Part I. Foundations of Special Education › sites › default › files › upm... · Part I....
Transcript of Part I. Foundations of Special Education › sites › default › files › upm... · Part I....
xii Special education in contemporary Society
Detailed Contents
Preface xxvKey Features of the Text xxixAcknowledgments xxxi
Part I. Foundations of Special Education
1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives 3Definitions and Terminology 4
Exceptional Children 4Disability Versus Handicap 5Developmentally Delayed and At-Risk 6
First Person: Elizabeth—Perceptions and Impressions 7
Special Education 7
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Communicating About Individuals With Disabilities 8
Categories and Labels 10Prevalence of Children and Young Adults With Disabilities 12
Definitions and Difficulties 12Number of Children and Young Adults Served 13
A Brief History of the Development of Special Education 16Pioneers of Special Education 16The Establishment of Institutions 17Special Education in the Public Schools 19
Professionals Who Work With Individuals With Exceptionalities 20
Insights: A Timeline of Key Dates in the History of Special Education in the United States 21
Consultative Services 23Service Delivery Teams 23
Cooperative Teaching 25One Teach, One Observe 26One Teach, One Support 26Station Teaching 26Parallel Teaching 26Alternative Teaching 27Team Teaching 28
Universal Design for Learning 29Exceptionality Across the Life Span 31
Infants/Toddlers and Preschoolers With Special Needs 31Adolescents and Young Adults With Disabilities 33
2. Policies, Practices, and Programs 43Litigation and Legislation Affecting Special Education 43
Key Judicial Decisions 44Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: 1975–1997 44
Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education 53No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 54Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 55
First Person: Lisa—Teaching in the Age of Accountability 56
Civil Rights Legislation 59Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 59Public Law 101–336 (Americans With Disabilities Act) 61Public Law 110–325 (the Americans With Disabilities Act
Amendments of 2008) 61Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences 62Referral and Assessment for Special Education 63
Prereferral 63Referral 63Assessment 65Instructional Programming and Appropriate Placement 66
Insights: Assessment Accommodations 67
Designing Individualized Instructional Programs 68Individualized Education Program 68
Insights: Elements of a Meaningful IEP 69
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggested Individualized Education Program Meeting Agenda 71
Individualized Family Service Plan 72Service Delivery Options: Where a Special Education Is Provided 73
Educational Placements 74A Cascade of Service Delivery Options 74A Contemporary Challenge 75
3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality 85Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation 85
Insights: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Quiz 86
Cultural Diversity in the Teaching Profession 87From Assimilation to Cultural Pluralism 87Terminology of Cultural Differences 88Describing Diversity 90Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education,
and Student Diversity 91Multicultural Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91Bilingual Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91
Insights: Instructional Options for Students Who Are Bilingual 94
First Person: Jenny—Teaching English Language Learners 95
Bilingual Special Education: Concepts and Characteristics 95Disproportional Representation of Minority Students in
Special Education Programs 97Office for Civil Rights Survey Data 98Factors Contributing to Over- and Underrepresentation 100Consequences of Disproportional Representation 102
Issues in Assessing Students From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Groups 102
Assessment Challenges 103
Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Pupils 104
Assessment Safeguards 104Assessment Innovations 105Contemporary Assessment Strategies 106Assessment Recommendations 106
Educational Programming for Students With Exceptionalities Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 107
Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Instructional Materials 108
4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality 113Parent–Professional Relationships: Changing Roles 113
Antagonistic and Adversarial Relationships 114Building Working Relationships 115Parent Empowerment and Family-Centered
Relationships 116A Family Systems Approach 117The Effects of a Child’s Disability on Parents and the Family 121Stages of Parental Reaction to Disability 121Disability and the Family 123
Marital Relationships 123Mothers of Children With Disabilities 124Fathers of Children With Disabilities 124Siblings of Children With Disabilities 124
First Person: Kristina—Daydreams 125
First Person: Mindy—The Other Children 127
Grandparents of Children With Disabilities 128Working With Families Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 128
Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Providing Families With Culturally Sensitive Services 130
Cultural Reactions to Disability 130Suggestions for Facilitating Family and Professional Partnerships 131
Part II. a Study of Individuals With Special Needs
5. Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 139Defining Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation: An Evolving Process 142
1961 AAIDD Definition 1421973 AAIDD Definition 1431983 AAIDD Definition 1441992 AAIDD Definition 1442002 AAIDD Definition 1452010 AAIDD Definition 146
Assessing Intellectual Ability and Adaptive Behavior 147Intellectual Ability 147Adaptive Behavior 149
Classification of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 150
An Etiological Perspective 151Intellectual Deficits 151An Educational Perspective 151Levels of Support 152
A Brief History of the Field 153Early Civilizations 153The Middle Ages 154Early Optimism 154Protection and Pessimism 154The Emergence of Public Education for Students With
Intellectual Disabilities 155Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 155Etiology of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 157
Prenatal Contributions 157Perinatal Conditions 161Postnatal Factors 162
Prevention of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 163Characteristics of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental
Retardation 164Learning Characteristics 165Social and Behavioral Characteristics 167
Educational Considerations 168Where Are Students With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental
Retardation Educated? 169Educational Programming Options 169
Suggestions for the Classroom: Characteristics of Effective Teachers 173
Instructional Methodology 173
Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Pupils With Intellectual Disabilities 175
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 176
Suggestions for the Classroom: Using Scaffolding in the Classroom 178
Services for Young Children With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 179
Transition Into Adulthood 180Adults With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 182Family Issues 184Issues of Diversity 185
First Person: Meredith—In Her Own Words 185
Technology and Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 186
Trends, Issues, and Controversies 186
6. Individuals With Learning Disabilities 193Defining Learning Disabilities 195
National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children 196
Federal Definition of Learning Disabilities 196Association for Children With Learning Disabilities 198The Continuing Debate 198
A Brief History of the Field 199Foundation Phase 199Transition Phase 200Integration Phase 200Current Phase 201
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 201Etiology of Learning Disabilities 202
Acquired Trauma 202Genetic/Hereditary Influences 203Biochemical Abnormalities 203Environmental Possibilities 204
Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities 204Learning Characteristics 206Social and Emotional Problems 210Attention Problems and Hyperactivity 210
Assessment of Learning Disabilities 211Assessment Decisions 211Response to Intervention 212Assessment Strategies 214
Educational Considerations 215Where Are Students With Learning Disabilities Educated? 216Instructional Approaches 217
Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Reading 217
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities 221
Services for Young Children With Learning Disabilities 221
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Learning Disabilities 222
Transition Into Adulthood 225
First Person: Christopher—In His Own Words 226
Adults With Learning Disabilities 227
Insights: Young Adults With Learning Disabilities Speak Out: The Truth About Having a Learning Disability 229
Family Issues 229Issues of Diversity 230Technology and Individuals With Learning Disabilities 231Trends, Issues, and Controversies 231
Challenges in Service Delivery: The Full Inclusion Movement 231
Insights: A Reaction to Full Inclusion: A Reaffirmation of the Right of Students With Learning Disabilities to a Continuum of Services 232
Educational Reform Movement 233
7. Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 239Defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 241A Brief History of the Field 241Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 243Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 244
Neurological Dysfunction 244Hereditary Factors 245Environmental Factors 246
Characteristics of Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246
First Person: Helen—Good Things Come in Small Packages 247
Behavioral Inhibition and Executive Functioning 248Social and Emotional Issues 249Comorbidity 249
Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 249Medical Evaluation 250Behavioral/Educational Evaluation 250
Educational Considerations 251Where Are Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Educated? 252Suggestions for the Classroom: Accommodations to Help Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 253
Functional Behavioral Assessment 255Self-Regulation/Monitoring 255Home–School Collaboration 255
Effective Instructional Practices: Managing Students With ADHD 256
Instructional Modification 257Medication 259
Insights: Myths and Misunderstandings About Stimulant Medication: A Quiz for Teachers 261
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 262
Adolescents and Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 264Educational/Vocational Outcomes 265Marital Relations 265
Issues of Diversity 265
8. Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 271Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 273
Four Dimensions of Behavior 274Disturbed and Disturbing Behavior 274Transient Nature of Problematic Behavior 274Typical and Atypical Behavior 275
First Person: Anonymous—My Eagle Scout 275
Variability in Cultural and Social Standards of Behavior 277Federal Definition 277Contemporary Terminology and Definitions 278
Classification of Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 279
Clinically Derived Classification Systems 279Statistically Derived Classification Systems 280
A Brief History of the Field 281The Mental Hygiene Movement 281Early Research on Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 282The Birth of a Specialized Field of Study 282The Emergence of Conceptual Models 283
Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 284Etiology of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 285
Biological Risk Factors 285Psychosocial Risk Factors 285
Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 288Research on Resiliency 288Research on Positive Behavioral Support 289
Characteristics of Children and Youth With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 291
Learning Characteristics 291Social Characteristics 292Language/Communication Characteristics 292
Assessing Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 292Assessment Strategies 293Recent Trends in Assessment of Students With Emotional or Behavioral
Disorders 293Educational Considerations 296
Where Are Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Educated? 296
Physical Environment Interventions 297
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Effective Scheduling 298
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 300
Academic and Instructional Interventions 301Behavioral and Cognitive–Behavioral Interventions 303Special Programmatic Concerns 305
Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Establishing Classroom Rules 306
Effective Instructional Practices: Behavioral Principles 307
Services for Young Children With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 309Transition Into Adulthood 310Adults With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 311Family-Centered Interventions 312Issues of Diversity 313Technology and Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 314Trends, Issues, and Controversies 314
Teacher Shortages 315Public Policy and Societal Attitudes 315Lack of Interagency Collaboration 315Creating Systems of Care 315
9. Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 321Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evolving Process 324Classification of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 325
American Psychiatric Association and the Multiaxial System 326
Pervasive Developmental Disorders 326Asperger Syndrome 326Individuals With Disabilities Education Act 328Other Considerations for Classification 328Associated Conditions 328
A Brief History of the Field 329Psychogenic Theories 329Organic Theories 329Behavioral Theories 329
Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330Characteristics of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 332
Theory of Mind 333Social Interaction Symptoms 333
First Person: Jean-Paul—Think About Thinking 333
Communication Symptoms 334Repetitive and Restrictive Behaviors 335Other Characteristics 335
Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 336Intellectual Assessment 336
Insights: Examples of “Splinter Skills” 337
Screening and Diagnosis 337Educational Considerations 338
Where Are Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders Educated? 338Instructional Approaches 338
Suggestions for the Classroom: Tips for Teaching High-Functioning Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 340
Effective Instructional Practices: Social Stories 341
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342
Services for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342Early Intervention Services 343Communication Deficits and Safety Issues 344Curriculum Issues 344Preschool Programs 344
Transition Into Adulthood 345Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorders 345
Insights: Transition Planning: Questions to Address 346
Supervised Group and Apartment Living 347Adult Foster Care 348Residential Services 348Employment Options 348
Family Issues 348Issues of Diversity 349Technology and Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 349
High-Tech Devices 350Low-Tech Devices 350
Trends, Issues, and Controversies 351
10. Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 357The Nature of Speech, Language, and Communication 359
Insights: The Genetics of Speech 363
Defining Speech and Language Impairments 364Classifying Speech and Language Impairments 364
Speech Disorders 364
Insights: Questions and Answers About Articulation Problems 367
Insights: Questions and Answers About Stuttering 368
Language Disorders 369Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) 370
Historical Perspectives 372Prevalence of Speech and Language Impairments 373Etiology of Speech and Language Impairments 373Prevention of Speech and Language Impairments 374Characteristics of Individuals With Speech and Language
Impairments 376
Assessing Speech and Language Impairments 376
First Person: Emily—A Journey Toward Success 378
Educational Considerations 381
Suggestions for the Classroom: Educational and Treatment Approaches for Central Auditory Processing Problems 382
Where Are Students With Speech and Language Impairments Served? 382
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 384
Services for Young Children With Speech and Language Impairments 384
Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Language Skills 386
Adolescents and Adults With Speech and Language Impairments 387Family Issues 387Issues of Diversity 387Technology and Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 388Trends, Issues, and Controversies 389
11. Individuals With Hearing Impairments 395Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment 397
The Anatomy of the Auditory System 397Classifications of Hearing Loss 398Degree of Hearing Loss 399Measurement of Hearing Impairment 400Other Types of Hearing Assessment 401Age of Onset 403
A Brief History of the Field 404Prevalence of Hearing Impairment 406Etiology of Hearing Impairment 407
Genetic/Hereditary Factors 407Infections 409Developmental Abnormalities 409Environmental/Traumatic Factors 409
Characteristics of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 410Intelligence 410Speech and Language 410Social Development 410Educational Achievement 412
Assessment of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 412Cognitive Assessment 412Communication Assessment 413Personal/Social/Behavioral Assessment 413
Educational Considerations 413
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Hearing Impairments 416
Where Are Students With Hearing Impairments Served? 417
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Hearing Impairments 418
First Person: Mindy—Believing in Yourself 420
Instructional Interventions 421Services for Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426
Effective Instructional Practices: Promoting Language Development in Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426
Transition and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 427Services for Adults With Hearing Impairments 428Family Issues 429
Family Reaction 429Siblings and Grandparents 429
Issues of Diversity 430Technology and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 431
Hearing Aids and Auditory Training Devices 431Computers 432
Insights: How to Check a Hearing Aid 433
Alerting Devices 434Real-Time Captioning/Interpreting Technology 434Captioning 435Telecommunication Devices 435Cochlear Implants 435
Trends, Issues, and Controversies 437
12. Individuals With Visual Impairments 445Defining Visual Impairments 447The Eye and How It Works 448Classification of Visual Impairments 449A Brief History of Visual Impairments 451Prevalence of Visual Impairments 452The Vision Process and Etiology of Visual Impairments 453Prevention of Visual Impairments 454
Early Detection 454Eye Safety 455
Characteristics of Individuals With Visual Impairments 455Academic Performance 455Social and Emotional Development 456Vocational Skills 457
Assessment of Students With Visual Impairments 458Functional Vision Evaluation 459Learning Media 460Educational Assessment and Program Planning 461Eligibility Determination 462
Educational Considerations 463Where Are Students With Visual Impairments Educated? 464Instructional Considerations 464
First Person: Carrie—The Face of “Different” 465
Effective Instructional Practices: Accommodations for Students With Visual Impairments 466
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Visual Impairments 467
Young Children With Visual Impairments 468
Suggestions for the Classroom: Orientation and Mobility Tips 470
Transition Into Adulthood 471Adults With Visual Impairments 472Family Issues 472Issues of Diversity 473Technology and Individuals With Visual Impairments 474
Legal Aspects 474Technology and Literacy 474
Trends, Issues, and Controversies 477
13. Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 485
Defining Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 488
A Brief History of the Field 490Early History 490Emergence of Public Education 491
Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491
Etiology of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491
Chromosomal and Genetic Causes 492
First Person: Virginia—One Day at a Time 493
Teratogenic Causes 493Prematurity and Complications of Pregnancy 494Acquired Causes 494
Characteristics of Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 494
Characteristics of Students With Orthopedic Impairments 495Characteristics of Students With Multiple Disabilities 500Characteristics of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 501
Suggestions for the Classroom: Strategies That May Be Used With Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 503
Characteristics of Students With Other Health Impairments 503
Suggestions for the Classroom: Steps for Teachers to Take When a Tonic–Clonic Seizure Occurs 505
Characteristics of Students With Deaf–Blindness 506Assessment of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related
Low-Incidence Disabilities 507Assessment of Students With Deaf–Blindness 507
Educational Considerations 508Where Are Students With Physical or Health Disabilities Educated? 508Impact on School Performance 510Meeting Educational Needs 514
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 516
Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Students With Physical or Health Disabilities 519
Meeting the Educational Needs of Students Who Are Deaf–Blind 519
Services for Young Children With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 522
Transition Into Adulthood 523Adults With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence
Disabilities 524Family Issues 525Issues of Diversity 525Technology and Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and
Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 526Computer Assistive Technology 526Augmentative Communication 528Positioning and Seating Devices 528Mobility Devices 529Environmental Control and Assistive Technology for Daily Living 529Assistive Technology for Play and Recreation 530
Trends, Issues, and Controversies 530
14. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 537Insights: FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions) About Children and Youth Who Are Gifted and Talented 539
Defining Giftedness: Refining the Meaning 541Assessing Giftedness and Talent 544Differences Among Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 547A Brief History of the Field of Gifted and Talented Education 548
The First Half of the Twentieth Century: Pioneering the Field 548The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s: Establishing Foundations for the Field 549The 1980s and 1990s: The Field Matures and Provides Focus for
School Reform 550The Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Promise Present 552
Prevalence of Giftedness and Talent 552Etiology of Giftedness and Talent 552Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 553Educational Considerations 554
Differentiation 555
Insights: Myths and Truths About Gifted Students 556
Suggestions for the Classroom: Differentiated Programming: What It Is and What It Isn’t 557
Instructional Strategies 557
First Person: Patrice—One Size Does Not Fit All 560
Service Delivery Options 561
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 562
Effective Instructional Practices: Differentiated Instruction 564
First Person: Graham—Summer Programming 568
Services for Young Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 569Adolescents and Adults Who Are Gifted and Talented 570Family Issues 571Issues of Diversity 572
Students With Gifts and Talents and Disabilities 572Girls Who Are Gifted 573Identifying and Serving Children From Diverse Backgrounds 575
Technology and Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 577Trends, Issues, and Controversies 578
Striving for World-Class Standards 578Equity and Excellence 579Full Inclusion 579Services for Gifted Students Instead of the Gifted Program 579Talent Development 580
Postscript 587Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities 588Appendix B: Professional Standards 590Glossary 615References 628Photo Credits 658Author Index 660Subject Index 673About the Contributors 693