use critiques to find out whether you have read the material and to prepare you for exams. You could be asked to write critiques in any class. You may be asked to critique someone else’s ideas, an excerpt, a book, a poem, a work of art, even a mathematical solution. Writing critiques improves your critical and analytical thinking and hones your evaluative skills. Where summaries are meant to represent the original source faithfully, critiques are meant to be a critical assessment of the reading material in light of your own understanding.

When you write a critique, you must do justice to your material. The objective is to present the material fairly and then apply critical thinking and judgment to its ideas. Each discipline commonly uses its own methodology and language for critiquing, so you should review critiques in your field and discuss them with your classmates or teacher to find good models. In fact, as part of your course work, you will probably learn the art of critiquing in your specialization.

In general, when you prepare to write a critique, you first read through the material. You’ll want to decide the basis for your critique. What criteria and standards are you using to judge the material? Jot them down, spell them out clearly, and keep them in front of you while you draft your critique. Don’t forget your thesis statement, or the main conclusion you draw in judging the material; the criteria, or the main aspects of the material to be evaluated; and the standards, or the ideals or principles, against which you are judging the material. Your critique may naturally take a general-to-specific organization or even a problem-solution pattern.

6.5 Writing a Critical Review

The advice in this brochure is a general guide only. We strongly recommend that you also follow your assignment instructions and seek clarification from your lecturer/tutor if needed.

Purpose of a Critical Review

The critical review is a writing task that asks you to summarise and evaluate a text. The critical review can be of a book, a chapter, or a journal article. Writing the critical review usually requires you to read the selected text in detail and to also read other related texts so that you can present a fair and reasonable evaluation of the selected text.  What is meant by critical?At university, to be critical does not mean to criticise in a negative manner. Rather it requires you to question the information and opinions in a text and present your evaluation or judgement of the text. To do this well, you should attempt to understand the topic from different perspectives (i.e. read related texts) and in relation to the theories, approaches and frameworks in your course.

What is meant by evaluation or judgement?

Here you decide the strengths and weaknesses of a text. This is usually based on specific criteria. Evaluating requires an understanding of not just the content of the text, but also an understanding of a text’s purpose, the intended audience and why it is structured the way it is.

What is meant by analysis?

Analysing requires separating the content and concepts of a text into their main components and then understanding how these interrelate, connect and possibly influence each other.

Structure of a Critical Review

Critical reviews, both short (one page) and long (four pages), usually have a similar structure. Check your assignment instructions for formatting and structural specifications. Headings are usually optional for longer reviews and can be helpful for the reader.Introduction

The length of an introduction is usually one paragraph for a journal article review and two or three paragraphs for a longer book review. Include a few opening sentences that announce the author(s) and the title, and briefly explain the topic of the text. Present the aim of the text and summarise the main finding or key argument. Conclude the introduction with a brief statement of your evaluation of the text. This can be a positive or negative evaluation or, as is usually the case, a mixed response.

Summary

Present a summary of the key points along with a limited number of examples. You can also briefly explain the author’s purpose/intentions throughout the text and you may briefly describe how the text is organised. The summary should only make up about a third of the critical review. 

Critique

The critique should be a balanced discussion and evaluation of the strengths, weakness and notable features of the text. Remember to base your discussion on specific criteria. Good reviews also include other sources to support your evaluation (remember to reference). You can choose how to sequence your critique. Here are some examples to get you started:

Most important to least important conclusions you make about the text. If your critique is more positive than negative, then present the negative points first and the positive last.

If your critique is more negative than positive, then present the positive points first and the negative last.

If there are both strengths and weakness for each criterion you use, you need to decide overall what your judgement is. For example, you may want to comment on a key idea in the text and have both positive and negative comments. You could begin by stating what is good about the idea and then concede and explain how it is limited in some way. While this example shows a mixed evaluation, overall you are probably being more negative than positive.

In long reviews, you can address each criteria you choose in a paragraph, including both negative and positive points. For very short critical reviews (one page or less) where your comments will be briefer, inlude a paragraph of positive aspects  and another of negative. You can also include recommendations for how the text can be improved in terms of ideas, research approach; theories or frameworks used can also be included in the critique section.

Conclusion

This is usually a very short paragraph.Restate your overall opinion of the text. Briefly present recommendations. If necessary some further qualification or explanation of your judgement can be included. This can help your critique sound fair and reasonable.

References

If you have used other sources in you review you should also include a list of references at the end of the review.

Summarising and paraphrasing for the critical reviewSummarising and paraphrasing are essential skills for academic writing and in particular, the critical review. To summarise means to reduce a text to its main points and its most important ideas.

The length of your summary for a critical review should only be about one quarter to one third of the whole critical review. The best way to summarise is to:Scan the text. Look for information that can be deduced from the introduction, conclusion and the title and headings. What do these tell you about the main points of the article? Locate the topic sentences and highlight the main points as you read. Reread the text and make separate notes of the main points. Examples and evidence do not need to be included at this stage.

Usually they are used selectively in your critique. Paraphrasing means putting it into your own words. Paraphrasing offers an alternative to using direct quotations in your summary (and the critique) and can be an efficient way to integrate your summary notes.  The best way to paraphrase is to:

Review your summary notes

Rewrite them in your own words and in complete sentences

Use reporting verbs and phrases (eg; The author describes…, Smith argues that …). If you include unique or specialist phrases from the text, use quotation marks.