Parts of Speech

1. Noun represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are used in sentences in two different ways: as subjects (performers of action), or objects (receivers of action).

Types of Nouns

A. Common Noun is any nonspecific person, place or thing.B. Proper Noun is any specific person, place, living being, or thing. A proper noun can be a name, places, companies, and trademarks. In the English language, all proper nouns are capitalized, which makes them easy to recognize.

Special Classes of Nouns

A. Concrete noun names something that can be perceived with the five senses (sight, sound, touch, smell and taste).Examples: air, flower, food, waterB. Abstract noun names something that can't be perceived with the five senses.Examples: love, truth, belief, sympathyC. Collective noun names a collection or a group of similar things.Examples: flock, herd, pack, etc.D. Mass noun a noun that is very rarely plural and is never with articles 'a' and 'an'.Examples: advice, equipment, fruit, information, weatherE. Compound noun is made up of two or more words forming a unit idea.Examples: skyscraper, rubout, commander-in-chief

Properties of NounsA. PersonB. Number Singular in number indicates one object only.Examples: bus, girl, boy, town, stone Plural in number indicates two or more objects. Most noun form their plural by adding -s or -es Examples: bag-bags, tree-trees, glass-glasses, church-churchesC. Gender determines the sex of a noun. Masculine gender indicates the male sex.Examples: brother, gander, nephew, father, John Feminine gender indicates the female sex.Examples: mother, sister, doe, Mary Common gender indicates uncertainty of sex which is either male or female.Examples: teacher, parent, horse, cat, child Neuter gender indicates that an object is without sex.Examples: rock, leaf, sea, mountain, hill, paperD. Case shows the relation of a noun to other words in the sentence or phrase. Nominative case indicates that a noun is doing or being something in the sentence. A noun in the nominative case can be either a subject or predicate but not both in the sentence. Objective case indicates that a person or a thing is being acted upon. A noun in the objective case can be use as object of the verb or object of the preposition. Possessive case indicates that a person or a thing owns something. The possessive form of a noun is usually formed by adding an apostrophe (') or an apostrophe s ('s)Uses of NounsA. Subject refers to the word about something is said in a sentence.B. Predicative nominative or predicate noun renames, identifies or explains the subject in a sentence. It is normally placed after a linking verb.C. Direct object refers to the receiver of the action in a sentence. It answers the question What? or Who?D. Indirect object tells to whom, to what, for whom or for what a thing is done.E. Object of the preposition answers the question What? or Whom? after the preposition.F. Appositive refers to a noun that identifies or provides further information about another word in the sentence. Essential appositive makes the meaning of a sentence clear. It is usually not set off by a comma. Non-essential appositive may be omitted in the sentence without changing the meaning of it.G. Objective complement adds to the meaning of or renames the direct object. It appears only with these verbs: appoint, call, consider, declare, elect, judge, label, make, name, select or think.H. Direct address is the name or word by which a person is addressed. It is set off by a comma.Exercises

Proper Noun and Common NounIdentify if the noun is a proper noun or a common noun.1. cat2. Florida3. umbrella4. Wikipedia5. water6. shorts7. alcohol8. Samsung9. song10. CinderellaGive a proper noun that is related to the common noun.1. television2. shoes3. singer4. actor5. country6. book7. laptop8. cellphone9. tree10. ball point penGive a common noun that is related to the proper noun.1. Snow White2. Google3. Ford4. Sunflower5. Asia6. Hawaii7. Meet the Robinsons8. Don't Quit9. Kobe Bryant10. Supercalifragelisticexpialidocious

Other ExercisesIdentify the nouns in the sentences below. There may be more than one noun per sentence.1. Janet is the name of a girl.2. Off-key whistling is annoying to me, but not to everybody.3. Cleanliness is next to godliness.4. The World Wide Web has become the least expensive way to publish information.Identify the nouns in the paragraph below. Text is from the first stave of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens.5. The air was filled with phantoms, wandering hither and thither in restless haste, and moaning as they went. Every one of them wore chains like Marley's Ghost; some few (they might be guilty governments) were linked together; none were free. Many had been personally known to Scrooge in their lives. He had been quite familiar with one old ghost, in a white waistcoat, with a monstrous iron safe attached to its ankle, who cried piteously at being unable to assist a wretched woman with an infant, whom it saw below, upon a door-step. The misery with them all was, clearly, that they sought to interfere, for good, in human matters, and had lost the power for ever.Source: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_Grammar/Basic_Parts_of_Speech/Nouns

2. Verb a word that indicates action or a state of being. The predicates of sentences contain verbs. All verbs have five properties: person, number, mood, voice, and tense.

Types of verbs

A. Regular verb: a verb whose past tense form is made by the addition of d or ed. walk/walked, jump/jumped, try/tried B. Irregular verb: a verb whose past tense form cannot be made with d or ed. cling/clung, bring/brought, choose/chose/chosen, speak/spoke/spoken C. Transitive verb: a verb that requires an object to complete its meaning. The carpenter makes shelves.In this sentence, shelves are the object of the verb makes. D. Intransitive verb: a verb that cannot take an object. She stayed at the bar long after closing time.E. Linking verb: a verb that connects a subject to a predicate noun or adjective. The young man felt nervous about his credit card payments.F. Auxiliary or helping verb: a word such as be, can, have, do, or will that combines with a verb to modify its meaning. Randall can run to the store.In this sentence, can is the auxiliary verb; run is the main verb. The two together are a compound verb.G. Compound verb: the combination of an auxiliary verb and another verb. Compound verbs are used to create verb tenses that cannot be made from single verbs. I will come to the party if you are planning to invite me.H. Modal auxiliary verb: an auxiliary verb that expresses necessity, obligation, potential, or possibility. She would go if she were given the chance.I. Infinitive: a compound verb made with to and the basic form of the verb. Matt likes to spend a great deal of money.

Person: verbs must match the person of the subject.A. First person: expresses identity of the writer/speaker. I am tired.B. Second person: addresses reader/listener directly. You are tired.C. Third person: refers to a subject that is neither the writer nor the reader. He is tired.

Number: the form of a verb always matches the number of the subject. Verbs may be singular, usually ending in -s or -es, or plural, without a modified ending.Verbs take a singular form when: A subject is singular. The cow jumps over the moon. Two singular subjects are joined by or, either/or, or neither/nor. Either the cow or the rabbit jumps over the moon. The verb is nearer the singular subject in a compound sentence that has both a singular and plural subject joined by or or nor. Either the rabbits or the cow is jumping next. The subject is preceded by every or each. Every cow wishes it could jump over the moon.Verbs take a plural form when: A subject is plural. The wedding guests dance to the music. Two singular subjects are joined by and. The photographer and the priest dance vigorously. Two plural subjects are joined by or, either/or, or neither/nor. Either the brides cousins or the grooms friends are the best dancers. The verb is nearer the plural subject in a compound subject that has both a singular and plural subject joined by or or nor. Either the brides sister or the grooms friends are buying the bride a houseboat.

Mood: verbs may be used in one of three moods, which indicate the attitude of the speaker toward the action of the verb.A. Indicative mood: used in declarative sentences to express facts, ideas, opinions, and questions directly. For an insurance executive, Wallace writes beautifully.B. Imperative mood: used in imperative sentences to issue commands. Bring me my violin.C. Subjunctive mood: used in dependent clauses to indicate unreal or counterfactual conditions. The subjunctive is typically formed by using the past tense plural form of the verb, even if the subject is singular. If I were with you, I would be happy. The subjunctive mood also follows verbs of wishing or requesting: I wish that I were with you.and follows independent clauses that use adjectives indicating urgency: It seemed crucial that he go to the meeting on time.

Voice: indicates the relationship between the subject and the action of a verb. Verbs may be in one of two voices, active or passive.A. Active voice: the subject performs the action. Gretchen sweeps the floor.B. Passive voice: the subject receives the action. The floor was swept by Gretchen.

Verb tenses: indicate the time in which the action is performed. English has three tenses: past, present, and future. Each tense has four forms: simple, perfect, progressive, and perfect progressive.A. Simple tenses: indicate past, present, or future action.B. Perfect tenses: indicate a completed action at some point in time.C. Progressive tenses: indicate action that continues for a period of time.

SimplePerfectProgressive

Perfect Progressive

PastplayedHad playedWill playingHad been playing

Present

playHave playedAre playingHave been playing

Futurewill playWill have playedWill be playingWill have been playing

Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb. Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb. Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes. Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following sentence: Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lends color and fragrance to the room. Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend) Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.Examples:My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations. Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.Examples:Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf. This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.Better:Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.ORShe, my friends, and I are not going to the festival. Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.But note these exceptions:Exceptions:Breaking and entering is against the law.The bed and breakfast was charming. In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns. Rule 5. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.Examples:The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Rule 6. With words that indicate portionsa lot, a majority, some, all, etc.Rule 1 given earlier is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:A lot of the pie has disappeared.A lot of the pies have disappeared.A third of the city is unemployed.A third of the people are unemployed.All of the pie is gone.All of the pies are gone.Some of the pie is missing.Some of the pies are missing. NOTEIn recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be strictly singular. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism." When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb. Rule 7. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.Examples:There are four hurdles to jump.There is a high hurdle to jump.Here are the keys. NOTE:The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural subject. Rule 8. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.Examples:Three miles is too far to walk.Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.Ten dollars is a high price to pay.BUTTen dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor. Rule 9. Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience, etc., may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.Examples:The staff is in a meeting.Staff is acting as a unit.The couple disagree about disciplining their child.The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.NOTEAnyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurateand also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:The staff is deciding how they want to vote.Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the same sentence.Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as:The staff members are deciding how they want to vote. Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.Examples:I wish it were Friday.She requested that he raise his hand. In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular subject I.Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing.ExercisesA. Complete the sentences, put the verb into the correct form, positive or negative. (simple past tense) 1. It was warm, so I off my coat. (take)2. The film wasn't very good. I it very much. (enjoy)3. I knew Sarah was very busy, so I her. (disturb)4. I was very tired, so I to bed early. (go)5. The bed was very uncomfortable. I very well. (sleep)6. Sue wasn't hungry, so she anything. (eat)7. We went to Kate's house but she at home. (be)8. It was a funny situation but nobody (laugh) 9. The window was open and a bird into the room. (fly)10. The hotel wasn't very expensive. It very much. (cost)11. I was in a hurry, so I time to phone you. (have)12. It was hard work carrying the bags. They very heavy. (be)

B. Complete the exercise with the verbs inside the box. (simple past tense)buycatchcostdrink

fallhurtsellspend

teachthrowwinwrite

1. Mozart more than 600 pieces of music. 2. 'How did you learn to drive?' 'My father me.' 3. We couldn't afford to keep our car, so we it. 4. I was very thirsty. I the water very quickly.5. Paul and I played tennis yesterday. He's much better than me, so he easily. 6. Don down the stairs this morning and his lag.7. Jim the ball to Sue, who it.Complete the following exercise with present perfect or simple past tense. 1. He (live) in London for two years and then (go) to Edinburgh. 2. (wear) your hair long when you were at school? Yes, my mother (insist) on it. 3. But when I (leave) school I (cut) my hair and (wear) it short ever since. 4. Shakespeare (write) a lot of plays. 5. My brother (write) several plays. He (just / finish) his second tragedy. 6. I (fly) over Loch Ness last week. (you/see) the Loch Ness monster?7. I (not see) him for three years. I wonder where he is.8. He (not smoke) for two weeks. He is trying to give it up. 9. Chopin (compose) some of his music in Majorca.10. When (arrive)? He (arrive) at 2.00. 11. (You / lock) the door before you left the house? 12. I (read) his books when I was at school. I (enjoy) them verymuch.13. I can't go out because I (not finish) my work.14. I (never / drink) whiskey.15. I (write) the letter but I can't find a stamp.16. The clock is slow. It isn't slow, it (stop).17. Here are your shoes; I (just / clean) them.

Complete the sentences by using the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Use simple past, past participle or past continuous. 1. After Ken ---- (complete) his project, he worked out in the gym for a while.2. As soon as Michael ---- (learn) English; he signed up for the Spanish course.3. By the time Mike ---- (attend) the meeting, Alice and I had already discussed important issues.4. Before Jake went to England, he ---- (buy) many books about this country.5. Just as Sally ---- (go shopping), she realized that she had to make an important phone call.

6. Jennifer had cried until she ---- (exhaust) herself.7. When I ---- (meet) Kelly at the airport, she was really upset because of her lazy brother.

8. As I ---- (try) to choose a nice DVD movie, my friend gave me a call.9. While you ---- (watch) TV, I was sleeping.10. Before Adam ---- (learn) how to drive a car, he had to go everywhere on foot.

Fill in the blanks with Present Perfect or Perfect Progressive Tenses 1. Those children ---- (eat) chocolate all day. That's why they feel sick!2. Your phone looks old, how long ---- (have) it for?3. They ---- (live) in New York for 3 years before they ---- (move) to Seattle three months ago.

4. Debi ---- (study) for four hours when her father arrives.

5. By this time next year, I ---- (finish) the course and I ---- (start) to speak perfect English.

Source: http://sparkcharts.sparknotes.com/writing/englishgrammar/section7.phphttp://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.aspwww.grammarbank.com/simple-past-tense-exercises.html

3. Pronoun4. A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him); or possessive (his).5. Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.6. Example: ___ did the job.I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.7. Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.8. Examples:It is he.This is she speaking.It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.9. NOTE10. In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.11. Example: It could have been them.12. Technically correct: It could have been they.13. Example: It is just me at the door.14. Technically correct: It is just I at the door.15. Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.16. Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am)17. Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.18. Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are)19. Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.20. Rule 4. Object pronouns are used everywhere else beyond Rules 1 and 2 (direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves, etc.21. Examples:Jean saw him.Him is the direct object.

Give her the book.Her is the indirect object. The direct object is book.

Are you talking to me?Me is the object of the preposition to.22. Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.23. Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time.The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is.24. Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:25. Example: He is one of those men who are always on time.The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are.26. In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.27. Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.28. Examples:Each of the girls sings well.Either of us is capable of doing the job.Neither of them is available to speak right now.29. Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:30. Incorrect: The women each gave her approval.Correct: The women each gave their approval.Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel. 31. These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true subject.32. Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.33. Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her.If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.

Zoe is taller than I/me.Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.

Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me. OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you choose.34. Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.35. Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error.36. Examples: It's been a cold morning.The thermometer reached its highest reading.He's the one who's always on time.He's the one whose wife is always on time.Keeping oneself ready is important. 37. Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.38. Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.39. Example: Joe helped himself.40. If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:41. Example: Joe bought it for himself.42. Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.43. Correct: I worked myself to the bone.44. The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working.45. Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.Correct: My brother and I did it.46. Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.47. Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.Correct: Please give it to John or me.Correct: You saw me being myself.48. Myself refers back to me in the act of being.49. A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.50. In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.51. Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously.52. Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.53. Example: He himself finished the whole job.54. Rule 11a. Avoid they and their with singular pronouns.55. Incorrect: Someone brought their lunch.Correct: Someone brought her lunch.ORSomeone brought his lunch.56. If the gender is undetermined, you could say Someone brought his or her lunch (more on this option in Rule 11b).57. Rule 11b. Singular pronouns must stay singular throughout the sentence.58. Incorrect: Someone has to do itand they have to do it well.59. The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is technically correct.60. Technically correct: Someone has to do itand he or she has to do it well.61. Replacing an ungrammatical sentence with a poorly written correction is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.62. Rewritten: Someone has to do itand has to do it well.63. Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to make sentences grammatical.64. Incorrect: No one realizes when their time is up.Correct but awkward: No one realizes when his or her time is up.Rewritten: None realize when their time is up.Incorrect: If you see anyone on the trail, tell them to be careful.Correct but awkward: If you see anyone on the trail, tell him or her to be careful.Rewritten: Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful. 65. Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.66. Incorrect: Her and her friend came over.67. If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over.68. Correct: She and her friend came over.69. Incorrect: I invited he and his wife.70. If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.71. Correct: I invited him and his wife.72. Incorrect: Bill asked my sister and I.73. If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I.74. Correct: Bill asked my sister and me.75. NOTE76. Do not combine a subject pronoun and an object pronoun in phrases like her and I or he and me. Whenever and or or links an object pronoun (her, me) and a subject pronoun (he, I), one of those pronouns will always be wrong.77. Incorrect: Her and I went home.Correct: She and I went home. (She went and I went.)