PART A: CRIMINAL LAW IN NEW SOUTH WALES

Last Updated 5 July 2013

1/. From Arrest to Local Court

(a) Arrest and Following

Do I Have to Answer Police Questions?

The general position is that you do not have to answer police questions. There are some

important exceptions which are set out below. As a matter of common sense, if you are asked

questions by police about a simple matter of which you are obviously innocent, it is probably

a good idea to answer their questions. In other situations, speak to a lawyer first. In particular,

if the police want to record an interview with you on tape or video, always say you want to

speak to a lawyer first.

A police officer can request a person to provide his or her name and address if those details

are unknown to the police officer and if the police officer suspects on reasonable grounds that

the person may be able to assist in the investigation of an alleged offence because the person

was at or near the place where an alleged indictable offence occurred around the time when

the offence occurred: s. 11 Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act (hereafter LE

(PAR) Act). It is an offence to refuse to supply a name and address: s. 12 LE (PAR) Act. The

penalty is 2 penalty units, or $220. It has been held that the police are entitled to demand the

particulars of a suspect: DPP v Horwood [2009] NSWSC 1447.

Where a police officer reasonably suspects that a motor vehicle was or may have been used in

the commission of an indictable offence, the police officer can ask the owner, driver or

passenger of the vehicle to supply details of the driver and passengers in the vehicle at the

time of the offence: s. 14 LE (PAR) Act It is an offence to refuse to give an answer or to give

a false name or address, carrying a penalty of $5500 or 12 months gaol: ss. 16-18 LE (PAR)

Act

Police can demand proof of identification: s. 19 LE (PAR) Act.

Stop and Search.

The police have no power at common law to search someone prior to arrest: Mammone v

Chaplin (1991) 54 A Crim R 163. However under s. 21 LE (PAR) Act the police may stop

and search anyone whom they reasonably suspect has something stolen anything or otherwise

unlawfully obtained or anything used in an indictable offence.

Being sniffed by a police drug dog is not a 'search': DPP v Darby [2002] NSWSC 1157

A 'reasonable suspicion' involves less than a belief but more than a mere possibility. There

must be some factual basis for the suspicion; reasonable suspicion is not arbitrary. Hearsay

material can be used as the basis for a reasonable suspicion: Rondo (2001) 126 A Crim R 562

.

A police officer has the power to stop and search a motor vehicle if he/she believes on

reasonable grounds that the vehicle is being or may have been used in the commission of an

indictable or firearms offence, or if the police officer believes on reasonable grounds that the

vehicle contains drugs or anything used or intended to be used in the commission of such an

offence, or if the police officer believes on reasonable grounds that there is a serious risk to

public safety and the search might lessen that risk: s. 36 LE (PAR) Act.

De Facto Arrest.

A person is arrested when police deprive him of his liberty, regardless of the words used. A

person is arrested when police make it plain to him that he is not free to leave if he chooses:

Lavery (1978) 19 SASR 515, C (1997) 93 A Crim R 81. When a person is confronted at his

home by armed police an arrest may occur unless police indicate that the person is free to

leave: Trotter (1992) 60 A Crim R 1.

Purpose of Arrest.

An arrest for the purpose of investigating whether or not the person has committed a crime,

or obtaining more evidence, is an illegal arrest: Williams (1986) 161 CLR 278, 66 ALR 385.

The purpose of the arrest must be to bring the person before a magistrate. This remains the

case after the amendments to the Crimes Act allowing detention after arrest for the purpose of

investigation: Dungay (2001) 126 A Crim R 216. It also means that there is no power to

arrest a suspect when the arresting officer has not formed an intention to charge him: Dowse

v NSW [2012] NSWCA 337 esp at para [27].

Reasonable Cause. The arrester must have reasonable grounds to believe that the person has or is in the act of

committing an offence: s. 99 LE (PAR) Act. Reasonable cause includes hearsay: Hussein v

Chong Fook Kam [1969] 3 All ER 1282. The principles relating to 'reasonable grounds to

arrest have been summarised in Hyder v The Commonwealth [2012] NSWCA 336 esp at para

[15].

Physical Aspect of Arrest. Arrest involves either submission or actual touching of the accused: Thomson [1969] NZLR

513.

Notification. When the police decide to arrest or charge someone they should so inform the person of that

fact and the grounds of the arrest and caution the person that they do not have to answer any

questions: Code of Practice for Crime p. 8, formerly Instruction 37.14. No particular form of

words is necessary as long as it is made clear to the person that he is under arrest: Inwood

[1973] 2 All ER 645. The reason for the arrest should be made clear to the person unless:

this is obvious to the person or

where the person makes it impossible

See Christie v Leachinsky [1947] AC 573 and Johnstone v NSW [2010] NSWCA 70.

Arrest as a Last Resort

The power to arrest should only be exercised as a last resort where alternatives (such as

issuing a summons or a court attendance notice) are impractical. If the power of arrest is used

inappropriately for a minor offence, and the offender reacts by committing an offence such as

resist arrest /assault police, evidence of these latter offences may be excluded in the exercise

of the court's discretion: DPP v Carr (2002) 127 A Crim R 151. See also DPP v CAD (2003)

NSWSC 196.

Search of Arrested Persons. A person who has been arrested may be searched: s. 23 LE (PAR) Act. So may a person in

lawful custody: s. 24 LE (PAR) Act.

Carry Cutting. It is an offence to have a cutting weapon when arrested: s. 547D Crimes Act. This only

applies when police locate the weapon after the defendant has been arrested: Pittman v Di

Francesco (1985) 4 NSWLR 133.

Prints and Photos. A police officer can take particulars necessary to identify a person in custody including

fingerprints, palm prints and photographs for the purpose of identification of persons over 14:

s. 133 LE (PAR) Act. Children under 14 can only be photographed or fingerprinted with a

court order: s. 136 LE (PAR) Act. The purpose is ID for the court, not the police: Carr [1972]

1 NSWLR 609. However the decision to take fingerprints or photographs will only be

impugned if not made bona fide: McPhail and Tivey (1988) 36 A Crim R 390. In practice,

anyone arrested and charged is fingerprinted.

It has been held that s. 133 LE (PAR) Act permits the police to take photographs and fingerprints not only to establish identity but also in order to prove that the suspect had committed the crime: Regina v SA, DD, and ES [2011] NSWCCA 60.

The court can order particulars be taken of a defendant once an offence has been found

proved once an offence is proved: s. 134 LE (PAR) Act.

Handwriting Samples

It has been held that the predecessor to s. 133 LE (PAR) Act authorised the taking of a

sample of handwriting from a person who has been arrested to identify the person: Knight

(2001) 120 A Crim R 381.

Medical Examination. Where an officer of or above the rank of sergeant has reasonable grounds for believing a

medical examination will provide evidence, can request a doctor to examine a person in

custody: s. 138 LE (PAR) Act. This provision does not permit includes specimens of blood

and semen: Fernando (1995) 78 A Crim R 64. However, authority to take such samples can

be obtained under the Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act (2000), discussed below.

'Custody' includes people in prison as well as people in police custody: Hawes v Governor of

Goulburn Correctional Centre (NSW SC 3/9/97).

Forensic Procedures

Under the Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act (2000) police have been given wide powers to

obtain forensic samples. The provisions are extremely complex and what follows is a

summary.

This legislation does not apply to DNA obtained other than by taking samples from a suspect,

such as by examining a discarded cigarette butt: Kane (2004) 144 A Crim R 496.

Forensic Procedures with the Consent of the Person

Any forensic procedure can be carried out with the informed consent of the suspect (s. 7)

Children and mentally incapable people cannot give their consent (s. 8). 'Informed consent'

carries with a requirement that police inform the suspect of his rights and in particular the fact

that the forensic procedure may produce evidence against the suspect which could be used in

court (s. 13). The giving of information to the suspect and the suspect's responses 'must if

practicable' be recorded electronically (s. 15).

If the suspect is an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, the police must notify an Aboriginal

legal aid organisation, and must not ask the suspect to consent without an interview friend

being present, unless the suspect expressly waives the right to have an interview friend (s.

10).

Forensic procedures can be carried out on 'volunteers' who are not suspects, with their

informed consent, unless they are children or mentally incapable: s. 76.

'Non-Intimate' Forensic Procedures

Forensic procedures are divided into 'intimate' and 'non-intimate' procedures. Non-intimate

forensic procedures include:

examining, photographing, taking a swab or sample or cast or impression or

measurement of part of the body other than the genitals, buttocks, or (in the case of a

woman) the breasts

taking a sample of hair other than pubic hair

taking a sample of or from under a nail

taking a hand print, fingerprint, foot print, or toe print (s. 3 Crimes (Forensic

Procedures) Act).

A 'senior police officer' (of the rank of sergeant or above) can order the making of a non-

intimate forensic procedure on a person if the senior police officer is satisfied that:

(1) the suspect is under arrest;

(2) the suspect is not a child or an incapable person;

(3) there are reasonable grounds to believe that the suspect committed an indictable offence

(or, in summary, a related offence);

(4) there are reasonable grounds for believing that the forensic procedure might produce

evidence tending to confirm or disprove that the accused committed the offence; AND

(5) the carrying out of the forensic procedure without consent is justified in all the

circumstances.

: s. 20 Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act.

Intimate Forensic Procedures

Intimate forensic procedures include:

examining, photographing, taking a swab or sample from the genitals, buttocks or (in

the case of a woman) breasts

taking a sample of bloodtaking of a sample of saliva other than by buccal swab

taking a sample of pubic hair

taking a dental impression (s. 3 Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act.

Intimate forensic procedures can only be carried by order of a magistrate or other authorised

justice, after a hearing at which the suspect must normally be present: s. 22. Before making

such an order, the magistrate must be satisfied of the following:

(1) that the person is a suspect (defined as s. 3 as meaning someone who has been arrested or

charged with the offence, or whom the police officer reasonably suspects of having

committed the offence);

(2) that there were reasonable grounds to believe that the suspect had committed a prescribed

(i.e. indictable) offence or a related offence;

(3) that there were reasonable grounds to believe that the particular forensic procedure might

produce evidence tending to confirm or disprove that the suspect had committed the offence

of which he was suspected; AND

(4) that the carrying out of the forensic procedure was justified in all the circumstances

(having regard to the gravity of the offence, the seriousness of the circumstances of the

offence (?), the degree to which the suspect is said to have been involved in the offence, the

age, cultural background and physical/mental health of the suspect, whether there are other

practical ways of obtaining the evidence, the reasons the suspect has given for refusing, the

time the suspect has been in custody, and such other matters as the magistrate considers

relevant

see s. 24 and Orban v Bayliss [2004] NSWSC 428 at para [37].

The magistrate must make a finding that each of these matters have been established before

an order can be made: Orban v Bayliss [2004] NSWSC 428 at para [48]. In particular, the

magistrate must make a specific finding that there are reasonable grounds for believing that

the suspect has committed the offence: Fawcett v Nimmo (2005) 156 A Crim R 431. It has

been held that the magistrate can take into account hearsay material in making the

determination: L v Lyons (2002) 56 NSWLR 600, 137 A Crim R 93. Before the magistrate

makes an order requiring a suspect to give a sample of DNA, there must at least be a sample

of DNA at the crime scene to match it with: Walker v Bugden (2005) 155 A Crim R 416 .

Forensic Procedures and Prisoners

These provisions apply to 'serious indictable offenders', that is prisoners serving sentences for

offences which carry a maximum penalty of 5 years or more: s. 3 Crimes (Forensic

Procedures) Act. Police officers are given the power to make an order that a sample of hair

(other than pubic hair) or a hand print, fingerprint, foot print or toe print be taken from a

serious indictable offender in prison: s. 70 Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act . A magistrate's

order is required for the taking of a sample of blood or a buccal swab: s. 74.

Period of Detention

A person who is under arrest can be detained by police for the 'investigation period' (s. 114

LE (PAR) Act). This period is a 'reasonable time', but no more than 4 hours or such longer

period as extended by an investigation warrant: s. 115 LE (PAR) Act.

In determining what is a 'reasonable time', certain periods can be disregarded as 'dead time.'

Periods which can be treated as 'dead time' are the following (in summary):

(a) time taken to convey the person to the nearest location with facilities for conducting

forensic procedures;

(b) a reasonable time waiting for the arrival of police officers or people whose special skills

are necessary for the investigation;

(c) time waiting for a tape recorder or video tape to become available to record a record of

interview;

(d) time to allow the accused to communicate with (presumably by phone) a friend, relative,

guardian, independent person, lawyer or consular official;

(e) time taken in waiting for one of the people referred to in (d) to arrive;

(f) time taken to allow the accused to consult at the place where he is detained with one of the

people referred to in (d)

(g) time taken in arranging for and allowing the accused to have medical treatment;

(h) time waiting for an interpreter to arrive or become available;

(i) time reasonably required to arrange and conduct an identification parade;

(j) time for the accused to rest, receive refreshments, or go to the toilet;

(k) time for the accused to recover from intoxication from alcohol an/or drugs;

(l) time for the police to prepare, make and dispose of an application for a detention warrant

or search warrant;

(m) time reasonably required to charge the accused.

(see s. 117 LE (PAR) Act). The person must be released during the investigation period or

brought before a justice, magistrate or court within the investigation period or 'as soon as

practicable' after the end of that period: s. 114 LE (PAR) Act.

Extensions to the Investigation Period

A magistrate or clerk of the Local Court can authorise an extension to the investigation

period for a further period, up to 8 hours (s. 118 LE (PAR) Act). The application can be made

orally or in writing.

The Rights of the Suspect

The custody manager at the police station is required to caution the suspect and summarise

the provisions about detention: s. 122 LE (PAR) Act. The custody manager is required to

inform the suspect before any investigative procedure starts that the suspect can contact a

friend, relative or lawyer to inform them of his whereabouts, consult them, or in the case of a

lawyer to be present during the investigative procedures. The custody manager is required to

provide facilities for the suspect to communicate with the friend, relative or lawyer (s. 123

LE (PAR) Act).

Similarly the custody manager is obliged to inform foreign nationals of their right to

communicate with a consular official of the country of which the suspect is a citizen (s. 124

LE (PAR) Act).The custody manager must arrange for an interpreter to be present during any

investigative procedure if it appears that because of inadequate knowledge of English the

person cannot communicate with reasonable fluency in English (s. 128 LE (PAR) Act).

'Vulnerable Persons': Children, Aboriginals, DDs, etc

Vulnerable persons are defined as:

children

people with impaired physical or intellectual functioning

Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders

people from a non-English speaking background

(Regulation 24 LE (PAR)Regulations).

'Vulnerable persons' are entitled to have a support person present during any investigative

procedure: Regulation 27 LE (PAR) Regulations. Before any investigative procedure starts,

the custody manager at the police station must inform the 'vulnerable person' that he/she is

entitled to have a support person present during any investigative procedure (reg 27).

Support Persons

If the 'vulnerable person' wishes to have a support person present, the custody manager must

provide 'reasonable facilities' to enable a support person to be present (presumably access to a

telephone) and allow the 'vulnerable person' to communicate privately with the support

person: reg 27 LE (PAR) Regulations. This includes the right to make a phone call to a legal

practitioner (reg 25 LE (PAR) Regulations).

The custody manager is to inform the support person that he/she is not restricted to acting

merely as an observer in the interview, but may assist and support the person being

interviewed, observe whether or not the interview is being conducted fairly, and identify

communication problems with the person being interviewed: reg 30 LE (PAR) Regulations.

The caution should be repeated in front of the support person: reg 34 LE (PAR) Regulations.

A copy of a summary of the suspect's rights while in custody (formerly called the part 10A

document) should be given to the support person and any interpreter for the vulnerable

person: reg 30 LE (PAR) Regulations.

Breaches of these regulations may be very significant in relation to the question of whether

an alleged confession of the 'vulnerable person' is admissible.

Aboriginals

In addition to the rights referred to in the preceding paragraph, the custody manager of a

police station must inform an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander in custody that he will

inform an Aboriginal legal aid organisation that he is the suspect is in custody for an offence,

and notify the Aboriginal legal aid organisation accordingly: reg 33 LE (PAR) Regulations

This requirement does not depend on the accused making a request for an Aboriginal legal

aid organisation to be contacted. As to the effect on the admissibility of a confession made

when this regulation was not complied with, see Helmhout (2001) 125 A Crim R 257.

(b) Search and Other Warrants

Surveillance Device Material

Generally speaking recording a private conversation of parties without their consent is

unlawful: s. 7 Surveillance Devices Act.

Surveillance Device Warrants. The validity of a listening device warrants cannot be challenged in an inferior court (Murphy

(1989) 167 CLR 94, Peters and Love (1990) 90 ALR 322) but may be able to be challenged

in the Supreme Court (Carroll (1993) 70 A Crim R 162, Haynes (1996) PD [155], Ousley

(1997) 192 CLR 69, 71 ALJR 1548).

Contents of a Surveillance Device Warrant A surveillance device warrant is required to contain (s. 20 Surveillance Devices Act):

the name of the applicant for the warrant

the prescribed offence for which the warrant was granted

the date when the warrant was issued

the kind of surveillance device to be used

the premises or place where the listening device is to be installed

where known, the name of any person whose conversation may be recorded

the period (not exceeding 90 days) during which the warrant is in force

the name of the law enforcement officer primarily responsible for executing the

warrant

any conditions on the warrant

A warrant must expressly authorise trespassing to install it for such a trespassory installation

to be valid : Coco (1994) 179 CLR 427, 68 ALJR 401.

Interception of Telephone Calls

Interception of telephone calls is governed by the Telecommunications (Interception and

Access) Act (Commonwealth) 1997. What follows can only be a summary of these

provisions. Generally it is not permissible to listen to or record a telephone call (the

cumbersome phrase 'a communication passing over a telecommunications system' is used in

the Act): s. 7 Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act. There are some important

exceptions to this general rule:

if the party being recorded is aware that the communication is being listened to or

recorded: s. 6(1) Telecommunications (Interception and Access ) Act

if the conversation is recorded by a microphone external to the telephone (Oliver

(1984) 57 ALR 543)

where an officer of the agency (usually a police officer) has reasonable grounds for

suspecting that a party to the conversation has threatened to or may do an act which

may result in a loss of life, or serious injury to a person or property (s. 7 (4) and (5)

Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act)

where a warrant under the Act has been granted

Applications for a warrant

Applications for warrants can be made by state or federal police as well as a number of

agencies including the Crime Commission and the ICAC (s. 39 Telecommunications

(Interception and Access) Act). Normally applications for a warrant must be made in writing,

supported by an affidavit (except in urgent cases): s. 40 Telecommunications (Interception

and Access) Act. Applications are made to judges or nominated members of the AAT (s. 39

Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act). Applications are to include (s. 42

Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act):

the facts upon which the application is based

the period for which the warrant is sought and why it is sought for that period

if for a named person, that person's name, and the telephones that person has used or

is likely to use

the number of previous applications made

the number of warrants previously issued

the use made by the agency of information obtained in those warrants

Matters of which a judge must be satisfied for a warrant for a class 1 offence

Class 1 offences are defined in s. 5 of the Act and include murder, kidnapping, and terrorism

offences. Before issuing a warrant for a telephone intercept for a class 1 offence, the

judge/AAT member must be satisfied that (s. 46 Telecommunications (Interception and

Access) Act):

the application for the listening device warrant referred to above have been complied

with;

in the case of a telephone application, because of the urgent circumstances, it was

necessary to make an application by telephone;

there are reasonable grounds for suspecting that a particular person is using or will is

likely to use the service;

information that would be likely to be obtained from the proposed telephone intercept

would be likely to assist in the investigation of a class 1 offence in which the person is

involved;

having regard to the extent to which other methods of investigation of the offence are

available, how much information would be likely to be obtained by such methods, and

how much the use of such methods would prejudice the investigation, some or all of

that information cannot be obtained by such methods.

Matters of which a judge must be satisfied for a warrant for a class 2 offence

Serious offences are defined in s. 5D of the Telecommunications (Interception and Access)

Act. For the most part, they are offences carrying a maximum sentence of more than 7 years

imprisonment. Before issuing a warrant for a telephone intercept for a class 2 offence, the

judge/ AAT member must be satisfied that (s. 46 Telecommunications (Interception and

Access) Act):

the application for the listening device warrant referred to above have been complied

with;

in the case of a telephone application, because of the urgent circumstances, it was

necessary to make an application by telephone;

there are reasonable grounds for suspecting that a particular person is using or is

likely to use the service;

information that would be likely to be obtained from the proposed telephone intercept

would be likely to assist in the investigation of a serious offence in which the person

is involved or another person who is involved who the person is likely to

communicate with;

having regard to the balance between the need for privacy and the public interest (in

summary) the warrant should be issued

Requirements for a warrant

Under s. 49 of the Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act, the warrant is required

to be in the prescribed form in the Telecommunications (Interception and Access)

Regulations. The warrant must

set out that the judge has made the required findings set out above (depending on

whether the offence was a class 1 or a class 2 offence)

indicate the persons who may exercise the warrant (a class of persons will suffice)

set out short particulars of each offence in relation to which the judge was satisfied

the period for which the warrant is to be in force, not exceeding 90 days (s. 49 of the

Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act)

indicate conditions or restrictions, if any, and excluded services, if any

be signed by the judge /AAT member

Telephone Intercepts not authorised by warrant

If a telephone intercept has not been authorised by warrant, and is not authorised by one of

the exceptions referred to above, it is inadmissible in evidence: s. 77 Telecommunications

(Interception and Access) Act. It is important to note that this is not subject to any discretion.

Applications for Search Warrants. A police officer can apply (normally in writing ) for a search warrant setting out the grounds

for believing that on premises there is something that is connected with an indictable,

firearms, or drug, or child pornography offence or something stolen: s. 47 LE (PAR) Act.

If the issuing justice does not record the reasons for the warrant it is invalid: Carrol v

Mijovich (1992) 58 A Crim R 243, Commissioner of Police v Atkinson (1991) 54 A Crim R

378. The search warrant must record on its face the offence to which the investigation related:

Carver v Clerk of Blacktown Local Court (NSW SC 13/3/1998), Dover v Ridge (1998) 5

Crim LN [905] and Mazjoub v Kepreokis [2009] NSWSC 314 esp at para [52]. A reference

to superceded legislation will not invalidate the warrant as long as there is reference to an

identifiable offence: State of New South Wales v Corbett [2007] HCA 32 overruling Corbett

v NSW [2006] NSWCA 138.

The warrant expires after 72 hours unless extended: s. 73 LE (PAR) Act. There must be a

report back to the justice: s. 74 LE (PAR) Act .

Executing a Warrant.

An occupier's notice must be handed to an occupier over 18: s. 67 LE (PAR) Act. Anything

mentioned in the warrant and anything reasonably thought to be connected with any offence

may be seized: s. 49 LE (PAR) Act. Any person in the premises reasonably believed to have

a thing mentioned in the warrant may be searched: s. 50 LE (PAR) Act.

Search Warrants on Drug Premises

There are specific police powers relating to 'drug premises'. Any officer of or above the rank

of sergeant can apply for a search warrant for premises which he/she believes on reasonable

grounds is being used for the manufacture or supply of a prohibited drug: s. 140 LE (PAR)

Act. If the warrant is granted the police have the power to search the premises and any person

found on the premises: s. 142 LE (PAR) Act. Generally the provisions for the execution of

ordinary search warrants described above apply: s. 59 LE (PAR) Act.

Common Law Powers

Police may only enter premises without a warrant if there is:

notice of their presence, by knocking or ringing a doorbell

notice of their authority, by identifying themselves as police, and

notice of purpose, by stating a lawful reason for entry

(Lippl v Haines (1989) 18 NSWLR 620, O'Neill (2001) 122 A Crim R 510).

Notices to Produce

Police can now apply for a notice to produce addressed to a financial institution to produce

records: s. 53 LE (PAR) Act.

Entrapment in State Proceedings

The situation in relation to entrapment has been changed so far as state offences in New

South Wales are concerned by the Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act (1997). The

definition section makes it clear that a 'controlled activity' is an illegal activity (s. 3).

A law enforcement officer can make an application in writing (or, in urgent cases, orally) to

the chief executive officer of a law enforcement agency (usually the Commissioner of Police)

for an authority to conduct a controlled operation. The application must include the plan of

the proposed operation, the alleged nature of the criminal activity or corrupt conduct being

investigated, the nature of the 'controlled activity' to be used, and a statement about whether

there has been any earlier application (s. 5).

The chief executive officer may authorise the controlled operation if satisfied that

there are reasonable grounds for believing that criminal activity or corrupt conduct is

being conducted

the nature and extent of the criminal activity and corrupt conduct is such as to justify

the conduct of a controlled operation

the nature and extent of the proposed 'controlled activities' are appropriate to the

suspected criminal activities or corrupt conduct

the controlled activities are capable of being sufficiently accounted for

The power to issue an authority can be delegated but only to an officer of or above the rank

of superintendent (s. 29). A written statement of reasons should be kept by the Chief

Executive Officer (s. 6).

Importantly the legislation prohibits inducing or encouraging a person to commit criminal

activity or corrupt conduct that the person could not reasonably be expected to engage in

unless so induced or encouraged. It also prohibits conduct likely to seriously endanger the

health and safety of any person, or cause serious damage to property (s. 7). In Gedeon v

Commissioner of the NSW Crime Commission [2008] HCA 43 it was held that this provision

was breached when the Crime Commission authorised the sale of 6 kilos of cocaine knowing

it was unlikely to be recovered.

The authority must be in writing and must indicate:

the operation by reference to the plan

the law enforcement officer who is conducting the operation

must identify the names of each person who may engage in 'controlled activities'

must indicate whether such persons may operate under an assumed name

must indicate the 'controlled activities' each law enforcement officer and civilian

participant may engage in

must specify the duration (not to exceed 6 months) of the authority (s.8)

A law enforcement official and a civilian authorised to engage in a 'controlled activity' does

not constitute an offence (s. 16). A certificate issued by a chief executive officer of a law

enforcement agency to the effect that he/she was satisfied of matters referred to in the

certificate is conclusive evidence that he/she was so satisfied (s. 27).

Entrapment in Commonwealth Proceedings There are similar provisions in ss. 15G to 15J of the Commonwealth Crimes Act. Once again,

the Act does not apply of a person is intentionally induced to commit a crime, and the person

would not otherwise have committed that offence or an offence of that kind (s. 15I)

(c) Interrogation

Children. Police should not question a child suspected of committing an offence unless there is a

'support person' present (not a police officer): Code of Practice for CRIME, p. 33, replacing

Instruction 37.17.

Aboriginals. In the Northern Territory special rules have been formulated for interrogation of Aboriginals.

For example there should be a 'prisoners friend' present, the caution should be read back by

the accused, the questions should not be leading, etc. These rules are called the Anunga

Rules: Anunga (1976) 11 ALR 412. Under the Code of Practice for Crime, the custody

manager is required to ensure that Aboriginal legal aid has been contacted: Code of Practice

for CRIME, p. 12.

Police Questioning: DDs. Where a person is suspected of being developmentally delayed the interview should take

place in the presence of a guardian, relative, friend or non-police professional: Police

Instruction 37.14.

Records of Interview. The defendant should be asked to read the interview aloud. The senior officer available not

connected with the investigation should ask the defendant if it was a voluntary statement etc.

The defendant should be supplied with a copy: Instruction 37.16.

'Preliminary Questioning' in Notebooks. When a suspect makes a 'confession, admission or statement' in preliminary questioning, the

police officer should 'record it in full in your notebook' (Code of Practice for CRIME pp. 25-

6). 'Do not make notes elsewhere' (Police Service Handbook p. N-2). The suspect should be

asked to sign the notebook. In any subsequent ERISP, the notebook entries should be read to

the suspect who should be asked to comment on them (Code of Practice for CRIME p. 26).

After Charge.

Once a person has been charged they should only be interviewed when necessary to minimize

loss or harm to some person, or about new matters, or to recover property: Instruction 37.14.

According to the Code of Practice for CRIME, a person in custody has a 'right' to

communicate with a friend, relative or legal guardian: CRIME at p. 15, replacing Instruction

155.

(d) Bail

Right to Release on Bail. A person charged with an offence not punishable by imprisonment, or an offence under the

Summary Offences Act, generally has the right to release on bail (s. 8 Bail Act).

Presumption of Bail. There is a presumption of bail for all offences (s. 9 Bail Act) except for offences where there

is no presumption of bail or where there is a presumption against bail (see immediately

below).

Presumption Against Bail. There is a presumption against bail for the cultivation, manufacture, importation and supply

of the commercial quantity of prohibited drugs (s. 8A). Where there is a presumption against

bail the court must concentrate less on matters common to all applicants (eg financial

hardship) and more on the strength of the Crown case: Kissner [CN 106].

There is a presumption against bail for serious firearms or weapons, which (in summary) are

offences of having an unregistered pistol or prohibited firearm, or firing or possessing a

loaded firearm in a public place: s. 8B Bail Act

If a person is charged with two unrelated serious property offences (as defined), and has been

convicted of a serious property offence within the past 2 years, there is a presumption against

bail: s. 8C Bail Act. 'Serious property offence' is defined widely and includes all forms of

robbery, break and enter, and car jacking.

There is now a presumption against bail for the offence of riot, or an offence carrying a

maximum penalty of more than 2 years which is committed while the accused is participating

a a large scale public disorder or 'in connection with the exercise of police powers to prevent

or control such a disorder or the threat of such a disorder': section 8D Bail Act.

There is a presumption against bail for a person serving a term of life imprisonment who is

on parole and is charged with an offence for which a sentence of imprisonment is imposed: s.

8E Bail Act.

No Presumption. For the following offences, there is no presumption for or against bail (s. 9):

failing to appear

robbery with corporal violence, striking wounding, being armed or in company

drug offences where the quantity is twice the indictable quantity

a domestic violence offence where the accused has committed a 'personal violence

offence' (includes assault and sexual assault) within the last 10 years (s. 9A)

There is no presumption for or against bail for a person who

at the time of the alleged offence, was already on bail, on parole, serving a sentence,

or subject to a good behaviour bond for any other offence

had a previous conviction at any time for failing to appear

had a conviction at any time for an indictable offence (whether dealt with on

indictment or summarily) (s. 9B Bail Act).

Bail for Murder and Repeat Violent Offenders

By a 2003 amendment, 'exceptional circumstances' must exist before bail is granted to

someone charged with murder: s. 9C Bail Act. Similarly if someone is charged with a 'serious

personal violence' offence, and has a previous conviction for such an offence, 'exceptional

circumstances' must exist before bail can be granted: s. 9D Bail Act. 'Serious personal

violence' is defined as including murder, attempted murder, armed robbery and most forms of

sexual assault.

In relation to similar legislation in Victoria, it has been held that a weak Crown case can

constitute exceptional circumstances: The Queen v Memery [2000] VSC 495. In Hantis

[2004] NSWSC 153 Levine J quoted the second reading speech to this legislation, which

stated that 'exceptional circumstances' could be constituted by a weak prosecution case, a

strong defence of self-defence, a case where the accused has an intellectual disability or

needs medical attention, or where the accused presents no threat to the community.

Criteria in Bail Applications. The following factors are relevant:

the probability of the defendant appearing on bail (including background, record,

previous failures to appear, and the seriousness of the offence)

the interests of the defendant (including the need to prepare his case)

the protection of the alleged victim and the victim's family;

the protection of the community (including the risk of commission of other offences

and interfering with witnesses (s.32).

Appeals Bail.

Appeals bail to the CCA is only for cases there are special or exceptional circumstances: s.

30AA Bail Act. In practice this means it is necessary to show that the appeal is most likely to

succeed: Regina v Wilson (1994) 34 NSWLR 1. Where the appeal is against a sentence

imposed in the District Court, it needs to be shown at least that if bail is not granted the whole

sentence will be served before the matter is heard in the CCA, or that there is an

overwhelming likelihood that the appeal will succeed in the CCA : Tyler (1995) 80 A Crim R

371.

Jurisdiction in Bail Applications. A person can apply for bail in the following jurisdictions:

by a police officer of or above the rank of sergeant until bail is determined by the

court (s. 17);

by the Local Court, unless the appellant has appeared in the District Court after

committal for trial or sentence or appeal (s. 24);

by the District Court unless the person has appeared in the CCA or SC after committal

for trial or sentence or appeal (s. 27).

Supreme Court Bail Applications. A court is not to entertain an application for bail if such an application has already been dealt

with by 'a court', unless on the previous occasion the accused was unrepresented, or the court

is satisfied that there are new facts and circumstances which have arisen since the last

application (s. 22A). There is an obligation on lawyers not to make further applications for

bail unless satisfied that one of these exceptions applies (s. 22A (5)). It is by no means

whether this means that the Supreme Court must find that there are new facts or

circumstances before considering a case where bail has been refused by a magistrate.

Proof in Bail Applications. The standard of proof in bail applications is on the balance of probabilities (s. 59).

(e) Crime Commission and Related Bodies

The NSW Crime Commission

The NSW Crime Commission is increasingly important in the criminal investigatory process.

What follows is simply some suggestions about the basics of appearing in the Crime

Commission.

Appearing for an Witness in the Crime Commission

A person giving evidence before the Crime Commission can be legally represented (s. 13 (4)

NSW Crime Commission Act). A particular legal representative can be refused leave to

appear if the Commissioner believes on reasonable grounds and in good faith that such

representation will prejudice its representation (s. 13B NSW Crime Commission Act).

The Crime Commission can and usually does as a matter of course direct that evidence before

it, and even the fact that a witness has given evidence before it, not be 'published': s. 13 (9)

NSW Crime Commission Act.

Evidence Before the Commission

The rules of evidence do not apply in proceedings (s. 13A NSW Crime Commission Act), so

objections are often reduced to complaints about ambiguous questions. In particular,

objections based on the privilege against self-incrimination do not apply: s. 18B NSW Crime

Commission Act. Legal professional privilege does apply: s. 18B(4) NSW Crime

Commission Act. So does the privilege attached to religious confessions: s. 18A NSW Crime

Commission Act.

By far the most important thing to know about proceedings in the Crime Commission is that

evidence given by a witness is not admissible in proceedings against that witness (except for

proceedings for perjury and related offences) if the witness objects: s. 18B NSW Crime

Commission Act. The Commissioner can declare that all answers or all answers of a

particular class will be regarded as being given under objection: s. 18B(5). If there is the

faintest suspicion that your client is a suspect, you should advise him/her to object to giving

evidence.

Failing to attend when served with a summons, or failing to take the oath, or failing to answer

questions, is an offence which carries 20 penalty units or 2 years gaol: s. 18 NSW Crime

Commission Act. The requirements of proof of a failure to take an oath or affirmation have

been strictly construed in Fehon v Domican (2002) 127 A Crim R 592 .

(f) Local Court Proceedings

What Offences are Summary Offences?

Summary offences are offences which:

are described as summary offences,

are required to be dealt with summarily,

have a maximum penalty of no more than 2 years imprisonment (s. 6 Criminal

Procedure Act)

are Table 1 or Table 2 offences for which there has been no election to have the

matters dealt with indictably (see below).

Summary Proceedings: Commencing Proceedings An information for a purely summary offence must be laid within 6 months of the offence

being committed: s. 179 Criminal Procedure Act. Importantly, the 6 month time limit does

not apply to indictable matters being dealt with summarily. However, if the matter is a

penalty notice matter and the defendant has elected to have the matter dealt with in the Local

Court, the time limit is extended to 12 months: s. 37A Fines Act.

The power to ignore defects in the information under s. 16 Criminal Procedure Act does not

include a change to the elements of the offence: Ex parte Lovell; re Buckley (1938) 38 SR

NSW 153 Ex parte Burnett; Re Wicks [1968] 2 NSWLR 119. The information must contain

all the essential elements of the offence: John L v Attorney General of New South Wales

(1987) 163 CLR 508 esp at para [14], Stanton v Abernathy (1990) 19 NSWLR 656.

Query if a charge can be withdrawn by an informant without being withdrawn dismissed:

Gregg v O'Connor (Sully J, 21/4/92), overruled in Lay v Cleary [Bulletin 67]. A magistrate

has no power to recharge: Suters v Harrington [CN 113].

A magistrate can order a stay of proceedings: DPP v Shirvanian (1998) 44 NSWLR 129.

Summary Proceedings: Service of a Brief

In all summary proceedings except those for which a penalty notice may be issued, if the

defendant pleads not guilty the prosecution must serve on the defendant a copy of the brief of

evidence, including all witness statements and proposed documentary exhibits, 14 days

before the hearing or such other time as the magistrate determines (s. 183 Criminal Procedure

Act). It appears that the brief should include listening device warrants and telephone intercept

warrants (DPP v Webb [2000] NSWSC 859) but not search warrants (DPP v Southorn [1999]

NSWSC 786).

If the brief is not served, the magistrate may dispense with service, adjourn the proceedings

(s. 187 Criminal Procedure Act), or refuse to admit the evidence ( s. 188 Criminal Procedure

Act). In determining whether or not to refuse to admit the evidence the magistrate is

exercising a discretionary judgement and should weigh up the competing policy

considerations including the quick and efficient disposal of criminal proceedings (on the one

hand) and the public's interest in prosecuting offenders: DPP v Fungavaka [2010] NSWSC

917.

Adjournments of Summary Proceedings

Refusal of an adjournment to a defendant can result in a procedural unfairness: Noble v DPP

(2000) 118 A Crim R 305.

Where a defendant has been refused legal aid there is a right of appeal to the Legal Aid Review Committee (s. 56 Legal Aid Commission Act).

Where a defendant has appealed to the legal Aid Review Committee, or intends to so appeal, the

court must adjourn the proceedings if the appeal is bona fide and not vexatious or frivolous or

intended to delay proceedings unless there are special circumstances: s. 57 Legal Aid

Commission Act.

In Lewis v Spencer [2007] 179 A Crim R 48 Rothman J said (at para [11]):

Prima facie the existence of an appeal or an intention requires the adjournment. It is only in circumstances where the appeal or intention to appeal is not bona fide, not frivolous or

vexatious or not otherwise intended “to improperly hinder or improperly delay” the conduct of the proceedings that the adjournment may not be granted.

Summary Proceedings: Open, Closed, and Non-Publication Orders

Generally, summary proceedings are to be in open court, that is open to the public and the

media: s. 191 Criminal Procedure Act. This general rule is subject to some important

statutory and common law exceptions. In particular, under the Court (Suppresion and Non-

Publication Orders) Act (2010) courts can make suppression or non-publication orders as to

the identity of the accused, a witness, or any party to proceedings, or as to the evidence in

proceedings, for a limited period.

In sexual assault cases (in particular in this context including indecent assault), the court can

close the court (s. 291 Criminal Procedure Act) and can also forbid the publication of part or

all of the evidence (s. 292 Criminal Procedure Act). Such an order can include suppression of

the name of the accused: Crampton v DPP (NSW C of A, 7/7/1997). In a decision about the

predecessor of this section, it was held that the interests of the accused were relevant in

determining whether or not to make an order forbidding publication: Nationwide News v

District Court of NSW (1996) 40 NSWLR 486.

At common law, the power to make a non-publication order was limited. The name of an

accused can be suppressed if it is necessary to secure the proper administration of justice: C v

R (1993) 67 A Crim R 562 at 565. It was held that the District Court had no power to order

the non-publication of the fact of a verdict even if there were to be later trials of the same

accused: John Fairfax Publications v District Court of New South Wales (2004) 61 NSWLR

344.

Order of Addresses

An argument that the defence has the right to address last in summary proceedings has been

rejected: Mason v Lyon [2005] NSWSC 804.

Summary Proceedings: Costs

Normally costs will not be awarded to a successful defendant unless the investigation was

unreasonable or the proceedings were initiated without reasonable cause: s. 214 Criminal

Procedure Act. An adjournment can be granted on condition that the Crown pays costs: Le

Bouriscot (1996) PD [178].

Indictable Proceedings Dealt with Summarily.

Indictable proceedings may dealt with summarily if they a Table 1 or Table 2 offence. The

election cannot be made after the evidence commences or the facts are tendered (s. 263

Criminal Procedure Act). Where an election is made the maximum penalty is generally 2

years imprisonment (s. 267 Criminal Procedure Act, for Table 1 and s. 268 Criminal

Procedure Act, for Table 2).

A magistrate cannot impose a cumulative sentence on a prisoner who is serving a sentence

which would mean that the new sentence would expire more than five years after the existing

sentenced commenced : s. 58 Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act.

Table 1

Table 1 offences are to be dealt with summarily unless the prosecutor or the defendant elects

(section 260 Criminal Procedure Act). They are generally more serious than Table 2 offences.

The complete list of Table 1 offences can be found in Schedule 1 of the Criminal Procedure

Act. The offences include:

reckless wounding or inflict gbh

aggravated indecent assault, culpable driving where death does not result

larceny or receiving over $5000

break and enter offences under $15000

other dishonesty offences

steal motor vehicle

public order offences

escape and other prison offences

drug offences between the small and the indictable quantity (less than commercial

quantity for cannabis)

Table 2

Table 2 offences are to be dealt with summarily unless the prosecutor elects (s. 260 Criminal

Procedure Act). They are generally the less serious offences. The complete list of Table 2

offences can be found in Schedule 1 of the Criminal Procedure Act. The offences include:

common assault, aoabh, assault police, indecent assault

larceny etc or receiving for under $5000

malicious damage under $5000

possession of an implement

take and drive motor vehicle

drug offences under the small quantity

(g) Committals

A committal is an administrative proceeding in the Local Court to determine whether or not a

person charged with an indictable offence should be committed for trial or sentence in the

Supreme Court or District Court (s. 3 Criminal Procedure Act).

Procedure in Committals

The magistrate hearing the committal must set a timetable for the prosecution to serve a copy

of the brief (including statements of all witnesses) on the defendant, and for the defendant to

indicate which witnesses are required to give oral evidence (s. 60 Criminal Procedure Act).

If a witness is not required to give oral evidence, the witness' statement can be tendered.

Practitioners should be very conscious of the fact that if a crucial witness is not required for

cross-examination, and the witness's statement is tendered at the committal, if that witness

later dies or is so ill that he/she cannot give evidence, the statement can be tendered at trial: s.

285 Criminal Procedure Act. As a result in if a witness gives damaging evidence against the

accused, which evidence is in dispute, it is always preferable to require that witness to give

evidence at committal. Even if nothing is achieved in cross-examination, the simple fact of

the witness having to give an account on oath creates a potential prior inconsistent statement.

Committals: Requiring Witnesses for Cross-examination The magistrate should not require a witness in an offence involving violence (eg attempted

murder, reckless wounding, reckless inflict grievous bodily harm, abduction, robbery, sexual

assault) to give evidence unless there are 'special reasons in the interests of justice': s. 93

Criminal Procedure Act. The phrase 'in the interests of justice' has been held in another

context to refer to incorporate 'as a paramount consideration that an accused person should

have a fair trial' : Chapman v Gentle (1986) A Crim R 29.

Special reasons

Special reasons may include where the Crown case is weak, ID in issue, inconsistent

versions, victim's willingness to testify: Baines v Gould (1993) 67 A Crim R 297. Special

reasons may include where the complainant in a sexual assault case is vague about the dates

of the offences: Kennedy (1997) 94 A Crim R 341, TS v George (1998) 5 Crim LN [843].

This applies to indictable matters which can be dealt with summarily unless summary

jurisdiction is actually offered: Kant (1994) PD [261], CN [152].

Substantial Reasons

For other types of offences, the magistrate should not require a witness to give evidence

unless there are 'substantial' reasons in the interests of justice: s. 91 Criminal Procedure Act.

'Substantial reasons' is 'obviously much wider' than special reasons: Kennedy (1997) 94 A

Crim R 341. 'Substantial' does not mean special. It is not necessary to show that the case is

exceptional or unusual. It may be that substantial reasons could be shown in a majority of

cases: Losurdo v DPP (1998) 44 NSWLR 618, (1997) 101 A Crim R 196 (approved by the

Court of Appeal in Losurdo (1998) 44 NSWLR 618, 103 A Crim R 189), this decision

appears to have the specific approval of the former Attorney General: see 'Committals in

NSW' (2000) 74 ALJ 24).

It is necessary to show that the reasons 'have substance in the context of the nature of

committal proceedings and the provisions of the Justices Act relating to them': Losurdo

(1998) 103 A Crim R 189.

If the parties agree that a witness be required to attend, the magistrate must so order: s. 91(2)

Criminal Procedure Act.

'Substantial reasons' can include a case where cross-examination might substantially

undermine the credit of a significant prosecution witness: Losurdo v DPP (1998) 44 NSWLR

618. They can also include a case where the matters to be the subject of cross-examination go

only to the exercise of the discretion of the trial judge (and thus strictly outside the

jurisdiction of the magistrate): Losurdo v DPP (1998) 44 NSWLR 618. The availability of

'Basha' type voir dires and pre-trial applications at trial is no justification for not permitting

cross-examination at the committal: Dawson v DPP [1999] NSWSC 1147. The magistrate

needs to consider separately in relation to each witness whether the witness should be

required: Hanna v Kearney (1998) 5 Crim LN [867]. 'Substantial reasons' might include

narrowing the matters in dispute: Hanna v Kearney. 'Substantial reasons' are not limited to

matters which might result in discharge at committal: Hanna v Kearney.

In JW v DPP [1999] NSWSC 1244 Simpson J said:

It is not possible to define the boundaries of "substantial reasons" in this context: Losurdo, C

of A, pp 622, 632. A potential narrowing of the issues to be determined at trial, if the

defendant is committed, is within the term; so also is the possibility of establishing the

foundation for a challenge to the admission or admissibility of evidence (Hanna p 8;

Losurdo, C of A pp 631-2); the possibility of significantly undermining the credibility of a

Crown witness (Losurdo, C of A p 631); clarification of the evidence proposed to be called

so as to avoid a defendant being taken by surprise at a trial (Losurdo, C of A, p 631); and the

opportunity of gaining relatively precise knowledge of the case against the defendant

(Hanna, p 5).

A witness cannot be required for cross-examination if the Crown indicates that the Crown no

longer relies on the evidence: DPP v Tanswell (1998) 103 A Crim R 205. Where a witness

has been required for cross-examination because of particulars matters, normally cross-

examination will be restricted to those matters.

Committals: Taking of Evidence

When a witness is required to give evidence in a paper committal, the prosecution is not

entitled to merely tender the statement of the witness in chief unless the parties consent, or if

the magistrate is satisfied that there are substantial reasons in the interests of justice why this

should be done: section 91(4) Criminal Procedure Act.

The discretion to reject evidence should not be exercised: section 70 Criminal Procedure Act,

Grassby v The Queen (1989) 168 CLR 1, 63 ALJR 630, (1989) 15 NSWLR 109.

Committals: Open, Closed, and Non-Publication Orders

Generally, committal proceedings are to be in open court, that is open to the public and the

media: s. 56 Criminal Procedure Act This general rule is subject to some important statutory

and common law exceptions. In particular, under the Court (Suppresion and Non-Publication

Orders) Act (2010) courts can make suppression or non-publication orders as to the identity

of the accused, a witness, or any party to proceedings, or as to the evidence in proceedings,

for a limited period. In sexual assault cases (in particular in this context indecent assault), the

court can close the court (s. 291 Criminal Procedure Act) and can also forbid the publication

of part or all of the evidence (s. 292 Criminal Procedure Act). Such an order can include

suppression of the name of the accused: Crampton v DPP (NSW C of A, 7/7/1997). In a

decision about the predecessor of this section, it was held that the interests of the accused

were relevant in determining whether or not to make an order forbidding publication:

Nationwide News v District Court of NSW (1996) 40 NSWLR 486.

At common law, the power to make non-publication orders is more limited. The name of an

accused can be suppressed if it is necessary to secure the proper administration of justice: C v

R (1993) 67 A Crim R 562 at 565.

Committals: the Test. At the close of the prosecution case in a committal the magistrate must determine whether or

not there is a prima facie case: s. 62 Criminal Procedure Act. At the conclusion of all the

evidence (this may be immediately after; it is very unusual for the defence to call evidence at

a committal), the magistrate must then determine whether or not 'there is a reasonable

prospect that a jury would convict': s. 64 Criminal Procedure Act.

If the magistrate decides that there is a reasonable prospect that a jury would convict, the

defendant is committed for trial to either the District or the Supreme Court. If the magistrate

decides that there is no reasonable prospect that a jury would convict, the magistrate must

discharge the defendant.

Magistrates are not precluded from making their own assessment of the evidence and of the

credibility of witnesses: Saffron (1989) 16 NSWLR 397. The assessment can take into

account a prediction of whether the trial judge will exclude evidence in the exercise of his

discretion: Grassby v The Queen (1989) 168 CLR 1.

Decisions of magistrates

The magistrate is required to give adequate reasons for a decision and failure to do so will constitute an error of law: DPP v Elias [2013] NSWSC 28 esp at para [44].

Committals: Costs The application for costs must be made on the day when the charge is dismissed: Fosse

(1989) 42 A Crim R 289. Costs will only be awarded if the proceedings were initiated

without reasonable cause or bad faith or the investigation was unreasonable or improper: s.

117 Criminal Procedure Act. There is no power to award costs in commitals under the Costs

in Criminal Cases Act: DPP v Howard (2005) 64 NSWLR 139.

Lack of (Proper) Committal.

If a magistrate declines to commit an ex officio indictment can still be presented: Kolalich v

DPP (1991) 173 CLR 222, 66 ALJR 25, Bartalesi and Fragassi (NSW CCA 24/6/97).

Lack of a (proper) committal does not of itself entitle a stay of the trial: Butler (1991) 56 A

Crim R 231, Duffield and Dellapetrona (1992) 64 A Crim R 18. The Crown is not obliged to

frame the indictment in terms of the counts in the committal: Kolalich (1990) 19 NSWLR

520.

Effect of a No Bill A no bill will only justify a stay of later proceedings if there is a degree of double jeopardy

(such as a case being no billed during the course of the trial): Mellifont (1992) 64 A Crim R

75, Swingler (1995) 80 A Crim R 471. See also Regina v Burrell [2004] NSWCCA 185.

Counsel's Brief. Police who search an advocate's papers may be in contempt of court even if they believe that

it contains documents suspected of being stolen: MacDonald and Shilling (1993) 70 A Crim

R 478.

2/. Trial Procedure and Appeals

(a) Subpoenas.

Legitimate Forensic Purpose. Counsel calling upon the subpoena should be able to identify with precision the legitimate

forensic purpose for which the document is sought: Saleam (1989) 39 A Crim R 406, Alister

v The Queen (1983-4) 154 CLR 404. It must be 'on the cards' that the documents would assist

the defence case. A report by a principal Crown witness about the case is an example of such

a document, even if nothing is known about its contents: Alister at 414, 451. Prima facie

anything which might provide for proper and fruitful cross-examination is allowable:

Maddison v Goldrick [1976] 1 NSWLR 651 esp at 663-4, Saleam. For example, in a case

where the prosecution relied on only a small proportion of a large group of a large group of

intercepted calls, there was held to be a legitimate forensic purpose in requiring production of

the other tapes: Regina v Taylor (2007) 169 A Crim R 543.

It is not a 'legitimate forensic purpose' to want to check if the Law Enforcement (Controlled

Operations) Act has been complied with: AG v Chidgey [2008] NSWCCA 65.

Width. A subpoena will be set aside if it is too wide, for example if it requires production of all

documents relating to a particular subject area (Small (1938) 38 SR (NSW) 564) although the

words 'relating to' in themselves are not necessarily fatal: Spencer Motors v LNC [1982] 2

NSWLR 921. Once the documents are produced it is too late to take this objection: Saleam.

Public Interest Immunity. When public interest immunity is claimed, the court must weigh up the public interest in non-

disclosure with the public interest in the administration of justice. In a criminal case it is

sufficient if the accused can establish that the documents will materially assist his case:

Alister.

Special Classes of Public Interest Immunity. Some classes of evidence will not be required to be disclosed unless the evidence is necessary

to establish the innocence of the accused:

identity of informers (Cain v Glass (1985) 3 NSWLR 231, Meissner (1994) 76 A

Crim R 81), even if known to the accused (AG v Stuart (1994) 75 A Crim R 8), unless

would help to show the accused is not guilty (D v National Society for Prevention of

Cruelty to Children [1978] AC 171, Smith (1996) 86 A Crim R 308, Abdullah [1999]

NSWCCA 188 esp at paras [22] to [23]).

location of listening posts, provided there is evidence that at the time of arrest and

trial the owner objects: Rankine (1986) 83 Cr App R 19, Johnson (1989) 1 All ER 121

arguably not methodology (Brown (1988) 87 Cr App R 52).

Costs. Costs can be ordered in favour of a party who successfully opposes production of documents

under subpoena: Carter v Mallesons (WA FC 15/7/93), but see compare Ansett Holdings

(Qld SC, (1997) 94 A Crim R 7).

(b) Trial Procedure

Adjournments. Normally an unrepresented accused should be granted an adjournment if he can prove that it

was through no fault of his own: Dietrich v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR 292, 67 ALJR 1

(1992) 64 A Crim R 176, Small (1994) 72 A Crim R 462. Lack of an adequate interpreter

may suffice to quash a conviction: Saraya (1994) 70 A Crim R 515. Where the Crown seeks

an adjournment, the court can tell the Crown that the adjournment will not be granted unless

the Crown agrees to pay costs: Moseley (1992) 65 A Crim R 452.

Constitutional Guarantee of Jury Trial. Under s. 80 of the Constitution a person tried on indictment for a Commonweath matter is

guaranteed jury trial even if he consents to summary trial: Brown v The Queen (1986) 160

CLR 171, 60 ALJR 257. Verdicts must be unanimous: Cheatle v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR

541, 67 ALJR 76. This does not mean that there must be 12 jurors: Brownlee v The Queen

(2001) 207 CLR 278, 75 ALJR 1180.

Judge Alone Trial. A person can elect to be tried by judge alone if the DPP consents: s. 132 Criminal Procedure

Act. The judge alone election must be made no later than 28 days before the trial, except by

leave of the court: s. 132A Criminal Procedure Act. The election is made by the accused

signing a Judge Alone Election under s. 132 Criminal Procedure Act. If the DPP does not

consent to the judge alone procedure, the judge may still order a judge alone trial if the

accused consents and it is in the interests of justice to do so: s. 132 (4) Criminal Procedure

Act. The provision states that the court may refuse the application if the ctrial will involve the

application of community standards, such as reasonableness, negligence, indecency,

obscenity, or dangerousness (s. 132 (5) Criminal Procedure Act). Disturbingly, a judge can

also order a judge alone trial if there is a substantial risk of jury tampering: s. 132(7) Criminal

Procedure Act.

Where the accused seeks a judge alone trial, and the prosecution opposes it, there is no

presumption in favour of a judge alone trial, nor does the accused have a burden of proof to

establish that there should be a judge alone trial, although there is an evidentiary onus:

Regina v Belghar [2012] NSWCCA 86 at para [96].

The accused can withdraw his consent to a judge alone trial at any time before trial by

signing and filing an Election under s. 132A (3) Criminal Procedure Act. It appears that an

accused cannot withdraw his election to be tried judge alone after the trial has commenced:

Regina v Hevesi-Nagi [2009] NSWSC 755.

The judgment justifying a verdict in a judge alone trial must refer to the relevant principles of

law including warnings of which a jury would be directed to take into account: s. 133

Criminal Procedure Act, Fleming v The Queen (1999) 197 CLR 250, 73 ALJR 1. A judge

sitting in a judge alone trial can give himself a Prasad direction, that is a direction that he can

return a verdict of not guilty at any stage, including before the defence case and addresses:

Regina v Taousanis [2001] NSWSC 57.

Stay of Proceedings A permanent stay of proceedings will only be granted in an extreme case: Jago v District

Court (NSW) (1989) 168 CLR 23 at 34. It is necessary to show that the continuation of

proceedings would involve an involve unacceptable injustice or unfairness, or be so unfairly

and unjustifiably oppressive as to constitute an abuse of process: The Queen v Edwards

(2009) 255 ALR 399 esp at [23]. The High Court in a unanimous judgment has said that a

statement of Mason and Toohey JJ. in The Queen v Glennon (1992) 173 CLR 592 (at para

[28]) that 'a stay of proceedings will only be ordered in an extreme case and there must be a

fundamental defect of such a nature that nothing a trial judge can do in the conduct of the trial

can relieve against its unfair consequences' as an authoratative statement of principle: Dupas

v The Queen [2010] HCA 20 at para [18].

A stay of proceedings until particulars were supplied was upheld in Compston (1993) PD

[216]. A temporary stay of proceedings was granted where there had been considerable

publicity about similar but unrelated sexual assault allegations in Re K [2002] NSWCCA

374.

A long delay in instituting proceedings of itself (even of over 30 years) will not justify a stay,

unless there is evidence of prejudice to the accused: Birdsall (NSW CCA 3/3/97). A stay of

proceedings was granted when a matter was not reached 5 times and witnesses and evidence

disappeared: Nicholson (1998) 5 Crim LN [881]. A stay was refused where Crown exhibits

had disappeared in Roberts (1999) 106 A Crim R 67. In The Queen v Edwards (2009) 255

ALR 399 the High Court allowed an appeal against a stay of proceedings in a 6 year old case

where the exhibits had gone missing. In RM v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 35 the CCA upheld

a decision to refuse to grnt a stay in a 20 year old sexual assault special hearing because of

the difficulty in obtaining evidence of the appellant's mental health

Duplicity No one count in an indictment should charge more than one offence or it is duplicitous:

Molloy [1921] 2 KB 364, Morrow and Flynn (1990) 48 A Crim R 232, S v The Queen (1989)

168 CLR 266, 45 A Crim R 221, Stanton v Abernathy (1990) 48 A Crim R 16, Walsh v

Tattersall (1996) 188 CLR 77, 88 A Crim R 496. This applies to individual acts of sexual

intercourse: Khouzame and Saliba (1999) 108 A Crim R 170. Each element of the offence

must be stated in the indictment: Mai (1991) 60 A Crim R 49.

Inconsistent Counts

An indictment can contain mutually exclusive or inconsistent counts: Thomson and Dann

(2002) 134 A Crim R 252.

Indictments.

The Crown is required to present an indictment within 4 weeks after committal: s. 129

Criminal Procedure Act. However the court has a discretion to permit the trial to proceed

even if the indictment is filed out of time: s. 129(4) and JSM v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 255.

The time for presentation of an indictment can be extended by order of the court, but cannot

be extended after the time for filing an indictment has expired: rule 53.10F of the District

Court Rules. If the indictment is not presented within the relevant time, the court may

proceed with the trial, adjourn the proceedings, or take such other action as the court thinks

fit.

The indictment must be filed in the court registry and a copy must be served on the accused

or his legal representative within 14 days of filing the indictment: Rule 53.10D of the District

Court Rules. After an indictment is presented, it may not be amended unless the accused

consents or with leave of the court: s. 20 Criminal Procedure Act. The prohibition applies to

substituting a fresh indictment: s. 20(3) Criminal Procedure Act. It also applies to ex officio

indictments: Sepulveda [2003] NSWCCA 131.

The indictment can be amended at nearly any time during a trial if the amendment does not

cause an injustice to the accused( s. 21 Criminal Procedure Act, s. 22 Criminal Procedure

Act, Stuart (1996) PD [195], and MM v R [2011] NSWCCA 262), but not after verdict and

conviction: Lewis (1992) 63 A Crim R 18 at 27.

In a single trial, there can only be one indictment: Swansson and Henry (2007) 16 A Crim R

263.

Signing Indictments

An indictment can be signed by the Attorney General, the Solicitor, the Director of Public

Prosecutions, a deputy DPP, or a Crown Prosecutor, or a person authorised in writing to sign

n indictment: s. 126 Criminal Procedure Act. If the indictment is signed by a private Crown

prosecutor not so authorised ( it seems few private Crowns are so authorised), any trial or

conviction which follows is a nullity: Janceski (2005) 64 NSWLR 10.

Pre Trial Disclosure Generally

In cases where there is no order for pre-trial disclosure, there are still limited requirements for

pre-trial disclosure.

Prosecution Obligation of Disclosure

Under the Bar Rules, prosecutors are required to disclose to the defence all material which

could constitute evidence relevant to the guilt or innocence of the accused (see rule 66). At

common law, the Crown is obliged to inform the defence of any material which could be

sensibly seen as:

(1) to be relevant or possibly relevant to an issue in the case;

(2) to raise or possibly raise a new issue whose existence is not apparent from the evidence

the prosecution proposes to use;

(3) to hold out a real (as opposed to fanciful) prospect of providing a lead on evidence which

goes to (1) or (2).

including previous inconsistent statements and previous convictions of Crown witnesses:

Bradshaw (1997) 4 Crim LN [702] (WA CCA), Reardon (2004) 60 NSWLR 454, 146 A

Crim R 475 , Spiteri (2004) 61 NSWLR 369 , Livingstone (2004) 150 A Crim R 117.

Material in a victim impact statement should be disclosed to the defence prior to the trial if it

contains material which was sufficiently solid to cause reasonable prosecutors to think that

cross-examination based on the information might elicit answers materially affecting the

credibility of the witness: Lewis-Hamilton (Vic CCA 8/4/97).

In England it has been held that Crown is not obliged to supply the defence with prior

inconsistent statements of defence witnesses: Regina v Brown (H of L) (1998) AC 367.

Defence Obligations of Pre trial Disclosure

Similarly, even if there is no order for pre-trial disclosure, the defence needs leave of the

court to call evidence of alibi unless a Notice of Alibi was served on the DPP at least 42 days

before the trial is listed for hearing: s. 150 Criminal Procedure Act. The notice must contain

names and addresses of witnesses to be called in support of the alibi. See the paragraph

headed 'Alibi' below. The defence must also give notice of an intention to rely on the defence

of substantial impairment in a murder trial under s. 151 Criminal Procedure Act. See the

paragraph headed 'Notice' in the Chapter on 'Defences'.

Orders For Pre-Trial Disclosure

A court can order pre-trial disclosure if it is satisfied that the trial will be a complex criminal

trial, having regard to the likely length of the trial, the nature of the evidence, and the legal

issues likely to arise: s. 136 Criminal Procedure Act.

If pre-trial disclosure is ordered, the court determines a time table for prosecution disclosure,

then defence response, then the prosecution response to the defence response: s. 137

In practice it is very rare for an order to be made for pre-trial disclosure, especially in the

District Court.

Prosecution Disclosure Where an Order is Made For Pre Trial Disclosure

The prosecution disclosure should include:

(a) a copy of the indictment

(b) an outline of the prosecution case

(c) copies of statements of all witnesses proposed to be called at the trial by the prosecution

(not statements which have already been served- see s. 147).

(d) copies of all documents proposed to be tendered by the prosecution

(e) copies of all reports of experts whom the prosecution proposes to call

(f) copies of any documents relevant to the reliability or credibility of any prosecution

witness

(g) a copy of any information, document or other thing relevant to the case of the prosecution

or the accused

(h) a copy of any information, document or other thing adverse to the credit or credibility of

the accused (s. 137 Criminal Procedure Act).

There is a continuing obligation upon the prosecution to disclose: s. 141 Criminal Procedure

Act.

Defence Response Where an Order is Made For Pre Trial Disclosure

The defence Response is to include:

(a) notice of whether the accused intends to adduce evidence of the defences of insanity, self-

defence, provocation, accident, duress, claim of right, automatism, or intoxication

(b) copies of any reports of any experts proposed to be called

(c) names and addresses of any character witnesses proposed to be called (but only if the

prosecution gives an undertaking that the police or prosecution authorities will not interview

the witnesses before the trial without the leave of the court)

(d) the accused's response to the prosecution disclosure: s. 139

The last part of the defence Response (paragraph (d) immediately above) is to indicate if

there is any dispute (and what is in dispute) about:

(a) the Crown's expert evidence

(b) surveillance evidence

(c) continuity of custody of exhibits

(d) any transcript

(e) any documentary evidence or other exhibit

(f) the 'accuracy or admissibility' of any other proposed evidence

(g) any significant issue relating to the indictment including proposed applications to sever

counts or trials (s. 139).

Prosecution Response to the Defence Response

The prosecution must indicate what expert evidence is in dispute and what material which the

defence has indicated it wishes to tender will be objected to: s. 140.

Sanctions for Non-Compliance with Pre-Trial Disclosure

Sanctions for non-compliance with pre-trial disclosure include:

the court may refuse to admit evidence which was not disclosed

the court may dispense with formal proof of evidence if the evidence was disclosed to

the other party and the other party did not disclose an intention to dispute the material

the court can grant an adjournment to a party if the other party seeks to adduce

evidence which was not disclosed

the judge or, with the leave of the court, any party may comment on the failure by a

party to comply with pre-trial disclosure, but must not suggest that an accused person

failed to comply because he was of believed he was guilty

The court may not prevent an accused from adducing evidence or comment on the accused's

non-compliance unless the prosecution has complied with the pre-trial disclosure

requirements: s. 148

Late service of expert reports by the Crown

The late service of expert reports by the Crown may lead to a miscarriage of justice: Haoui v

Regina [2008] NSWCCA 209 .

Withdrawing a Plea. A plea of guilty can be withdrawn if the defendant shows that otherwise there has been/would

be a miscarriage of justice: Chiron [1980] 1 NSWLR 218 at 235, Boag (1994) 73 A Crim R

35 at 36. A plea of guilty is regarded as an admission to all the legal ingredients of the

offence: Sagiv (1986) 22 A Crim R 73. In order for the defendant to establish that a plea of

guilty to be withdrawn, he must demonstrate that there there is some circumstance which

shows that the plea was not attributable to a genuine consciousness of guilt: Boag at 37.

Circumstances which may support the withdrawal of a plea include:

where the plea has been entered pursuant to a material mistake (Sagiv at 80,

Boskovitz (1996) PD [268])

where the defendant did not appreciate the nature of the charge (Boag at 37, Ferrer-

Esis (1991) 55 A Crim R 231, Pauli (1991) 55 A Crim R 297)

if the facts presented are different to those pleaded to (Chow (1992) 63 A Crim R 316

at 320)

where there is no evidence upon which the defendant could have been convicted

(Boag at 37)

where fraud or threats or other impropriety caused the plea to be entered (Boag at 37)

exceptionally where there has been an erroneous ruling on evidence leading to a plea

(Chiron, Marchando [2000] 110 A Crim R 337). A plea of guilty will only be

permitted to be withdrawn because of an erroneous ruling on evidence in exceptional

circumstances: Toro-Martinez (2000) 114 A Crim R 533 .

where there has been a miscarriage of justice (Chiron)

The onus is on the accused to show that there has been a miscarriage: Boag (1994) 73 A Crim

R 35.

If the plea of guilty has been entered during the course of the trial, and the judge has accepted

the plea under s. 157 Criminal Procedure Act, there is no discretion in the trial judge to later

allow the plea to be withdrawn: Hura (2001) 121 A Crim R 472 .

Plea Bargaining. The Crown can accept a plea to any lesser charge of which the accused could be lawfully

convicted: s. 153 Criminal Procedure Act, Andrew Foster Brown (1989) 44 A Crim R 385,

Chow (1992) 63 A Crim R 316. The judge cannot reject a plea unless something suggests that

the plea is not genuine: Maxwell v The Queen (1996) 184 CLR 501. The judge is not bound

by an agreement between the parties as to the factual basis of the plea: GAS and SJK v The

Queen (2004) 217 CLR 198 .The Crown will be permitted to withdraw acceptance of a plea

where to do otherwise would bring the system of justice into disrepute: Filioemaha (2003)

138 A Crim R 299.

Separate Trials. An application for separate trials can be made at any time (s. 21 Criminal Procedure Act)

although it is preferable to make the application prior to the trial. There may be an application

for a separate trial in two situations:

firstly, where an accused is trying to have tried separately different counts he/she is

facing

secondly where an accused in a joint trial is attempting to be tried separately from

his/her co-accused.

As to the first situation, in sexual assault trials at least, there should be separate trials unless

similar fact applies: De Jesus v The Queen (1986) 68 ALR 1, Sutton v The Queen (1984) 152

CLR 528 (Brennan). Similar fact will not apply if there is a reasonable possibility of

concoction: Hoch v The Queen (1988) 165 CLR 292, 62 ALJR 582.

As to the second situation, prima facie the rule is that where a number of people are charged

with committing the same crime, they should be tried together: Webb and Hay v The Queen

(1991) 181 CLR 41 (esp para 25), The applicant has the onus of showing that a 'positive

injustice' would be caused if there was a joint trial: Middis, Hunt J, u/r 27/3/199, Patsalis and

Spathis (1999) 107 A Crim R 432.

There was some authority that where there was a cut-throat defence (that is, each accused

blaming the other), there should be a separate trial (Farrell and Cotton (1990) 48 A Crim R

311). However the more recent trend of cases is that in where there is a cut throat defence,

there should be a joint trial, unless there was some 'special or other' feature which required

separate trials: Ali v The Queen (2005) 214 ALR 1, 79 ALJR 662 (see esp para [58]), and

Fernando [1999] NSWCCA 66. There should be separate trials when

where in a ROI the co-accused gives the accused a history of the accused's violence:

Jones and Waghorn (1991) 55 A Crim R 159

where a co-accused attacks the character of Crown witnesses (Taouk (1993) PD [27]).

A separate trial should be granted when:

1. Where the evidence against an applicant for a separate trial is significantly weaker than and

different to that admissible against another, or the other accused to be jointly tried with him;

and

2. Where the evidence against those other accused contains material highly prejudicial to the

applicant, although not admissible against him; and

3. Where there is a real risk that the weaker Crown case against the applicant will be made

immeasurably stronger by reason of the prejudicial material,

a separate trial will usually be ordered in relation to the charges against the applicant. The

applicant must show that positive injustice would be caused to him in a joint trial (Middis,

Hunt J, u/r 27/3/1991, quoted in Dinh (2000) 120 A Crim R 42 at para [28]. In Pham [2004]

NSWCCA 190 at paras [39] to [40] it was doubted that it was necessary to show that the case

against the accused was weaker. It was also said that 'immeasurably' in this context means

'significant, though incommensurate' or disproportionate.

Multiple Trials

Where an accused faces a number of separate trials, there is no principle that the most serious

matter should be tried first: Giovannone (2001) 119 A Crim R 519.

Change of Venue. In order to obtain a change of venue the accused must satisfy the court that there is a

reasonable possibility that the accused will not get a fair and impartial trial: Webb and Hay v

The Queen (1992) 181 CLR 41, 64 A Crim R 38. The power to change venue is given by s.

30 Criminal Procedure Act.

Joint Trials. In a joint trial the judge should present the case against each accused separately: Masters

(1992) 59 A Crim R 445 at 448.

Where Does the Accused Sit?

The judge can require the accused to enter the dock or can allow him to remain in the well of

the court: s. 34 Criminal Procedure Act.

Absence of the accused

Generally the accused must be present at every stage of the trial: Jamal v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 198 esp at para [35]. However, if the accused absconds during the course of the trial,

the judge has a discretion about whether the trial should continue or not: Williams v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 286. It is not clear what the responsibilities of counsel are in this situation, that is whether to withdraw or to proceed to appear.

Jury Challenges.

The accused has 3 peremptory challenges to jurors (s. 42 Jury Act). The Crown has the same

number of challenges as all the accused put together: s. 42 Jury Act, Dickens [1983] 1

NSWLR 403. The old rule that there were more challenges in a murder trial has been

abolished.

The DPP Guidelines state that the right to challenge 'should never be exercised so as to

attempt to select a jury that is not representative of the community, including as to age, sex,

ethnic origin, religious belief, marital status, or economic, cultural or social background'

(DPP Guideline 25).

Discharge of Individual Jurors

An individual juror can be discharged through death illness or any other reason. A criminal

trial can proceed with as few as 10 jurors, and with as few as 8 if the prosecution and the

accused both consent or if the trial has been going for at least 2 months: s. 22 Jury Act.

Where a juror is discharged through illness, it is not necessary for the judge to be satisfied

that the juror will not recover quickly: Wu v The Queen (1999) 199 CLR 99. The judge must

make 2 separate steps: first, to determine whether the individual juror should be discharged,

and then to determine whether or not the trial can continue with the reduced jury. The jury

can be reduced below 12 in Commonwealth cases despite the constitutional guarantee of 'trial

by jury': Brownlee (2001)207 CLR 278.

A juror should not be discharged where there is evidence that that juror would, if not

discharged, have voted for an acquittal: BG v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 139 esp at para

[103].

Plea After Empanelling. If there is a plea of guilty during a trial, the jury can be discharged and the judge can find the

accused guilty: s. 157 Criminal Procedure Act. At common law, once the jury is empanelled,

only it can find the accused guilty, even if there is a plea: Ross (1994) PD [175]. Once a

judge has made a finding that the accused is guilty under s. 157, the judge has no discretion to

allow the plea of guilty to be withdrawn: Regina v Hura (2001) 121 A Crim R 472. .

Plea by Co-Accused in Front of the Jury.

It is an error to have a co-accused plead in front of the jury: Velardi (NSW CCA 24/5/96).

The plea of a co-accused is not evidence against the accused: Cowell (1985) 24 A Crim R 47

at 49. This also applies to an alleged co-offender who becomes a Crown witness: Nale [2002]

NSWCCA 31.

Crown Opening.

If the evidence falls short of the Crown opening there may be an entitlement to a discharge:

Owen (1991) 56 A Crim R 279. The Crown is apparently entitled to refer to itself as bringing

charges on behalf of the community: Skipworth [2006] NSWCCA 37.

Defence Opening

The defence is entitled to make an opening address immediately after the Crown's address,

whether or not the defence intends to call evidence, limited to setting out the matters in

dispute and the nature of the defence: s. 159 Criminal Procedure Act. The limitations on this

right to make an opening were stressed in Regina v MM (2004) 145 A Crim R 148.

Duties of Prosecutors.

The Bar Association Rules require that prosecutors:

not press for a conviction beyond putting the case fully and firmly (rule 63)

not endeavour to inflame or prejudice the jury (rule 64)

advise defence counsel of the existence of any witness who he does not propose to

call but who he considers relevant to the defence (rule 66)

not act as an advocate for a vindictive sentence or a sentence of a particular

magnitude but be ready to assist the court to avoid appellable error (rule 71)

inform the accused all material which could constitute evidence relevant to the guilt

or innocence of the accused (rule 66, DPP Guideline 18)

inform the defence of the record and any indemnities and criminal record of any

informers the Crown intends to call (DPP Guideline 16)

Transcript. A conviction was quashed in Khalifeh (1996) 85 A Crim R 68 where the appellant in a 32

day case had no transcript.

Pursuant to s. 55C of the Jury Act the jury can be given access to a copy of the transcript if

the jury requests, however this power should be exercised with caution and it is usually

preferable to refer to the evidence in the summing up: Fowler [2000] NSWCCA 142.

Choice of Witnesses. The Crown alone has the responsibility of whether or not to call a particular witness: The

Queen Apostilides (1984) 154 CLR 563. The Crown should not refuse to call a witness

simply because the witness' testimony does not support the Crown's theory of the case. The

Crown must be satisfied, normally from a conference, that the witness cannot give relevant

and truthful evidence: Kneebone (1999) 47 NSWLR 450, [1999] NSWCCA 279. The judge

only has the power to call a witness in exceptional circumstances: Apostilides, Griffis (1996)

91 A Crim R 203.

The DPP Guidelines state that 'the Crown should generally call all apparently credible

witnesses whose evidence is essential to the complete unfolding of the Crown case or is

otherwise material to the proceedings' (DPP Guideline 26). 'Mere inconsistency of the

testimony of the witness with the Crown case is not grounds for refusing to call the witness'

(DPP Guideline 26).

Witness not Called a Committal.

If a witness not called at committal is called at trial, the trial judge may order a voir dire:

Basha (1989) 39 A Crim R 337, Sandford (1993) 72 A Crim R 160.

The Voir Dire

Where evidence needs to be called to determine whether or not evidence should be led before

the jury, the evidence on the preliminary question of admissibility is led in the absence of the

jury in what is called a 'voir dire'. The voir dire can be held before the jury is empanelled:

Rule 53.11 District Court Rules.

Reading the Evidence of a Witness Unavailable at Trial If a witness is dead or so ill as to not be able to travel or is absent from Australia, the

depositions of the committal can be read: s. 285 Criminal Procedure Act, formerly s. 409

Crimes Act. This includes statements tendered at committal: s. 289 Criminal Procedure Act.

It is not sufficient for s. 285 to apply if the witness cannot give credible evidence, or cannot

give evidence without endangering the witness' health (Sinanovic (CCA 4/11/92), Brotherton

(1993) 65 A Crim R 301). Section 285 only applies to admit evidence at the committal. It

does not apply to a transcript of testimony at trial: Li [2003] NSWCCA 386.

Where an accused is unrepresented at committal, a statement is inadmissible under s. 285

unless the accused is advised of his rights including the right to seek an adjournment: s. 89

Criminal Procedure Act, Adamiczka (1994) 71 A Crim R 291.

There is no discretion in NSW to exclude such evidence unless the prejudice outweighs the

probative value: Lynch [1979] 2 NSWLR 775, Gorman v Fitzpatrick (1987) 32 A Crim R

330, Stackelroth (1996) 86 A Crim R 438 but see Scott and Barnes [1989] 2 WLR 924 ,

Radford (1993) 66 A Crim R 210, Mendham (1994) PD [14]. The defence can require the

deposition to be read with no discretion to reject such evidence: s. 286 Criminal Procedure

Act, Stackelroth (1996) 86 A Crim R 438. The jury should be directed that it has not seen the

witness to judge his credibility, or had the opportunity to cross-examine him, and the

evidence should be scrutinized with great care: Horan [1951] VLR 249, Nablerski (1989) 44

A Crim R 434, Scott and Barnes, Mendham.

The depositions are taken to be a true record unless the contrary is proved: s. 287 Evidence

Act.

Objections By Judge.

A trial judge should not reject questions not objected to unless eg the question is unfair: Lars

and Da Silva (1994) PD [273].

Asking questions of witnesses

The CCA has stressed that caution must be exercised by the judge in questioning witnesses: see FB v Regina [2011]NSWCCA 217 esp at para [91].

Failure to give reasons

Failure of a judge to give reasons for a ruling is an error of law but it will not generally lead to a succesful appeal if the appeal court can independently come to the same conclusion: Madubuko v The Queen [2011] NSWCCA 135 esp at para [22].

Trials: Open, Closed, and Non-Publication Orders

Generally, committal proceedings are to be in open court, that is open to the public and the

media. This general rule is subject to some statutory and common law exceptions.The name

of an accused can be suppressed if it is necessary to secure the proper administration of

justice: C v R (1993) 67 A Crim R 562 at 565.

The publication of the name of a child who is a victim, defendant, or witness in criminal proceedings is generally prohibited, unless the child is over 16 and consents, or if the child is under 16 and the court consents. The court can also permit publication of the name of a child convicted of a serious indictable offence: (s. 15A Children (Criminal Proceedings) Act).

In sexual assault cases (in particular in this context indecent assault), the court can close the

court (s. 291 Criminal Procedure Act) and can also forbid the publication of part or all of the

evidence (s. 292 Criminal Procedure Act). Such an order can include suppression of the name

of the accused: Crampton v DPP (NSW C of A, 7/7/1997). In a decision about the

predecessor of this section, it was held that the interests of the accused were relevant in

determining whether or not to make an order forbidding publication: Nationwide News v

District Court of NSW (1996) 40 NSWLR 486.

Power to Direct an Acquittal. A trial judge has no power to direct an acquittal on the basis that the evidence that the

evidence is unsafe and unsatisfactory. However if the identification evidence is unsatisfactory

he may take that evidence away from the jury and then direct an acquittal: R (1989) 44 A

Crim R 404. It is not enough that an innocent hypothesis can't be excluded: JMR (1991) 57 A

Crim R 9.The judge should consider whether or not there is some evidence which, if

accepted, could prove each element of the offence beyond reasonable doubt: Regina v Bilick

and Starke (1984) 36 SASR 322 at 337, 11 A Crim R 452 , and Regina v XHR [2012]

NSWCCA 247.

On a no case submission, the Crown case is taken at its highest, and evidence favouring the

accused is disregarded: Doney v The Queen (1990) 50 A Crim R 157.

Alternative Counts. If the Crown does not raise an alternative count it should not be left to the jury: Pureau (1990)

47 A Crim R 230, Cameron [1983] 2 NSWLR 66, King (2004) 59 NSWLR 515 at para [110].

The principles as to leaving alternative counts to a jury were helpfully summarised in King

(2004) 59 NSWLR 515 at para [110]. It is undesirbale for an alternative count to be raised by the trial judge for the first time in the summing up (that is, after addresses): Sheen v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 259 esp at para [90].

If the jury is satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that the accused is guilty of one of two

alternative counts, it need only be satisfied on balance as to which of the two applies: Gilson

(1991) 53 A Crim R 344.

In a case where an accused is indicted with an offence (such as murder) and a less serious

offence (such as manslaughter) is left as an alternative, it appears that no verdict can be taken

on the lesser count unless the jury returns a unanimous verdict of not guilty on the more

serious count: Stanton v The Queen [2003] HCA 29.

Dock Statement. There are no dock statements for people charged after 10th June 1994: s. 31 Criminal

Procedure Act. The accused can give a dock statement and sworn evidence: Lister (1981) 1

NSWLR 110. However the accused can't say in the witness box that everything he said in the

dock was true: Tangmahsuk (1987) 7 NSWLR 551. The judge may permit notes to be

referred to but not read: Schneidas (1981) 4 A Crim R 101. A corporation may be able to

make a dock statement: Elite Wood Products (Kinchington J 28/8/91, u/r, doubted by the

CCA, Bulletin 63).

It appears that a document can be tendered in or after the dock statement if the accused would

have been able to tender it if giving sworn evidence: See Lun and Welsh (1932) 49 WN 116,

Howard (1932) 49 WN 196.

Alibi.

The defence needs leave of the court to call evidence of alibi unless a Notice of Alibi in

writing was served on the DPP at least 21 days before the trial is listed for hearing: s. 150

Criminal Procedure Act. The notice must contain names and addresses of witnesses to be

called in support of the alibi.

The Crown can normally tender an alibi notice as part of its case, though each case depends

on its facts: Rossborough (1985) Cr App 139. For this reason great care should be taken in

drafting an alibi notice.

The jury should be directed that:

if they accept the alibi they must acquit

if the alibi might reasonably be true they must acquit

if they reject the alibi they must assess the evidence as a whole: Amyouni (CCA

18/2/88 u/r), followed in Steeden (1994) PD [363].

The jury should also be directed that alibi witnesses can be genuinely mistaken, that even

false alibis can be put forward for many reasons, and that the fact of a false alibi can only be

used if the sole reason for the fabrication was to deceive them: Visser (1994) PD [378].

In Skondin [2005] NSWCCA 417 (esp at para [47]) it was held that a trial judge should be

slow to refuse leave to call alibi evidence where no notice has been given unless the Crown

has suffered significant prejudice which could not be addressed without significant disruption

of the trial. See also Evans (2006) 164 A Crim R 489.

Direction to Convict.

The judge can direct the jury to convict if there is no dispute about any of the ingredients of

the offence: Yager v The Queen (1976-7) 139 CLR 28. If manslaughter arises as an issue on

the facts must be left to the jury but there is no obligation to put to the jury the option of a

merciful verdict of manslaughter. However the jury strictly has the power to return such a

verdict even if that option is not left to them: Gammage v The Queen (1969) 122 CLR 444 .

Addresses.

Counsel for the accused address after the Crown addresses: s. 160 Criminal Procedure Act.

Counsel for the accused address in the reverse order of the indictment (and thus also in the

reverse order of the order of cross-examining), but see Webb & Hay (1992) 64 A Crim R 38

at 66.

The Crown address should not suggest that because there was not greater cross-examination

of a Crown witness, or that the witness's evidence was consistent with his prior statements to

the police. The Crown should also not express a personal opinion (such as 'sounds like a

girlfriend to me'): Rugari (2001) 122 A Crim R 1 , Liristis (2004) 146 A Crim R 547. The

Crown should not put a submission to the jury that because of their gender the jury female

jurors have experience about a particular matter: GDD and NJC v Regina [2010] NSWCCA

62 (per Grove J at para [37]). The Crown should not address the jury to the effect that

witnesses have lied if this has never been put to the witnesses: Teasdale (2004) 145 A Crim R

345.

In Regina v Sam and Sam [2009] NSWSC 561 the trial judge permitted the Crown to provide

the jury with a document containing references to questions and answers in the accused's

record of interview relating to a particular topic.

The NSW CCA has said that these features either alone or in combination in a Crown address

are worthy of censure in Regina v Livermore (2006) 67 NSWLR 659 at para [31]:

(i) A submission to the jury based upon material which is not in evidence.

(ii) Intemperate or inflammatory comments, tending to arouse prejudice or emotion in the

jury.

(iii) Comments which belittle or ridicule any part of an accused’s case.

(iv) Impugning the credit of a Crown witness, where the witness was not afforded the

opportunity of responding to an attack upon credit.

(v) Conveying to the jury the Crown Prosecutor's personal opinions.

This case also contains a useful summary of cases where an address by a Crown prosecutor

has been held to have breached these rules.

See also Regina v Causevic [2008] NSWCCA 14 especially at para [4], GDD and NJC v

Regina [2010] NSWCCA 62, Geggo v Regina [2013] NSWCCA 7 esp at para [225].

Summing Up.

The summing up should include a concise summary of the evidence on each legal issue:

Zorad (1990) 19 NSWLR 91. This is so despite the existence of s. 161 Criminal Procedure

Act, which says that the trial judge need not summarise the evidence: Piazza (NSW CCA u/r

16/6/97).

Directions based on differences between the accused's evidence and matters put to witnesses

by counsel for the defence are 'fraught with peril and should therefore only be used with

much circumspection' : Manuta (1990) 54 SASR 17, cited in Birks (1990) 19 NSWLR 677 at

691. If such directions are given, the jury should be told that there may be many explanations

for such differences, such as counsel misunderstanding his /her instructions or simply

overlooking the instructions. See also Picker [2002] NSWCCA 78

The summing up should put the fairly put the defence case to the jury: Davis (1997) 4 Crim

LN [731]. It should contain a fair and balanced summary of the law, the issues, and the

respective cases for the prosecution and the defence: Meher [2004] NSWCCA 355 esp at para

[77], Wong v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 101. It should not normally include arguments not

put by the Crown: Meher at para [87]. It should not include a demolition of the defence case:

Taleb [2006] NSWCCA 119.

Sending the Jury Out.

The jury should be told that they should not commence considering their verdicts until

applications have been made for redirections: Lean & Aland (CCA 22/2/93), McCormack

(1996) 85 A Crim R 445.

Chronologies

In complex cases juries may be provided with a chronology not as evidence but as an aide memoire: Regina v Petroulias (No. 34) [2007] NSWSC 1462.

Inadmissible Material to Jury Room.

A conviction was quashed where inadmissible material was sent to the jury room: Rinaldi

(1993) 68 A Crim R 284, Rudkowsky (1993) PD [2], Vong [2001] NSWCCA 20 but see

Minarowska (1995) 83 A Crim R 78. The test is whether or not it could be said that the jury

would have returned the same verdicts if the irregularity had not occurred: Regina v Marsland

(NSW CCA 17/7/1991), referred to in Qing An v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 53.

A conviction was quashed when the judge read inadmissible material to the jury: Phipps and

Young (1995) PD [389].

Similarly an unauthorised visit by some jurors to a crime scene led to a conviction being

quashed: Skaf (2004) 60 NSWLR 86 .

In a case where a juror accessed the fact of a prior trial of the accused for another murder, the

conviction of the accused for another murder was quashed: K (2003) 59 NSWLR 431, 144 A

Crim R 468.

Sending the Jury Home

Normally juries are allowed to 'separate' or go home at the end of the day: s. 54 Jury Act. An

argument that this did not apply to Commonwealth trials was rejected by the High Court:

Brownlee (2001) 75 ALJR 1180. The Court of Criminal Appeal has said that the jury should

be brought in and the jury told they can go home, with a warning not to discuss the matter

outside the jury room: Radju (2000-2001) 53 NSWLR 471.

Communications Between Judge and Jury

Before a judge communicates with the jury, it is preferable that the judge communicates with

counsel about what the judge is going to say, and then communicates with the jury in open

court: Colville (2003) 137 A Crim R 543.

Jury Notes

The judge should disclose the contents of notes from the jury to the parties, unless the note

involves a personal matter unconnected with the trial, or includes references to voting

numbers: Burrell v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 65 esp at paras [261 to [ 265], Black [2007]

VSCA 61.

Bias.

The test for bias is whether or not a fair minded member of the public would have a

reasonable suspicion of bias of the judge or jury: Webb and Hay (1994) 181 CLR 41, 68

ALJR 582, (1994) 73 A Crim R 258. Even a juror being related to a witness may not suffice:

Schumacher (1996) PD [192]. A juror speaking to a Crown witness may not automatically

suffice to lead to a conviction being quashed: Minarowska (1995) 83 A Crim R 78.

The Exhortation.

If the jury appears to be having trouble reaching a unanimous verdict, the judge may give the

jury the 'exhortation'. The exhortation to a jury should not refer to public cost and

inconvenience: Black (1993) 179 CLR 44, 68 ALJR 91 at 95, (1993) 69 A Crim R 248, Yuill

(1994) 7 A Crim R 314. Black contains a pro forma exhortation in the following terms:

"Members of the jury, I have been told that you have not been able to reach a verdict so far. I

have the power to discharge you from giving a verdict but I should only do so if I am

satisfied that there is no likelihood of genuine agreement being reached after further

deliberation. Judges are usually reluctant to discharge a jury because experience has shown

that juries can often agree if given more time to consider and discuss the issues. But if, after

calmly considering the evidence and listening to the opinions of other jurors, you cannot

honestly agree with the conclusions of other jurors, you must give effect to your own view of

the evidence.

Each of you has sworn or affirmed that you will give a true verdict according to the evidence.

That is an important responsibility. You must fulfil it to the best of your ability. Each of you

takes into the jury room your individual experience and wisdom and you are expected to

judge the evidence fairly and impartially in that light. You also have a duty to listen carefully

and objectively to the views of every one of your fellow jurors. You should calmly weigh up

one another's opinions about the evidence and test them by discussion. Calm and objective

discussion of the evidence often leads to a better understanding of the differences of opinion

which you may have and may convince you that your original opinion was wrong. That is

not, of course, to suggest that you can, consistently with your oath or affirmation as a juror,

join in a verdict if you do not honestly and genuinely think that it is the correct one.

Experience has shown that often juries are able to agree in the end, if they are given more

time to consider and discuss the evidence. For that reason, judges usually request juries to re-

examine the matters on which they are in disagreement and to make a further attempt to reach

a verdict before they may be discharged. So, in the light of what I have already said, I ask you

to retire again and see whether you can reach a verdict."

The judge must tell the jury that each juror has a duty to give a verdict according to the evidence, and that if the juror cannot honestly agree with the other jurors he should not. Failure to give this direction is appellable: Timbery v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 355.

A conviction was quashed in a case where a judge gave a Black direction but then told the jury that at the end of 8 hours deliberation, the jury could give a majority verdict: RJS v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 241. See also Hunt v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 152. However, a direction to the jury that in certain circumstances a majority vedict can be returned (without reference to time limits) is acceptable: Ingham v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 88 esp at para [85].

Unanimous/Majority Verdicts

Until recently (26 May 2006) verdicts had to be unanimous in New South Wales. However,

as from that date, in a state criminal trial, a majority verdict can be returned if

the jury consists of at least 11 jurors

the jurors have deliberated for a period of time (at least 8 hours) that the court

considers reasonable having regard to the nature and complexity of the criminal

proceedings

the court is satisfied, after examination on oath of one of the jurors, that it is unlikely

that the jury will reach a unanimous verdict after further deliberation (s. 55F Jury

Act).

These preconditions are mandatory. In particular, it is not sufficient that the jury has deliberated for 8 hours, the trial judge must make a determination that the jury has deliberated for a reasonable time given the nature and complexity of the case: AGW v Regina [2008] NSWCCA 81, Hanna v Regina (2008) 191 A Crim R 302. It also seems that lunch hours are not to be taken into account as deliberation time, although time getting redirections is taken as part of deliberation time: AGW. A failure to examine one of the jurors on oath will also render the majority verdict liable to be quashed on appeal: RJS v Regina (2007) 173 A Crim R 100

'Majority verdict' means a verdict of 11-1 in a case where there are 12 jurors, or a verdict of

10-1 in a case where there are 11 jurors.

There cannot be a majority verdict in a Commonwealth matter (s. 55F (4)Jury Act). That

confirms the existing law. It was held that because of s. 80 of the Constitution for a person

tried on indictment for a Commonweath matter is the verdicts must be unanimous: Cheatle

(1993) 177 CLR 541, 67 ALJR 76. This does not mean that there must be 12 jurors:

Brownlee (2001) 75 ALJR 1180.

Verdict.

Once a verdict has been given and the jury have been charged the verdict cannot be set aside

by the trial judge even if the jury reached the verdict under a misapprehension: Biggs (WA

SC 10/9/97, (1997) 4 Crim LN [760]).

Chatting to the Press

The practice of Crown Prosecutors making statements to television and radio was specifically

criticised in Sheikh (2004) 144 A Crim R 124 at paras [113] to [114].

Costs

Where an accused is acquitted or discharged either in a trial or an appeal, the accused can ask

the judge for a certificate for costs (s. 2 Costs in Criminal Cases Act). The certificate must

specify that if the prosecution had been in possession of all the relevant facts, it would not

have been reasonable to commence the proceedings; and that any act of the defendant which

contributed to the institution of the proceedings was reasonable in the circumstances (s. 3

Costs in Criminal Cases Act). The certificate should be forwarded to the Director General of

the Attorney-General's Department who may determine the amount of costs to be paid (s. 4

Costs in Criminal Cases Act).

The relevant considerations are set out in Mordaunt v DPP (2007) 171 A Crim R 510 at para

[36].

No certificate can be given under the Costs in Criminal Cases Act for Commonwealth

offences: Solomons v District Court of NSW (2002) 76 ALJR 1601

If the jury is discharged (except in the case of a hung jury) the judge can be asked to provide

a certificate under s. 6A of the Suitors Fund Act, certifying the reason for the discharge of the

jury, and that such discharge was not attributable to the fault of the accused or his legal

representatives. This site includes a Precedent for a Suitors Fund Certificate.

(c) Appeals from the Local Court

District Court Appeals.

Appeals from the Local Court to the District Court must be brought within 28 days of

conviction order or sentence (s. 11 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act) but leave may be

granted to appeal within a period of 3 months: (s. 13 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act). An

appeal against conviction after the appellant has pleaded guilty or has not appeared can only

be made with the leave of the court: (s. 12 Crimes ( Appeal and Review) Act).

The appeal is by way of rehearing on the transcript of evidence heard before the magistrate

unless the court gives leave on the grounds that it is in the interests of justice for further

evidence to be given: s. 17- 18 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act. Victims of an offence

involving violence can only be required to give evidence if it is established that there are

special reasons why the witness should attend to give evidence. Other witnesses are only

required to give evidence if there are substantial reasons why the witness should give

evidence (s. 19). The judge should consider whether each individual witness should be called,

and not make a ruling that all witnesses be called 'en bloc': Charara [2006] NSWCCA 244 at

para [27].

The rehearing is not a rehearing 'de novo' because normally the evidence that can be called on

appeal is limited to the evidence before the magistrate: Gianoutsos v Glykis (2006) 65

NSWLR 539 esp at paras [24] to [31]. Although the reasons given by the magistrate are not

part of the evidence it has been held (obiter dicta) that they can be taken into account

particularly on the assessment of the credibility of witnesses: Charara v Regina (2006) 164 A

Crim R 39 at paras [23] to [24]. It is submitted that this part of the decision in Charara was

wrongly decided. The judge should also recognise the advantage of the magistrate who had

the advantage of seeing and hearing the witnesses give evidence: Charara v Regina (2006)

164 A Crim R 39 at paras [18] to [19].

The question for the District Court judge hearing a conviction appeal is not whether it has

been demonstrated that the magistrate was in error, but whether the District Court judge has

been satisfied beyond reasonable doubt of the guilt of the accused: Wood v DPP [2006]

NSWCA 240 esp at para [7].

Where the judge intends to make a finding about the appellant's credit different to that of the

magistrate based on the depositions at least the judge should warn the parties and give them a

chance to call oral evidence: Barendse v Comptroller of Customs (1990) 93 A Crim R 210.

If an application is made to withdraw the appeal this must be done separately: Reischauer v

Knoblanche (1987) 10 NSWLR 40. If the judge intends to increase the sentence he should

give an indication that this is his/her intention to give the appellant an opportunity to

withdraw the appeal: Parker (1993) 65 A Crim R 209.

An appeal from the decision of the District Court on an appeal can be made where the

District Court Judge states a question of law to the CCA (s. 5B Criminal Appeal Act).

An appeal from the decision of the District Court on an appeal from the Local Courtcan be

made to the Court of Appeal where the judgement amounts to a jurisdictional error, or the

process represents a denial of procedural fairness: Ex parte Blackwell; Re Hateley [1965]

NSWR 1061. An appeal to the Court of Appeal is available under s. 69 Supreme Court Act.

There is a privative clause preventing appeals from District Court appeals in cases other than

jurisdictional error and denial of procedural fairness (s. 176 District Court Act; Blackwell).

Appeals from the Local Court to the Supreme Court.

Stated cases, statutory prohibition and mandamus have been abolished as means of appeal

from the local court to the Supreme Court. There can now be an appeal by the the defendant

as of right against a conviction order or sentence from the Local to the Supreme Court but

only on a question of law alone: s. 52 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act. If there is a question

of fact or of mixed law and fact there can only be an appeal with leave of the court: s. 53

Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act

Appeals against orders made in committals, or interlocutory orders in summary proceedings,

can only be about questions of law alone, and only with leave of the court: s. 53(3) Crimes

(Appeal and Review) Act Appeals against rulings on evidence will not normally be

entertained because they are not appeals against an 'order' of the court. However the appeal

will be entertained if the effect of the ruling was to prevent the Crown from making its case:

Lisoff [1999] NSWCCA 364, Cheng (1999) 48 NSWLR 616, Haddad & Treglia (2000) 116

A Crim R 312.

The prosecution alone may appeal direct to the Supreme Court in relation to sentences, stays

of proceedings, and costs order, but only in relation to matters of law alone: s. 56 Crimes

(Appeal and Review) Act. A complaint that a sentence was manifestly inadequate has been

held not to be aground that involves a matter of law alone: Morse (Office of State Revenue) v

Chan [2010] NSWSC 1290.

(d) Appeals to the Court of Criminal Appeal

Time to Lodge Notice of Intention to Appeal.

A Notice of Intention to Appeal or a Notice of Intention to Apply For Leave to Appeal must

be lodged within 28 days of conviction or sentence (s. 10 Criminal Appeal Act (1912)). The

Court has the power to extend the time to appeal: s. 10(1)(b) Criminal Appeal Act. Under

Rule 3, the Notice of Appeal can be signed by the appellant, his solicitor, or counsel.

It appears that there is no time limit on the filing of a Crown appeal, but late filing of a

Crown appeal may lead to the Crown appeal being dismissed: O'Har (2004) 59 NSWLR 596.

.

The Notice of Intention to Appeal has effect for 6 months after the date it is filed, but this can

be extended by the Court at any time before or after the expiry of that period: rule 3A. In

other words, the filing of the Notice of Intention to Appeal gives practitioners 6 months to

file the formal Notice of Appeal with grounds and the other documents referred to

immediately below. Currently the Court of Criminal Appeal is being fairly ruthless about

enforcing the 6 month time limit, and it is strongly recommended that practitioners enter the

expiry date of the Notice of Intention to Appeal in their diaries.

Notice of Appeal

A Notice of Appeal or Notice of Application for Leave to Appeal must be filed during the

period in which the Notice of Intention to Appeal has effect (see the preceding paragraph), or,

if no such Notice has been filed, within 3 months of the date of conviction or sentence. This 3

month period can be extended by the Court before or after the expiration of the period: rule

3B.

At the same time as the Notice of Appeal is filed, the following documents must also be filed:

grounds of appeal

written submissions in support of the appeal

a certificate filed by the appellant's solicitor that the transcript of the trial, the

summing up, and the remarks on sentence is available

a statement nominating the solicitor and counsel appearing for the appellant

(rule 23C).

Appeals Bail. Bail will only be granted on appeal to the CCA or High Court only in 'special or exceptional

circumstances': s.30AA Bail Act. 'Special circumstances' may not be constituted by the fact

that the gaol term will expire before the appeal is heard: Chew (1992) 66 ALJR 209 but see

Chew (No. 2) 66 ALJR 221.

Transcript

A transcript of the trial is furnished by the CCA registry of the trial: s. 21 Criminal Appeal

Act. The transcript should include a transcript of the evidence, legal argument, judgments

during the trial, counsel's addresses, the summing up, proceedings after conviction, and the

remarks on sentence: rule 6 Criminal Appeal Rules.

Appeal to the Court of Criminal Appeal.

There is a right of appeal to the CCA on questions of law alone. Appeals on questions of fact

or sentence will only be heard with leave of the court (s. 5 Criminal Appeal Act). The trial

judge can also submit a question of law to the CCA: s. 5A.

Appeals against interlocutory judgments and rulings

The Crown can appeal against any interlocutory judgment or ruling to the Court of Criminal

Appeal (s. 5F (2) Criminal Appeal Act). The Crown can appeal against a decision or ruling

on evidence, if it eliminates or substantially weakens the Crown case: s. 5F(3A) Criminal

Appeal Act. The Crown has the onus of establishing that the ruling has substantially

weakened the Crown case: Regina v Shamouil (2006) 66 NSWLR 228 at para [30]. However,

it has been held that if evidence of 'cogency or force' has been withheld in a case, even if that

case is otherwise likely or even very likely to succeed, the Crown case has been substantially

weakened: Regina v Shamouil (2006) 66 NSWLR 228 at para [37]. An appeal under s. 5F

(3A) can be brought even if no jury has been empanelled: Regina v Ngatikaura (2006) 161 A

Crim R 329 at para [50].

It has been held that a refusal to declare a witness unfavourable pursuant to s. 38 Evidence

Act is not a ruling on the admissibility of evidence, and so cannot be the subject of a Crown

appeal: Milakovic [2004] NSWCCA 199.The Crown cannot appeal against a judge's ruling in

favour of the accused that he had succeeded in his plea of autrefois acquit: Stone (2005) 64

NSWLR 413 at para [71]. The Crown cannot appeal against a judge's direction to a jury that

there is no case to answer: (Cheng (1999) 48 NSWLR 610 at 621-2).

A refusal to grant a seperate trial is an interlocutory order and can be the subject of a s. 5F appeal: DAO v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 63.

The accused can appeal against any interlocutory ruling or judgment only if the trial judge

certifies that the judgment or ruling an interlocutory judgment or ruling is fit for

determination on appeal, or if the Court of Criminal Appeal gives leave: s. 5F (3) Criminal

Appeal Act.

Very importantly, a ruling on evidence has been held not to be an interlocutory ruling or

judgment: see Steffan (1993) 67 A Crim R 506, Bozatsis and Spanakis (1997) 97 A Crim R

296, Lisoff [1999] NSWCCA 364, Cheng (1999) 48 NSWLR 616, Haddad & Treglia (2000)

116 A Crim R 312, Kocer v Regina [2006] NSWCCA 328, EK v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 4,

and DAO v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 63.

Similarly, a ruling that a particular defence is not available is not an interlocutory ruling or

judgment: Adamson [2005] NSWCCA 7, nor can accused appeal against a failure to find that

there is no case to answer: Lethlean (1995) 83 A Crim R 197.

The Court of Criminal Appeal has said that it will only interfere with a ruling made in the

course of a trial in 'wholly exceptional circumstances': Natoli [2005] NSWCCA 292 at para

[7].

Conviction Appeals

An appeal against conviction after a plea of guilty will only be permitted in extreme

circumstances, when there is a real doubt about the guilt of the accused. This will be so even

if evidence has been wrongly admitted: Toro-Martinez (2000) 114 A Crim R 533.

Rule 4

Where no objection was made at trial, leave is required to argue the matter: Rule 4 Criminal

Appeal Rules. It was suggested that it may be necessary to file an affidavit of counsel

explaining why: Hines (1992) 24 NSWLR 737. However the CCA has said of this practice:

'But generally speaking it seems to me to amount to no more than an imposition on trial

counsel for little, or no, good purpose' (Moussa (2001) 125 A Crim R 505 ).

In order to obtain leave under rule 4, an appellant must first establish that there is an arguable

case of error. Next, the appellant must establish that the error has led to a miscarriage of

justice; that is, that the appellant may have lost a chance of acquittal which was fairly open to

him: South v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 117 at para [34], Regina v Wilson (2005) 62 NSWLR

346 at paras [20] to [21].

Report by the Trial Judge

A trial judge can make a report about a trial the subject of an appeal: s. 11 Criminal Appeal

Act. However this should generally be done if there are problems with the trial which do not

appear on the face of the record: Sloane [2001] NSWCCA 421. The CCA is not obliged to

have regard to a judge's report: SKA v The Queen (2011) 85 ALJR 271. A report should not

be supplied in a sentence appeal: Vos [2006] NSWCCA 234.

Errors of Fact

An error of fact in a sentence appeal can only be established if there was no evidence to

support the finding, or the evidence was all the one way, or if the judge misdirected himself:

O'Donoghue (1988) 34 A Crim R 397, Khouzame [2000] NSWCCA 505.

Asserted errors in discretionary judgments

Where the decision appealed against is a decision or ruling of a discretionary nature (for

example, a decision not to exclude evidence on a discretionary basis, or a decision not to

exclude propensity evidence), it is not sufficient if the appeal court would have reached a

different decision, the appellant must demonstrate that there has been an error in exercising

the discretion, such as acting on wrong principle, taking into account irrelevant

considerations, failing to take into account relevant considerations, or mistaking the facts:

House v The King (1936) 55 CLR 499.

The Proviso Section 6 of the Criminal Appeal Act says that an otherwise successful appeal can be

dismissed if the Court considers that there has been 'no substantial miscarriage of justice'. For

the proviso to operate the Crown must show that the applicant has not lost 'a chance which

was fairly open to him of being acquitted' (Mraz v The Queen (1955) 93 CLR 493 at 514) or

'a real chance of acquittal' (The Queen v Storey (1978) 140 CLR 364 at 376) or but for the

admission of the evidence, a conviction was not inevitable (Crofts v The Queen (1996) 186

CLR 427). It cannot be said that there is no substantial miscarriage of justice unless the

appellate court is persuaded that the evidence properly admitted at the trial proved beyond

reasonable doubt the accused's guilt: Weiss v The Queen (2005) 224 CLR 300 at para [44]. See also Cooper v The Queen [2012] HCA 50 esp at para [21].

Recently there has been a disinclination to make use of the proviso even in otherwise strong

Crown cases: Whittaker (1993) 68 A Crim R 476 at 484, Gilbert (2000) 201 CLR 414 at [86].

The Court of Criminal Appeal said in Rees v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 66 at paras [19] to

[20] that it was not aware of a case where the proviso had been applied where the case was

one of oath against oath.

Errors can be so fundamental that they exclude the operation of the proviso: Wilde (1988)

164 CLR 365, 76 ALR 570. An example of such a case is a case where there has been a

significant denial of procedural fairness: Weiss v The Queen (2005) 224 CLR 300 at para

[45].

Fresh Evidence.

In order to quash a conviction, fresh evidence on appeal must be

(a) credible

(b) such that it was not available with reasonable diligence at trial (Ratten v The Queen

(1974) 131 CLR 510) and

(c) must be such that viewed with the evidence at trial a jury would be likely to entertain a

reasonable doubt or a significant possibility that the jury acting reasonably would have

acquitted (Gallagher v The Queen (1986) 160 CLR 392, Burton (1986) 24 A Crim R 169,

Mickelberg v The Queen(1989) 167 CLR 259, 43 A Crim R 182, and Chidiac v The Queen

(1991) 171 CLR 432, 52 A Crim R 119).

The principles are summarised by Kirby J in Abou-Chabake (2004) 149 A Crim R 417 at

para [63]. In a conviction appeal, a ground of appeal relying on fresh evidence will usually be

framed this way: 'A miscarriage of justice resulted from the absence at the trial of fresh

evidence'. Fresh evidence entitling a retrial may be evidence from the Royal Commission that

the police committed perjury in other matters: McClaren (NSW CCA 22/10/96), Vastag

(NSW CCA u/r 20/6/97), Baartman (NSW CCA u/r 30/6/97)

As to fresh evidence on sentence appeals, the evidence must:

be of such significance that the sentencing judge may have regarded it as having a real

bearing on the sentence;

the appellant did not know of or did not realise the significance of the material; and

the appellant's legal advisers did not know of it

(see Sims (1995) 83 A Crim R 1, Goodwin (1990) 50 A Crim R 328 at 330, De Marco (1996)

PD [284]).

Normally events that take place after sentencing are regarded as a matter for the executive,

not the courts: Many (1990) 51 A Crim R 54 at 62, Moreno (1994) PD [583].

Convictions Unreasonable or Cannot Be Supported By the Evidence

This ground was previously referred to as the 'unsafe and unsatisfactory' ground, but should

now be referred to (in particular in Grounds of Appeal) as 'The convictions are unreasonable

and/or cannot be supported having regard to the evidence': Fleming v The Queen (1998) 197

CLR 250, 73 ALJR 1, 103 A Crim R 121, Maxwell (NSW CCA 23/12/98), Dwyer [1999]

NSWCCA 47.

This ground will be made out when the court on its own assessment of the evidence

concludes that it was not open to the jury to be satisfied beyond reasonable doubt: Morris v

The Queen (1987) 163 CLR 454, M v The Queen (1994) 181 CLR 487, 69 ALJR 83, (1994)

76 A Crim R 213. In most cases a doubt experienced by an appellant court will be a doubt

that the jury ought to have experienced, unless it is a case where the jury's observing the

demeanour of a witness was capable of resolving the doubt: M at 493, Jones v The Queen

(1997) 191 CLR 439, 72 ALJR 78 at 85. The suggestion that a jury had an advantage over the

CCA in assessing a circumstantial case appears to have been rejected by a majority of the

CCA in Kaldor (2004) 150A Crim R 271.

Where there is an appeal against a conviction appeal in a judge alone trial, the test for

whether or not the unsafe and unsatisfactory ground is made out basically the same as for a

jury trial, but the CCA can take into account findings of the trial judge as to credibility: Arun

v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 214.

The unreasonable conviction ground appears to include a defect in the summing up which

which might lead the jury to be mistaken or misled: Gipp v The Queen(1998) 194 CLR 106.

It has been said in the NSW CCA that the fact that appellant did not give sworn evidence

makes it more difficult to succeed on this ground: see Gordon (1991) 57 A Crim R 413,

Zammit (1999) 107 A Crim R 489, Suckling [1999] NSWCCA 36. The same principles were

said to apply in a judge alone trial: Kurtic (1996) 85 A Crim R 57, Moody (NSW CCA

24/2/97). However this line of authority appears to have been overturned by the High Court

in Dyers v The Queen (2002) 210 CLR 285 (see paras [22] (Gaudron and Hayne JJ agreeing

generally with Callinan J), [60] (Kirby J) and [124] -[125] (Callinan J)).

Inconsistent Verdicts.

A conviction may be quashed on the basis that it is inconsistent with a verdict of acquittal

against the same accused but only if the appellant has established that the verdicts are an

affront to logic and commonsense: MacKenzie v The Queen (1996) 190 CLR 348, 90 A Crim

R 468. The verdict will not be set aside unless there is no rational way of reconciling the

verdicts: Jones v The Queen (1997) 191 CLR 439.

In RAT (2000) 111 A Crim R 360 it was held that where the only direct evidence of the

offences is the evidence of the complainant, if the jury finds the accused not guilty of one

count the jury must find him not guilty of all counts. However in Markuleski (2001) 52

NSWLR 82 a 5 judge bench of the CCA said that this was true only if there was nothing at all

which differentiated the counts which the jury accepted beyond reasonable doubt from those

where the jury was not so satisfied. This approach was adopted by the High Court in MFA v

The Queen (2002) 213 CLR 606 . It has been said that the test is now 'whether as a matter of

logic and reasonableness the court is satisfied, after considering all the relevant circumstances

of the case, that there is an acceptable explanation for the differentiation between the

divergent verdicts': NEK [2001] NSWCCA 392. If there is no such explanation, the verdicts

are inconsistent.

As to whether, having found there are inconsistent verdicts, there should be an acquittal or a

new trial, see Bonat [2004] NSWCCA 240 at para [106].

Time to Count.

The court has a discretion whether or not to allow time to count after an appeal: s. 18(3)

Criminal Appeal Act. In practice time to count has always been granted, but in theory time

should ordinarily count only in arguable cases (Brennan [1974] 1 NSWLR 618) but not

otherwise (Cutherberson [1974] 1 NSWLR 672, and Shutt (1987) 5 NSWLR 232).

Appeals Against Sentence

Section 6(3) of the Criminal Appeal Act permits the Court of Criminal Appeal to impose a

lesser sentence if 'some other sentence in law was warranted in law and should have been

imposed'. It has been held that as a result it is not sufficient in a sentence appeal to establish

that there has been an error of law in the sentence proceedings. It is also necessary to satisfy

the court that some other sentence was warranted in law and should have been imposed:

Simpson (2001) 53 NSWLR 704 at para [79]. In practice this means that in a sentence appeal

by an offender, it is usually necessary to establish that the sentence is excessive and that there

is an error of law.

The fact that a judge makes an error about the maximum penalty for an offence will justify leave to appeal, but it will only be a material error if the error effects the sentence imposed, and the appeal will only be allowed if there the Court is of the opinion that a lesser sentence should have been imposed. It is not necessary to establish that the the sentence was manifestly excessive: RLS v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 236 esp at paras [112] to [116].

Where the ground of appeal relied upon is that the sentence is manifestly excessive (or manifestly inadequate), it is necessary to demonstrate that the sentence was unreasonable or plainly unjust: Makarian v The Queen (2006) 228 CLR 357 at [25].

Appeal grounds which assert that the sentencing judge gave too much or insufficient weight to a particular factor have inherent problems because they involve a tacit concession that some weight was given to the factor; it then becomes a question of whether the weight given to the factor was outside the discretionary range: Stephens v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 240 esp at paras [16] to [18], Regina v Baker [2000] NSWCCA 85 esp at para [11], Regina v Majid [2010] NSWCCA 121 esp at para [40]. A ground that a particular feature was given too much or insufficient weight is in truth a particular of a ground asserting that a sentence is manifestly excessive or manifestly inadequate: Hanania v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 220 esp at para [33].

The principle that appellate courts should resist the urge to 'tinker' with first instance

sentences ( Dinsdale v The Queen (2000) 202 CLR 321, 115 A Crim R 558 (HC) (esp at para

62)) appears to apply only to Crown appeals, not to appeals by an offender: Hillier v DPP

[2009] NSWCCA 312 esp at para [48].

Where a judge apparently has a notional starting point before applying discounts, an appeal

based on the starting point being too high will not necessarily succeed unless the final

sentence is manifestly excessive: Graham [2009] NSWCCA 212.

Normally events which happened after sentencing are irrelevant to a sentence appeal: Goss v

Regina [2009] NSWCCA 190. However if fresh evidence is admitted it may be be taken into

account in determining whether or not a sentence is manifestly excessive: Burke [2002]

NSWCCA 353 at [91].

It well established that once error has been established, in determining whether some other

sentence was warranted and should have been imposed, the court can take into account

material which relates to the applicant at the time of the appeal, rather than being restricted to

material available to the sentencing judge: Douar [2005] NSWCCA 455.

It is a good practice in nearly all cases to put on an affidavit by the applicant or his instructing

solicitor about the current circumstances of the applicant. However the practice of routinely

putting this material before the courts was criticised by Howie J in Bushara [2006] NSWCCA

8.

Appeals based on apparent errors in the transcript of proceedings

Exchanges between counsel and the sentencing judge do not form part of the reasons and it is

not safe to assume that an observation passed by a judge in the course of the submissions

represents a considered final view of the judge on a matter: Regina v A [2004] NSWCCA

292 at para [12], Regina v Pham [2005] NSWCCA 94 at para [11]. However there are

occasions when exchanges between counsel and the bench may elucidate abbreviated

statements in the remarks on sentence: Regina v Hughes (2008) 185 A Crim R 155 at para

[33].

Crown Appeals against failure to assist the authorities

The Crown can appeal against the failure of an offender to fulfill an undertaking to assist law

enforcement authorities: s. 5DA Criminal Appeal Act, However, such an appeal is limited to

a consideration of the extent of the discount: Chaaban (2006) 166 A Crim R 406 esp at para

[26].

Crown Appeals Against Sentence

Crown appeals against sentence should be exceptional and a rarity: Griffiths v The Queen

(1977) 137 CLR 293 at 310, Everett v The Queen (1994) 181 CLR 295 at 299, Allpass

(1993) 72 A Crim R 561 at 562, Baker [2000] NSWCCA 85, Dinsdale (2000) 115 A Crim R

558 (HC) (esp at para 62), Wall [2002] NSWCCA 42 at para [70]. This is especially so if no

objection was made by the Crown at sentencing: Everett v The Queen (1994) 181 CLR 295.

In truth, presently they are anything but rare. The CCA has recently said that the principle

that Crown appeals should be rare is not a factor to be taken into account in exercising

whether or not to exercise the discretion to intervene in a Crown appeal: Regina v JW [2010]

NSWCCA 49 esp. at para [141].

It is insufficient for a Crown appeal to succeed simply by showing that the Court of Criminal

Appeal would have imposed a more severe sentence: Griffiths v The Queen (1977) 137 CLR

293 at 310. The Crown must establish that the sentence was outside the discretionary range

available to the sentencing judge. The inadequacy must be such that it is indicative of error or

departure from principle: Griffiths v The Queen (1977) 137 CLR 293 at 310. The crucial

question is whether the total sentence, not the non-parole period, is within the range: Burnett

(1996) 85 A Crim R 76.

As in sentence appeals by an individual, appeal grounds which assert that the sentencing judge gave too much or insufficient weight to a particular factor have inherent problems because they involve a tacit concession that some weight was given to the factor; it then becomes a question of whether the weight given to the factor was outside the discretionary range: Stephens v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 240 esp at paras [16] to [18], Regina v Baker [2000] NSWCCA 85 esp at para [11], Regina v Majid [2010] NSWCCA 121 esp at para [40].

The error must be clearly established; there should be a strong resistance to 'tinkering' with

sentences: Dinsdale v The Queen (2000) 202 CLR 321, 115 A Crim R 558 (esp at para 62).

Generally speaking, if in the original sentence proceedings the Crown does not submit that a

suspended sentence is inappropriate, the Crown will not be able to so argue successfully on

appeal: R v Wilson (1981) 28 SASR 362 at 367-8, approved by the High Court in Everett v

The Queen (1994) 181 CLR 295 at 302.

If the Crown puts on a Notice of Appeal simply asserting that the sentence was manifestly

inadequate, and then in submissions argues that there were particular errors, that matter will

ordinarily be relevant in the question of whether or not the CCA should intervene: DPP v

Lombard (2008) 185 A Crim R 565 esp at para [3]. See also Regina v Dixon, Pearce and

Pearce [2009] NSWCCA 179 esp at para [13] and Carroll v The Queen [2009] HCA 13 at

para [8]. The requirement that the Notice of Appeal disclose the grounds of appeal was

described by the CCA as a 'rule of practice', but failure to do so will not invalidate the appeal:

Regina v JW [2010] NSWCCA 49 esp. at para [33].

Even if the Court considers that the sentence is manifestly inadequate, the Court has a

discretion as to whether or not to intervene to correct the sentence. The Court retains this

discretion even after the introduction of s. 68A of the Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act: see

Regina v JW [2010] NSWCCA 49 esp. at para [95]. Formerly that discretion took into

account the fact that the offender faces double jeopardy: Wall [2002] NSWCCA 42 at para

[70]. However now s. 68A of the Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act states that double

jeopardy is not to be taken into account in determining whether or not a Crown appeal will be

upheld: Regina v JW [2010] NSWCCA 49 esp. at para [141]. Section 68A applies to

Commonwealth Crown appeals: DPP (Cth) v De La Rosa [2010] NSWCCA 194. Anxiety

that a particular offender feels because of the threat of resentencing can be taken into

account: DPP (Cth) v De La Rosa [2010] NSWCCA 194 esp at [176].

Where the Crown appeals against not the sentence imposed on an offender, but not a co-offender, the court should not allow the Crown appeal if it would create a disparity between the sentences even if the sentence imposed on the co-offender was manifestly inadequate, unless the sentence imposed on the co-offender was so inadequate that it could be described as an affront to the administration of justice: Green and Quinn v The Queen [2011] HCA 49.

An important factor in determining whether or not to exercise the discretion is the question of

whether or not the Crown has allowed the sentencing judge to fall into error: Everett v The

Queen (1994) 181 CLR 295 at 300.

At common law, when the court resentences after a successful Crown appeal, the Court

should give recognition to the principle of double jeopardy by imposing a sentence somewhat

less than the sentence which the Court believes should have been imposed at first instance:

Allpass (1993) 72 A Crim R 561 at 562, Dinsdale v The Queen (2000) 202 CLR 321, 115 A

Crim R 558 (HC) (esp at para 62), Wall [2002] NSWCCA 42 at para [70]. However, because

of s. 68A of the Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act double jeopardy is no longer to be taken

into account in resentencing a respondent to a Crown appeal. See also Regina v JW [2010]

NSWCCA 49 esp. at para [141] where the CCA confirmed this was the effect of s. 68A.

No doubt Wood CJ at CL summarised these principles more eloquently and concisely than I

have in this passage from Wall [2002] NSWCCA 42 at para [70]:

(a) The normal restriction upon appellate review of the exercise of a discretion, as set out in

House v The King (1936) 55 CLR 499, applies to Crown appeals against sentence: Dinsdale v

The Queen (2000) 202 CLR 321; with the result that this Court cannot merely substitute its

opinion, as to the appropriate sentence, for that of the sentencing judge: Lowndes v The

Queen (1999) 195 CLR 665 at 671; rather, it may interfere only where error either latent or

patent is shown; R v Tait (1979) 46 FLR 386 at 388; and Wong and Leung v The Queen

(2001) 76 ALJR 79 at para 58 and 109.

(b) Appeals by the Crown should generally be rare; Malvaso v The Queen (1989) 168 CLR

227 at 234, and unless there is a clear error of principle identified, it would be exceptional for

the Court to interfere: R v Baker [2000] NSWCCA 85.

(c) A Crown appeal against sentence is concerned with establishing matters of principle 'for

the governance and guidance of courts having the duty of sentencing convicted persons': per

Barwick CJ in Griffiths v The Queen (1977) 137 CLR 293 but this power extends to doing

what is necessary to avoid manifest inadequacy or inconsistency in sentencing, that is, where

the sentence is definitely outside the appropriate range for the case in hand: Everett v The

Queen (1994) 181 CLR 295 at 299; Dinsdale v The Queen (2000) 202 CLR 32, at paras 61

and 62, and Wong & Leung v The Queen at para 109.

(d) The Court has a lively discretion to refuse to intervene even if error has been shown, and

in deciding whether to exercise that discretion, it should have regard to the double jeopardy

that a convicted person faces as a result of a Crown appeal: R v Allpass (1993) 72 A Crim R

561, R v Papazis (1991) 51 A Crim R 242 at 247, and Wong and Leung v The Queen at para

110.

(e) A sentence which is imposed as a consequence of a successful Crown appeal will

generally be less than that which should have been imposed by the sentencing court: R v

Holder and Johnston (1983) 3 NSWLR 245 at 256, and will generally be towards the lower

end of the available range of sentence: Dinsdale v The Queen at para 62.

It should be noted that as a result of s. 68A of the Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act, as

interpreted in Regina v JW [2010] NSWCCA 49, it seems that paragraphs (b), the second clause of (d) and (e) no longer are good law.

3/. The Elements of Crime.

Burden of Proof.

The onus is on the Crown to prove each element of the offence beyond reasonable doubt:

Woolmington [1934] AC 462.

Territoriality.

If all the physical elements of an offence have been committed somewhere (whether or not

within New South Wales), and there is a 'geographical nexus' between NSW and the offence,

the Crimes Act states that NSW courts have jurisdiction: s. 10C Crimes Act. That

'geographical nexus' exists if the offence was wholly or partially committed in NSW, or if the

offence has an effect in NSW: s. 10C. If in dispute the trial proceeds in the usual way and the

onus of proof is on the balance of probabilities: s. 10E.

Not surprisingly, the courts have jurisdiction over Aboriginals: Jacky (1993) PD [330].

Time and Place

The time when and the place where the offence took place are not normally elements of the

offence, but are particulars. However on the facts of a particular case, time and place may

become essential to the Crown case as in a situation where the accused can call evidence that

he could not have committed the offence when it was alleged: Hughes [2000] NSWCCA 3,

Kennedy (2000) 118 A Crim R 34.

Mens Rea and Actus Reus

Lawyers often talk about the need for the prosecution to establish both the 'mens rea' and the

'actus reus' of an offence. These terms come from the Latin maxim, 'actus reus non facit reum

nisi mens rea', meaning (loosely) a person does not become guilty of a crime by an act unless

he has a guilty mind.

The 'mens rea' is the state of mind required to commit the crime (usually some form of

intention or state of knowledge), and the 'actus reus' is everything else, that is, the physical

acts of the accused required to show that the crime has been committed.

Actus Reus.

Mens rea must exist at the same time as the actus reus. That is, there must be the intention to

commit the crime at the time the crime is committed. However the actus reus is considered as

a whole. Thus if the final act is committed at a time when the accused believes the victim is

already dead, there should still be a conviction: Thabo Meli [1954] 1 All ER 373.

Similarly where a man drives onto another's foot and leaves it there after realising what he

has done he is guilty of an offence: Fagan [1969] 1 QB 439.

Voluntariness.

An unwilled reflex or spasm is not voluntary and will not constitute actus reus. If a person

accidentally pulls the trigger or jabs a knife at a person that will not excuse the accused. The

act of presenting the weapon is the actus reus: Ryan (1967) 121 CLR 205, Butcher [1986] VR

43. However the matter should still be left to the jury: Murray v The Queen (2002) 211 CLR

193. For Commonwealth matters see also the Commonwealth Criminal Code, section 4.2.

Intoxication.

Intoxication is only a defence to offences of specific intent such as murder, and maliciously

inflict gbh with intent: ss. 428A-I Crimes Act, overruling The Queen v O'Connor (1980) 146

CLR 64 and Martin (1984) 58 ALJR 217. Intoxication is relevant to establish lack of intent

for these offences.

Omissions.

Normally omissions cannot constitute actus reus unless they relate to someone to whom you

have a legal duty (e.g. your children): Russell [1933] VLR 59, Stone and Dobinson [1977]

QB 354.

Automatism.

If an act is not done voluntarily there is no actus reus. Once raised as an issue with a proper

foundation (normally medical evidence) the onus of proof is on the Crown to show beyond a

reasonable doubt that the act was voluntary or the accused should be acquitted: Hill v Baxter

[1958] 1 QB 277, Bratty [1963] AC 486, Falconer (1990) 171 CLR 90, 50 A Crim R 245,

Youssef (1990) 50 A Crim R 1.

To constitute automatism, a condition must

be transient;

be caused by physical or psychological trauma which the mind of a normal person

would not be likely to have withstood; and

not prone to recur: Falconer (1990) 171 CLR 90, 50 A Crim R 245.

If the automatism arises from a disease of the mind, the M'Naghten rules apply (Bratty,

Cottle). If both issues are raised both should be left to the jury: Radford (1985) 20 A Crim R

425. The critical issue is not whether or not the automatism was the result of external stimuli,

but whether or not the accused's mind was sound at the time of the offence: Radford v Regina

(1985) 42 SASR 266 at 276, Woodbridge v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 185.

What Can Constitute Automatism.

The following states may constitute automatism:

o sleepwalking (Ryan v The Queen (1967) 121 CLR 205 )

o concussion after a blow to the head (Sullivan [1983] 2 All ER 673)

o hypoglycemia (Quick [1973] QB 910, Bailey [1983] 2 All ER 503, Watmore v

Jenkins [1962] 2 QB 572)

o not hyperglycemia (Hennessy [1989] 2 All ER 9)

o epilepsy (Cottle [1958] NZLR 999, Bratty [1963] AC 486 but now see

Sullivan [1983] 2 All ER 673)

o sleep- but the culpable conduct can be eg driving while tired- Kroon (1991) 52

A Crim R 15 and Jiminez v The Queen (1992) 173 CLR 572, 66 ALJR 308

overruling Jiminez (1991) 53 A Crim R 56.

Mens Rea.

In Australia (Parker v The Queen (1963) 111 CLR 610) there is no presumption that a man

intends the natural and probable consequences of his act as is the case in England (Smith

[1961] AC 290 ). The intention must go to every element of the offence such as knowledge

that the victim does not consent in rape: Morgan [1976] AC 182.

Mental Illness and Intent.

Evidence of mental illness falling short of legal insanity is admissible on the question of

intent: Hawkins v The Queen (1994) 179 CLR 500, 68 ALJR 572, 72 A Crim R 288, Toki

[2003] NSWCCA 125.

Type of Intent.

In stealing or fraud cases the jury may be asked to find not only that the person intended to do

the act but that the intention was fraudulent or dishonest: Feely [1973] QB 530, Glenister

[1980] 2 NSWLR 597, Macleod v The Queen (2003) 214 CLR 230.

Presumption of Mens Rea.

There is a strong presumption that in any statutory offence the Crown must prove intention or

knowledge on the part of the accused. The matters to be considered are

o the words of the statute

o the subject matter of the statute ( the presumption will be stronger in clearly

criminal matters, weaker in matters of grave social evils)

o whether or not strict liability will assist enforcement (e.g. can the defendant do

anything to avoid committing the offence)

(Sweet v Parsley [1970] AC 132 , He Kaw Teh v The Queen (1984) 157 CLR 523, 15 A

Crim R 203 ).

Honest and Reasonable Mistake.

Even in offences where the presumption of mens rea does not apply, there will be a

presumption that the defence of honest and reasonable mistake of fact applies. Once raised it

is necessary for the Crown to establish beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant did not

have an honest and reasonable but mistaken belief in facts which if true would have made

him not guilty of the offence: Proudman v Dayman (1941) 67 CLR 536 per Dixon J, Sweet v

Parsley, He Kaw Teh, Commonwealth Criminal Code section 9.

Ignorance of the law does not provide a defence: Ostrowski v Palmer (2004) 218 CLR 493.

Thus a mistake about the applicable speed limit does not provide a defence to a speeding

charge: Ostrowski v Palmer (2004) 218 CLR 493, RTA v O'Reilly [2009] NSWSC 134.

Criminal Negligence and Recklessness.

To be guilty of a criminal offence where negligence suffices the accused must be guilty of a

very high degree of negligence where the word 'recklessness' is the most appropriate:

Andrews [1937] AC 576.

In Commonwealth matters, a person is negligent if it is shown that his conduct involved such

a great falling short of the standard of care that a reasonable person would exercise in the

circumstances that the conduct merits criminal punishment: Commonwealth Criminal Code,

section 5.5.

In cases other than murder, advertence to the possibility of injury will suffice: Coleman

(1990) 47 A Crim R 306, Stokes and Difford (1990) 51 A Crim R 25, but see Campbell

(1995) 80 A Crim R 461 (Vic CCA). There must be advertence to damage to the type of thing

or person actually damaged: B (1994) PD [21].

In Commonwealth matters it appears that to establish recklessness, it must be shown that the

defendant is aware of a substantial risk that the result will occur, and that having regard to the

circumstances known to the defendant, it is unjustifiable to take the risk: Commonwealth

Criminal Code, section 5.4.

Maliciously

Some offences have as an element of the offence that the act be done 'maliciously'. There is a

rather circular definition of 'maliciously' in s. 5 Crimes Act, but in effect the expression

means intentionally or recklessly: see Livingstone [2004] NSWCCA 122 at paras 20-32.

Corporations.

For a corporation to be guilty of a criminal offence there must be proof that the guilty

knowledge was held by the brains of the company: the Board of Directors, the Managing

Director, senior managers, possibly only people mentioned in the Memorandum and Articles

of the Company: Tesco Supermarkets v Nattras [1972] AC 153.

For Commonwealth offences, the physical element of the offence must be committed by the

employee, agent or officer acting within the actual or apparent scope of his employment, or

actual or apparent authority. The mental or fault element must be attributable to the

corporation by express, tacit or implied authorisation or permission of the corporation.

Approval by a 'high corporate officer', and the prevailing corporate culture, can be taken into

account: Commonwealth Criminal Code sections 12.1 to 12.3.

4/. Homicide.

Definition of Murder.

The elements of murder are as follows:

the act or omission of the accused caused the death of the victim

the act was done with intent to kill or inflict grievous bodily harm with reckless

indifference to human life or or was committed in or before or after a felony

punishable by life

(s. 18 Crimes Act).

Causation An act is treated as the cause of a death if it is a substantial and significant cause of the death

even if some other cause is operating: Royall v The Queen (1991) 172 CLR 378. Only if the

original wound is merely a setting in which another cause operates, or if the second cause is

so overwhelming as to make the original wound part of the setting, can it be said that the

death does not flow from the wound. (Smith [1959] 2 QB 35 at 42-3 adopted in Hallet [1969]

SASR 141 and Evans and Gardiner [1976] VR 523). It is sufficient if the acts of the accused

accelerate the process of death: Moffat (2000) 112 A Crim R 201.

The Crown does not have to exclude unreasonable possibilities to have a case fit to go to the

jury: Puckeridge (1999) 168 ALR 4, 74 ALJR 373.

Examples of Causation.

The following situations have been held not to break the chain of causation:

the refusal of the victim to accept reasonable treatment on religious grounds (Blaue

[1975] 3 All ER 446).

poor medical treatment unless the original wound had nearly healed ( Smith but see

Jordan (1956) 40 Cr App R 152)

expected natural forces like sea tides but not earth quakes (Hallett [1969] SASR 141 )

unconscious actions of the victim but not conscious actions: Hallett

lawful responses of third parties such as returning fire in self-defence: Pagett (1983)

76 Cr App R 279

where the accused creates a well founded and reasonable fear in the victim who dies

while trying to escape: Royall v The Queen (1990) 172 CLR 378, 54 A Crim R 53.

In Dixon and Smith (1992) 62 A Crim R 465 a conviction was quashed because the Crown

could not exclude a reasonable inference that the sole cause of death was an underlying

disease.

It is not necessary for the Crown to establish the precise act of the deceased which caused

death: Regina v PL [2009] NSWCCA 256 esp at paras [46] to [52]. Thus the Crown can

prove death in a circumstantial even where no body is found: see the cases listed in Regina v

PL at para [50].

A Life. Where a child is born alive, but subsequently dies from injuries in the womb, the perpetrator

can be guilty of homicide: AGs Ref (No. 3 of 1996) [1996] 2 All ER 10.

Death.

A person is presumed to have died when there is irreversible cessation of all his brain

functions or the circulation of blood in his body: s. 33 Human Tissue Act 1983. Thus the

person who turns off the life support system has not committed murder: Malcherek and Steele

[1981] 2 All ER 422.

Time. The prosecution no longer has to prove that death occurred within a year and a day of the act

relied upon to constitute murder: s. 17A Crimes Act.

Mens Rea in Murder. In a charge of murder any of the following states of mind will suffice to establish that the

mens rea:

intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm

reckless indifference to human life

felony murder.

(s. 18 Crimes Act).

Intent to Kill. If a person commits an act which kills the victim, and when he commits the act he intends to

either kill the victim or cause grievous bodily harm to the victim, he has the requisite intent

for murder.

If there is a continuous stream of events leading to death it is enough if there is an intention to

kill at any stage: Hallett [1969] SASR 141.

The accused will have the requisite intent if he intends to kill another even though he believes

that he probably will not be successful: Jacobs J in La Fontaine v The Queen (1976) 136 CLR

62.

If a person intends to kill A but instead accidentally kills bystander B, there is an intent to

kill: Standish (1991) 60 A Crim R 36.

Reckless Indifference to Human Life.

If a person does not intend to kill another but does an act or omission knowing that that the

consequences of the act include the probability of death the mens rea has been established:

The Queen v Crabbe (1985) 156 CLR 464. In NSW because of the definition of murder in

s.18 of the Crimes Act only foresight of the probability of death is sufficient: Solomon [1980]

1 NSWLR 321.

It is not desirable that the court attempt to further define the terms 'probable' or 'likely', in

particular in terms of more than 50% likely. It is not sufficient to say that death 'may well

happen or could well happen': Annakin (1987) 37 A Crim R 131. More acceptable are

descriptions of the relevant likelihood as a substantial or real chance, a good chance,

something that may well or is likely to happen: Boughey v The Queen (1986) 161 CLR 10,

but see White Eaves and Parker (1989) 43 A Crim R 283.

In a caswhere recklessness is an issue, it is insufficient fo the triasl judge to read the jury the

statutory definition of 'maliciously': Pengilley v Regina [2006] NSWCCA 163 esp at para

[41].

The jury should be not be directed in terms of reckless indifference unless it arises as a

practical issue: Tumananko (1992) 64 A Crim R 149.

Wilful Blindness.

The jury should not be directed in terms of wilful blindness although deliberate abstention

from inquiry may be regarded as evidence of actual knowledge: The Queen v Crabbe.

Felony Murder.

Finally, the requisite mens rea for murder may be established by the fact that a person

committed an act resulting in the death of the victim in an attempt to commit, or during or

immediately after the commission of a crime punishable by 25 years imprisonment: s. 18

Crimes Act. For practical purposes it should be noted that robbery with wounding, and

robbery with a dangerous weapon, but not most other forms of robbery, carry 25 years.

It is not necessary to establish a causal connection between the felony and the death: Munro:

(1981) 4 A Crim R 67.

In a charge like robbery with wounding, by majority the High Court held that it is not

necessary to show that the accused intended to cause the wounding if he did it: Ryan (1967)

121 CLR 205. However, it is necessary for the prosecution to establish that the act was

voluntary, and that is a question for the jury: Penza and Di Maria [2013] NSWCCA 21 esp at

para [167].

Apprehension murder: query if this exists in NSW: Fry (1992) 58 SASR 424, 67 [ALJ] 626.

Manslaughter.

The following situations are sufficient to establish manslaughter :

manslaughter by criminal negligence

manslaughter by unlawful and dangerous act

manslaughter by excessive self-defence

manslaughter by omission

It is not necessary for the jury to reach a verdict of guilty of manslaughter on the same basis

of liability: Cramp (1999) 110 A Crim 198.

Criminal Negligence.

In order to establish manslaughter by way of negligence, the prosecution must establish the following:

(1) that the accused had a duty of care to the deceased;

(2) that the accused was negligent in that by the accused’s act, the accused was in breach of that duty of care

(3) that such act of the accused [caused/accelerated] the death of the deceased; and

(4) that such act merited criminal punishment because:

(i) it fell so far short of the standard of care which a reasonable person would have exercised in the circumstances; and

(ii) involved such a high risk that death or really serious bodily harm would follow; and

(iii) the degree of negligence involved in the conduct is so serious that it should be treated as criminal conduct.

See Nydam [1977] VR 430 and Lavender v The Queen (2005) 222 CLR 67.

The test an objective one; it is not necessary for the Crown to show that the accused was

aware of the risk: Nydam [1977] VR 430 and Buttsworth [1983] 1 NSWLR 658, but see

Andrews [1937] AC 576. In Lavender [2004] NSWCCA 120 the NSW CCA held that there is

a requirement for the Crown to establish that the accused realised that there was an

appreciable risk of harm. However this approach was rejected by the High Court in Lavender

v The Queen (2005) 222 CLR 67. There must be a very high degree of negligence that

equates to recklessness: Andrews, Buttsworth.

Unlawful and Dangerous Act.

In order to establish manslaughter by unlawful and dangerous act it is necessary to establish:

that the act was unlawful in the sense of in breach of the criminal law (Holzer [1968]

VR 481, Pemble v The Queen (1971) 124 CLR 107) and

that a reasonable man in the position of the accused would have realised that he was

exposing others to an appreciable risk of serious injury (Wilson v The Queen

(1992)174 CLR 313, 61 A Crim R 63). A risk of a minor injury is insufficient:

Whittaker (1993) 68 A Crim R 476.

It is then an objective test and does not take into account the idiosyncrasies or ephemeral

emotional condition of the accused: Wills [1983] 2 VR 201. In Lavender [2004] NSWCCA

120 the NSW CCA held that it was necessary for the Crown to establish that that the accused

realised that he was exposing others to an appreciable risk of serious injury, but this was

overturned by the High Court in Lavender v The Queen (2005) 222 CLR 67.

It used to be said that the unlawful and dangerous act had to be directed at the victim (Dalby

[1982] 1 All ER 916) but this no longer appears to be the case: Goodfellow (1986) 83 Cr App

R 23.

In England the House of Lords has held that a person who supplies a drug to a 'fully informed

and responsible adult' is not guilty of manslaughter if the second person dies of an overdose:

Regina v Kennedy (2007) UK HL 38. It is not clear if this is the law in Australia. In NSW it

has been held that the mere offer and supply of a drug, without a relationship of authority

(such as between a parent and a child), will no lead to criminal responsibility for the injury or

death of the person given the drug: Regina v Wilhelm [2010] NSWSC 334 esp at para [25],

and Riley v Regina [2011] NSWCCA 238. The mere supply of a drug to a sane person who

decides to use it is not of itself enough to establish liability for manslaughter: Burns v The

Queen [2012] HCA 35 esp at paras [76], [106]-[107]. However in a case where the deceased

injects a drug in the presence of the accused and subsequently falls ill, and later dies, there

may be a breach of the duty of care which could found a conviction for manslaughter: Taktak

(1988) 14 NSWLR 226.

The fact that an act is in breach of the Traffic Act does not necessarily make it unlawful:

Pullman (1991) 58 A Crim R 222.

Battery Manslaughter The Victorian doctrine of battery manslaughter (Holzer [1968] VR 481) is no longer the law:

Croft (1981) 3 A Crim R 307, Wilson v The Queen (1992) 174 CLR 313, 66 ALJR 517,

(1992) 61 A Crim R 62.

Manslaughter By Excessive Self-Defence

The rule that murder could be reduced to manslaughter on the basis of excessive self-defence

has an unusual history. The doctrine was confirmed by the High Court in Viro v The Queen

(1978) 141 CLR 148. The High Court subsequently abolished it, largely on the grounds that it

was too complicated, in Zecevic v DPP (Victoria) (1987) 162 CLR 645. However it has been

re-introduced by s. 421 Crimes Act, which applies to legal proceedings (other than

committals) which commence after 22 February 2002, regardless of when the offence was

committed: s. 423.

Section 421 applies where:

(1) the person uses force involving the intentional or reckless infliction of death;

(2) the conduct is not a reasonable response in the circumstances as the person perceived

them

(3) but the person believed the conduct was necessary to defend himself/herself or another

person, or to prevent or terminate the unlawful deprivation of his/her liberty or that of another

person

In such a situation the person will be not guilty of murder, but, unless some other defence is

available, will be guilty of manslaughter.

The second element referred to above is necessary because if the conduct was a "reasonable

response in the circumstances as the person perceived them", there would be a complete

defence of self-defence resulting in an acquittal (see s. 418).

In relation to assessing the appellant's belief, there is no requirement that the belief be

reasonable, and it appears that the jury can take into account the fact that the defendant was

effected by alcohol: Conlon (1993) 69 A Crim R 92. Section 428F of the Crimes Act does not

exclude consideration of alcohol because there is no 'reasonable man' test: see Kurtic (1996)

85 A Crim R 57. It may be possible to take into account delusional beliefs of the defendant:

Kurtic (1996) 85 A Crim R 57. See generally the section on Self-Defence in the next chapter.

Manslaughter By Omission.

The criminal law rarely imposes an obligation to do a positive act. Failure to do an act which

results in death may constitute manslaughter in the following situations:

where the victim is a person who the accused has a legal obligation to care for such as

his children: Russell [1933] VLR 59

where the accused assumes a duty of care to the victim and secludes the helpless

person that others can't render aid: Stone and Dobinson [1977] 1 QB 354, Taktak

(1988) 14 NSWLR 226.

Manslaughter on Multiple Bases

It is not necessary for a jury to reach a verdict of manslaughter on the same basis: Cramp

(1999) 110 A Crim R 198, Dally (2000) 115 A Crim R 582.When the jury returns a verdict of

manslaughter, it normally should not be asked on what basis: Isaacs (1997) 90 A Crim R 587,

overruling Low (1991) 57 A Crim R 8.

Solicit to Murder.

The offence of solicit to murder is complete once the request to murder is made. Later

withdrawal does not effect liability: Wright (1997) 4 Crim LN [724].

Penalty.

The penalty for murder is life imprisonment. However the judge may impose a lesser

sentence (ss. 19A Crimes Act and s. 21 Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act).

The 'standard non-parole period' for murders committed after 2 February 2003 (where the

victim was a police worker, emergency services worker, prison officer, judicial officer, health

worker, teacher, community worker, or other public official, exercising public or community

functions and the offence arose because of the victims occupation) is 25 years. For other

murders committed after 2 February 2003, the standard non-parole period is 20 years. For

attempt murder and conspiracy to murder committed after 2 February 2003, the standard non-

parole period is 10 years.

5/. Defences

Leaving Defences to the Jury. Defences available on the facts must be left to the jury even if the defence opposes this: Ward

(1989) 42 A Crim R 56. This does not apply in non-jury trials: Ion (1996) 89 A Crim R 81.

(a) autrefois acquit and convict

Autrefois Acquit.

Generally, if an accused has been already been convicted of an offence, or acquitted of an

offence, he cannot again be convicted of the same offence arising from exactly the same

circumstances. The judge has a discretion to stay a second set of proceedings arising out of

the same or substantially the same circumstances unless the prosecution establishes that

because of special circumstances there should not be a stay: Connelly [1964] AC 1254,

Beedie [1997] 2 Cr App R 167, The Queen v Carroll (2002) 213 CLR 635.

However, exceptions have been created to this rule by statute. On application by the DPP, the

Court of Criminal Appeal may order that a person who has been acquitted be retried for an

offence carrying a maximum penalty of life, if there is fresh and compelling evidence of the

guilt of the accused, and if it is in the interests of justice for the order to be made: s. 100

Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act. Evidence is 'compelling' if it is reliable, substantial, and

highly probative in the case against the accused: s. 102 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act.

On application by the DPP, the Court of Criminal Appeal may order that a person who has

been acquitted be retried for an offence carrying 15 years or more gaol as a maximum

penalty, if someone has been convicted of an administration of justice offence relating to the

earlier trial (for example, perjury), and if it is more likely than not that, but for the

commission of the administration of justice offence, the accused would have been convicted:

s. 101 Crimes (Appeal and Review) Act.

Autrefois convict

Autrefois convict does not apply where there are convictions for two different offences

constituted by the same act: Pearce v The Queen (1998) 194 CLR 610. However, in a

situation where an accused is charged with an offence, and is acquitted, and is later charged

with a second offence arising out of the same circumstances, autrefois acquit may apply if

either all the elements of the first offence are contained within the second offence, or vice

versa: Island Maritime v Filipowski (2006) 228 ALR 1 esp at paras [40] (per Gummow and

Hayne JJ) and [91] (per Kirby J).

By analogy with autrefois acquit, where a person has been acquitted of an offence after

giving evidence, a charge that the accused committed perjury by asserting his innocence

should be stayed: The Queen v Carroll (2002) 213 CLR 635.

(b) Fitness to be Tried

Onus of Proof. In state matters, there is no onus of proof, and the burden of proof is on the balance of

probabilities: s. 6 Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act.

In Commonwealth matters arguably the NSW onus applies: Kesavarajah v The Queen (1994)

181 CLR 230, 68 ALJR 670, (1994) 74 A Crim R 100. At common law the onus of proof is

on the accused if he alleges that he is unfit to be tried on the balance of probabilities, but on

the Crown if it alleges it: Podola [1960] 1 QB 325.

Fitness to Be Tried.

The accused must understand the following to be fit to be tried:

what he is charged with able to plea to the charge and exercise the right to challenge

understand the nature of the proceedings

able to follow what going on in court in a general sense

understand the substantial effect of any evidence

to be able to make his defence

(Presser [1958] VR 45, Ngatanyi v The Queen (1980) 147 CLR 1 , Kesavarajah v The Queen

(1994) 181 CLR 230, 68 ALJR 670, (1994) 74 A Crim R 100). The cause of the unfitness is

not limited to mental illness, and at least also includes developmental disability: Mailes

(2000-2001) 53 NSWLR 251. The condition of the accused not only at the time of the

application but also throughout the length of the trial must be taken into account:

Kesavarajah. An inability to remember the incident said to be the crime (such as blackouts or

amnesia) does not constitute unfitness: Drummond (1994) PD [266]. It is not sufficient that

there is a reduced capacity to meet the Presser test: Rivkin (2004) NSWLR 284.

Where the accused's lawyer or the Crown has expert medical opinion that the accused is unfit to

be tried, there is an obligation to draw this material to the attention of the judge, it seems even

if the accused does not wish the issue to be raised: Eastman v The Queen (2000) 203 CLR 1

esp at para [297] (per Hayne J.). See also Regina v Mailes (2001) 53 NSWLR 251 esp at para

[11] and the report of Miles AJ into the conviction of David Eastman especially at para [284].

The relevant time for the test of fitness is the time of the trial, not the time of the offence:

Dennison (CCA 3/3/88). There must be a report, an affidavit, or submissions raising

suspicions before it is raised as an issue: Coffee (1992) PD [391].

The question of a person's fitness to be tried is normally to be determined by a judge alone: s.

11 Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act

However, the question must be determined by a jury if an election is made by the

prosecution, the accused's lawyer, or by the accused (if the court is satisfied that he has

sought and received advice on this issue and has understood this advice): s. 21A Mental

Health (Forensic Provisions) Act. It has been held that the judge must satisfy himself/herself

that the barrister or solicitor appearing for the accused is satisfied that the accused properly

understood the nature of the election he/she was making. Failure to make such an inquiry and

to make such a finding has been held to be an appellable error: Regina v Minani (2005) 63

NSWLR 490 at paras [16] and [23].

The procedure to be followed if a person is found to be unfit to be tried is extremely

complicated procedure set out in the Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act (1990). If a

further determination is made that the person is unlikely to be found unfit to be tried within

12 months, there can be a 'special hearing' on the basis of the limited evidence available.

The special hearing should be conducted as closely as possible to a criminal trial, and in

particular there should be a formal arraignment: Zvonaric (2001) 54 NSWLR 1. A model

explanation of the proceedings was given in Subraniam v The Queen (2004) 211ALR 1 at

para [39]. It seems in a special hearing, counsel for the accused may raise mental illness as a

defence even if expressly instructed not to raise it: Dezfouli v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 86

esp at para [46].

If the person is found guilty on the basis of the limited evidence available, a limiting term

must be set, which is the longest period the person can be detained as a forensic patient, and

which should represent the total sentence which the court would impose had the person been

fit to be tried. A non-parole period and parole period should not be set: Mitchell (1999) 108 A

Crim R 85, Mailes (2004) 62NSWLR 181 . The court should not give the offender the benefit

of any discount for contrition in this situation: Mitchell (1999) 108 A Crim R 85.

The limiting term imposed as a sentence can be backdated to take into account periods of pre-

sentence custody: Parker (1990) 47 A Crim R 281, s. 23 (5) Mental Health (Forensic

Provisions) Act (1990). However the limit ing term cannot commence after the time when the

limiting term is imposed: s. 23 (5) Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act (1990).

Unfitness in the Local Court

There are no specific provisions for dealing with unfitness to be tried in the Local Court. It

has been held that where a defendant in Local Court proceedings is found to be unfit to be

tried, he should be discharged: Mantell v Molyneux (2006) 165 A Crim R 83.

(c) Mental Illness

M'Naghten Rules. It is a defence if it is proved that at the time of commission of the offence the accused

labouring under such a defect of reason from disease of the mind that he did not know the

nature and quality of the act or that he did not know that what he was doing was wrong:

M'Naghten [1843-60] All ER 229, Commonwealth Criminal Code section 7.3. The

irresistible impulse doctrine as a separate doctrine has been rejected: Sodeman (1936) 55

CLR 230.

It has been held that the defence of mental illness can be raised in Local Court proceedings:

Regina v McMahon [2006] NSWDC 81.

In the opinion of the writer, this defence should only be raised in cases other than murder in

the most exceptional circumstances, because of the risk that a resolution under the mental

health legislation might lead to a longer period of incarceration than a plea of guilty with a

strong case in mitigation.

Disease of the Mind. The cause of the disease of the mind is irrelevant, as is whether it is temporary or curable or

not: Kemp [1957] 1 QB 399. Mere lack of self-control is insufficient: Regina v Porter (1933)

55 CLR 182. Alcohol withdrawal psychosis is included: Kina (1996) 3 Crim LN 36.

Nature and Quality of the Act.

It may be established that the accused did not understand the physical nature of the act he was

committing, such as thinking he was breaking a twig: Porter.

Or that He Was Doing Wrong. Wrong means not legally wrong (as in England: Windle (1952) 2 QB 826) but morally wrong

according to the ideas of ordinary men: Stapleton v The Queen(1952) 86 CLR 358. In Porter

(1933) 55 CLR 182 Dixon CJ said 'If through the disordered condition of the mind he could

not reason about the matter with a moderate degree of sense and composure it may be said

that he could not know that what he was doing was wrong'.

Directions as to Consequences. Under s. 37 of the Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act the judge must explain the

consequences of the possible findings. This may include explaining to the jury the

consequences of finding the accused guilty: Hilder (1997) 4 Crim LN [751].

Consequences of a finding of not guilty by reason of mental illness

If a person is found not guilty by reason of mental illness the court must generally order that

the accused be detained in such manner and in such place as the court deems fit until released

by due process of law: s. 39 Mental Health (Forensic Procedures) Act.

The court also has the power to release the accused, either conditionally, but only if the court

is satisfied on the balance of probabilities that the safety of the accused or any member of the

public will not be seriously endangered by the person's release: s. 39 Mental Health (Forensic

Procedures) Act. It is relatively rare for such an order to be made unless the accused has

made a full recoverybetween the time of the offence and the hearing.

People found not guilty by reason of mental illness are not given a fixed sentence. They are

reviewed every 6 months by the Mental Health Tribunal which can make orders as to the

person's continued detention, care or treatment in a mental health facility, prison or other

place. The Tribunal may also order the person's release, either conditionally or

unconditionally: s. 47 Mental Health (Forensic Procedures) Act. The requirement of approval

by the Attorney General has been recently removed.

Mental Illness in the Local Court. Ss. 31-36 Mental Health (Forensic Provisions) Act apply to:

summary proceedings

indictable proceedings tried summarily

but not committals.

Developmental Disability. Where a person is suffering, or was suffering at the time of the offence, from a developmental

disability or a mental illness (a condition treatable but not a 'mentally ill person' under the

meaning of the Mental Health Act 2007 ) and on an outline of facts it appears appropriate to

deal with it under this part, the magistrate can dismiss the charges and discharge the person,

whether or not into someone's care and whether or not with conditions: s. 32.

In determining whether or not it is appropriate to deal with the matter under s. 32, the

magistrate can take into account the seriousness of the offences (Confos v DPP [2004]

NSWSC 1159, DPP v Melwas (2006) 66 NSWLR 93 ) and the fact that the offences were

planned ( DPP v Melwas (2006) 66 NSWLR 93). The magistrate can also take into account

the fact that orders pursuant to the Act can effectively only have 6 months duration: Mantell v

Molyneux (2006) 165 A Crim R 83

If the offender does not comply with the conditions the magistrate may call on the offender to

attend court and be resentenced. This provision is not limited to unfitness to be tried: Mackie

v Hunt (1989) 44 A Crim R 426, Perry v Forbes (Bulletin 66).

Mental Illness. If it appears to a magistrate that a person is a mentally ill person under the Mental Health Act

1990 the magistrate can order that the person be taken to hospital for assessment or care, or

discharge the person into the care of a responsible person. If the person is not returned to

court within 6 months the charges are deemed dismissed. The time the person spends in

hospital must be taken into account in determining the penalty: s. 33.

(d) Substantial Impairment by Abnormality of Mind

Substantial Impairment. S. 23A Crimes Act- Substantial impairment (formerly diminished responsibility) reduces

murder to manslaughter if:

(1)at the time of the acts/omissions causing death the person's capacity to

understand events

judge whether the person's action were right or wrong or

control himself or herself

was substantially impaired by an abnormality of mind arising from an underlying condition

AND

(2)the impairment was so substantial as to warrant liability for murder being reduced to

manslaughter

'Substantial' means less than total, more than trivial or minimal: Trotter (1993) 68 A Crim R

536.

The onus of proof is on the accused on the balance of probabilities: Elliot and Hitchins (1983)

9 A Crim R 238. The judge should not comment on the failure of the accused to give

evidence: Bathurst (1968) 1 All ER 1175.

Abnormality of Mind. Under previous legislation it was held that the abnormality of mind must be so different from

ordinary human beings that a reasonable man would call it 'abnormal': Byrne (1960) 2 QB

396. Self induced intoxication is to be disregarded: s. 23A(3), Jones (1986) 22 A Crim R 42.

However the jury should not be directed that if the accused had not taken drink/drugs he/she

would not have killed, the defence is not available. If both drugs and the abnormality

substantially impaired the accused's capacity, the defence is still available: Regina v

Deitschmann [2003] UKHL 10. Steroid rage does not constitute an abnormality of mind: De

Souza (1997) 95 A Crim R 1.

Aetiology.

The abnormality of mind must arise from an underlying condition, which is defined as a pre-

existing mental or physiological condition, other than a condition of a transitory kind: s.

23A(8), McGarvie (1986) 5 NSWLR 270.

Medical Evidence.

It is open to the jury to reject medical evidence but only where there is other evidence

throwing doubt upon it: Tumananko (1992) 64 A Crim R 149 at 160.

Notice

The accused must not without leave of the court adduce evidence tending to prove that he is

not guilty by reason of substantial impairment unless he has given notice in writing to the

DPP, including names and addresses of witnesses and particulars of the evidence to be given

by these witnesses: s. 49 Criminal Procedure Act. A prescribed form can be found as Form 2

to the Criminal Procedure Regulation (2005). There is a precedent Notice of Intention to

Adduce Evidence of Substantial Impairment in this site.

(c) Automatism

Automatism. See Chapter 3 above.

(d) Intoxication

Intoxication. For offences committed before 16 August 1996, intoxication such that there was no intention

is a defence for all offences including manslaughter (Martin (1984) 58 ALJR 217, O'Connor

(1980) 146 CLR 64). For offences committed after 16 August 1996, intoxication is irrelevant

for voluntariness, and only provides a defence in relation to intention when the offence is one

of specific intent, such as murder, and maliciously inflict gbh with intent (s. 428 C-D Crimes

Act, Commonwealth Criminal Code sections 4.2 and 8.2).

Thge jury must be specifically directed that the accused's intoxication is relevant to the

question of whether he had the necessary intent: Bellchambers v Regina {2008] NSWCCA

235 (this case appears to be unavailable on the Supreme Court web site at this time).

Murder is an offence of specific intent, regardless of the legal basis on which it has been

found that murder has been committed: Grant (2002) 55 NSWLR 80, 131 A Crim R 510.

(e) self-defence

Self defence.

The defence of self defence has now been codified. For proceedings which commence after

22 February 2002 (excluding committals) (see s. 423 Crimes Act), the following applies:

A person carries out conduct in self-defence if and only if the person believes the conduct is

necessary:

(a) to defend himself or herself or another person, or

(b) to prevent or terminate the unlawful deprivation of his or her liberty or the liberty of

another person, or

(c) to protect property from unlawful taking, destruction, damage or interference, or

(d) to prevent criminal trespass to any land or premises or to remove a person committing any

such criminal trespass,

and the conduct is a reasonable response in the circumstances as he or she perceives them (s.

418 Crimes Act, Commonwealth Criminal Code section 10.4).

For District or Supreme Court proceedings, it appears that the relevant date is the first time

the accused is arraigned: Taylor (2002) 129 A Crim R 146 .Taking into account the onus of

proof in a criminal prosecution, to negative a defence of self defence, once raised, the

prosecution must establish either that:

(1) the accused did not genuinely believe that he did what he did in self-defence, OR

(2) that the accused did was not a reasonable response to the danger, as he perceived it to be

(Katarzynski [2002] NSWSC 613 at para [23], Dziduch (1990) 47 A Crim R 378)

The defence is not limited to situations where death or serious bodily injury is threatened:

Honeysett (1987) 34 A Crim R 277. Before self-defence can be left to a jury there must be a

threat of immediate harm: PRFN [2000] NSWCCA 230.

The first leg of the test is completely subjective. It is insufficient for the Crown to prove that

the belief of the accused was unreasonable: Katarzynski [2002] NSWSC 613. The second leg

of the test is whether the conduct of the defendant was a reasonable response in the

circumstances as he or she perceived them.

The test relates to whether the defendant's actions were reasonable, not to whether a

reasonable man would have done the same thing: Conlon (1993) 69 A Crim R 92. As a result

s. 428F Crimes Act does not apply, and the court can take into account characteristics of the

defendant such as intoxication (Conlon (1993) 69 A Crim R 92) and possibly delusional

beliefs (Kurtic (1996) 85 A Crim R 57). However in Katarzynski [2002] NSWSC 613. Howie

J said that Conlon no longer applied, and said that intoxication could not be taken into

account.

Once self defence is raised in the evidence, the Crown must satisfy the court that the

defendant was not acting in self-defence beyond reasonable doubt: s. 419 Crimes Act. Even if

self-defence is raised in the Crown case, the issue may only be determined by the jury: DPP

Ref (No. 1) (1992) 60 A Crim R 43.

Self defence is not excluded because the conduct that the defendant was responding to was

lawful, or because the person carrying out the conduct to which the defendant responds was

not criminally responsible for it: s. 422 Crimes Act, Thomas (1993) 65 A Crim R 269. Thus

the defence can be raised even if the alleged victim was lawfully in the execution of his duty

in arresting the accused: Crawford v Regina [2008] NSWCCA 166.

Self defence is not available as a defence to murder, when force is used to protect property

only or to prevent trespass: s. 420.

(f) Duress

Duress Generally. Duress is a defence to most crimes if the actor was acting under the threat of death or serious

bodily harm: Lynch v DPP [1975] AC 653. Once raised, the Crown must exclude the defence

beyond reasonable doubt: Youssef (1990) 50 A Crim R 1.

To convict, the jury must be satisfied that:

there is no reasonable possibility that the accused did the acts by reason of a threat of

death or really serious harm, or

that there is no reasonable possibility that a person of ordinary firmness (of the age

and sex of the accused) would act the way the accused did, or

the accused failed to take advantage of an opportunity which was reasonably open to

him to render it ineffective: Graham [1982] 1 All ER 801, Abusafiah (1991) 56 A

Crim R 424.

Abusafiah sets out standard directions. Slightly different standard directions in the Bench

Book were approved by the Court of Criminal in Makriynikos [2006] NSWCCA 170 at para

[11]. In Victoria the direction is whether or not a person of reasonable firmness could or

might have acted the way the accused did: Lanciana (1996) 84 Crim R 268.

A crucial question in determining whether or not the accused failed to take advantage of an

opportunity to render the threat ineffective was whether or not the accused could have

contacted the police: Taiapa v The Queen [2009] HCA 53.

In Commonwealth offences, duress will be available if and only if the defendant reasonably

believes that

a threat will be carried out unless an offence is committed

there is no reasonable way the threat can be rendered ineffective, and

the conduct is a reasonable response to the threat

(Commonwealth Criminal Code section 10.2.). It has been held that the objective test takes

into account the objective circumstances of the threats not the accused's perceptions of them:

Oblach v Regina (2005) 65 NSWLR 75, 158 A Crim R 586 .

Duress and Murder. Formerly duress was a defence available to principals in the second degree for murder (Lynch

v DPP [1975] AC 653) but not to principals in the first degree: McConnell, McFarland and

Holland [1977] 1 NSWLR 714 overruling McCafferty [1974] 1 NSWLR 89. In England

duress is not available to either: Howe [1987] 1 All ER 771, followed in NSW in Bassett and

Steele (1994) PD [181].

(g) necessity

Necessity. Necessity may be a defence where a person does a criminal act by reason only of his mind

being overborne by threats of death or serious bodily violence, to himself or another, such

that an ordinary person of the like age and sex, would have done the act: Lawrence [1980] 1

NSWLR 122.

For Commonwealth offences, the defence is only available if

circumstances of sudden or extraordinary exist, and

committing the offence is the only reasonable way to deal with the emergency, and

the conduct is a reasonable response to the emergency

(Commonwealth Criminal Code section 10.3).

The defence of necessity may assist a fireman driving through a red light (Buckoke v Greater

London Council [1971] Ch 655) but not homeless squatters (London Borough of Southwark

v Williams [1971] 2 All ER 175) or murderers: Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273.

However it may be a defence to escape: Loughnan [1981] VR 443, but there will usually

need to be evidence that protection was not available: Rogers (1996) 86 A Crim R 542.

Abortion. In NSW and Victoria an abortion is lawful if the doctor honestly grounds that

it is necessary to preserve the woman from serious danger to her life or physical or

mental health and

in circumstances not out of proportion to the danger to be averted (Davidson [1969]

VR 667)

(h) provocation

Provocation. If the issue of provocation arises on the evidence it must be left to the jury even if the defence

counsel does not wish it raised: Van Den Hoek v The Queen (1986) 161 CLR 158. It can be

raised at committal: Kolalich v DPP (1991) 173 CLR 222, 57 A Crim R 237, 66 ALJR 25.

Elements of Provocation.

An act that otherwise would be murder will be reduced to manslaughter if:

the act or omission was the result of a loss of self-control by the accused

induced by any conduct of the accused ( including grossly insulting words or

gestures) and

the conduct of the deceased was such that it could have induced an ordinary person in

the position of the accused to have so far lost self control as to form an intention to

kill or inflict gbh (s. 23 Crimes Act).

The onus of proof is on the Crown to exclude provocation beyond reasonable doubt once it is

raised as an issue by some evidence.

Model Directions. Model directions for provocation are found in Starr (NSW SC Hunt J 12/10/94 u/r). To

exclude the defence the Crown must establish beyond reasonable doubt either:

the act of the accused causing death did not result from a loss of self control on the

part of the accused, or

any such loss of self-control had not been caused by conduct of the deceased towards

the accused or

the conduct of the deceased was not such as could have caused an ordinary person in

the position of the accused to have so far lost his self-control as to have formed an

intention to kill or inflict GBH.

The Provocation. It used to be said that mere words (and in particular a confession of adultery) would never

suffice to provocation ( Holmes [1946] AC 588) but see Parker v The Queen (1963) 111 CLR

610 and Moffa v The Queen (1977) 138 CLR 601. It is not necessary to show that the words

are 'grossly insulting': Lees [1999] NSWCCA 301. The provocation needn't come shortly

before the killing: Chhay (1994) 72 A Crim R 1.

The Subjective Test. The words or conduct must be of the deceased in the presence of the accused (Quartly (1986)

22 A Crim R 25) or possibly a person associated with the accused closely (Tumananko

(1992) 64 A Crim R 149, Hall [2001] NSWCCA 202) but words or actions not in the

presence of the accused may provide a context to otherwise innocent words by the deceased:

Queen v R (1981) 28 SASR 321. However the decision of Quartly was doubted by the High

Court in Davis (1998) 73 ALJR 139.

There must be a loss of self control, not just anger or excitement: Peisley (1990) 54 A Crim R

42.

The Objective Test. The content and the extent of the provocation must be viewed from the viewpoint of the

accused, including his age, race, sex, physical features (Stingel v The Queen (1990) 171 CLR

312 at 326) but not exceptional pugnacity or excitability (Camplin (1978) AC 705) and not

affected by liquor: Croft (1981) 1 NSWLR 126. The significance of the deceased's conduct is

to be judged by its significance to the accused, including his personal history and experiences

(including a peculiar sensitivity to homosexual advances): Green (1997) 148 ALR 659,

(1997) 72 ALJR 19.

The jury must then consider whether or not the provocation so assessed might cause an

ordinary person of the age of the accused to do what he did (Stingel at 331, Baragith (1991)

54 A Crim R 240). The question was not what an ordinary person would have done, but what

the ordinary person could have been induced to to intend: Green v The Queen (1997) 191

CLR 334. The question of whether having lost self-control the accused was no longer

provoked is to be judged on a subjective basis: Masciantonio v The Queen (1995) 183 CLR

58, 69 ALJR 598, (1995) 80 A Crim R 331.

Ordinary Person. 'Ordinary' person does not mean 'reasonable person' (Stingel at 328) or an average person (at

331) because the ordinary person is a person whose powers of self-control are within the

limits of what is ordinary for a person of that age.

Law reform.

There are no longer rules that:

there be reasonable proportion, although this is relevant to the subjective test: Quartly

the act is done suddenly

the act was done with no intention to kill or take life

(s. 23(3) Crimes Act)

Sentencing in Provocation Cases. A helpful consideration of the range and principles in a sentence for manslaughter by reason

of provocation is found in Alexander (1995) 78 A Crim R 141.

(i) Age of Accused

Children. There is an irrebuttable presumption that a child under 10 cannot be guilty of an offence: s. 5

Children (Criminal Proceedings) Act,Commonwealth Criminal Code, section 7.1. For

children from 10 to 14 the test is rebuttable: Commonwealth Criminal Code section 7.2.

The test is whether or the Crown has shown that the child knew that the act would subject

him to punishment: Whitty (1993) 66 A Crim R 462. The Crown must have establish beyond

reasonable doubt that the child knew when he/she did the act that it was a wrong act as

distinct from mere naughtiness or childish mischief: BP and SW [2006] NSWCCA 172 esp at

para [27].

Mere proof of the act charged, no matter how obviously wrong, will not suffice: C v DPP

[1996] 1 AC 1, CRH (NSW CCA u/r 18/12/96), (1997) 4 Crim LN [661]. The prior

convictions of the child are not admissible (CRH (1997) 4 Crim LN [661]) unless the facts of

the case are not in dispute (I v Griffiths (1998) 5 Crim LN [877]).

6/. Offences of Violence.

Assault and Battery. Assault can constitute either

assault- putting the victim in fear of imminent physical harm

battery- applying physical harm to the person of the victim

Assault.

The mens rea for assault is intention to cause apprehension or recklessness. It is not clear if

the foresight of the probability or possibility of required: compare MacPherson v Brown

(1975) 12 SASR 184 and Venna [1975] 3 WLR 737. The actus reus is that the victim was

actually put in fear. It may be necessary to show that a person of reasonable firmness would

be put in fear: Barton v Armstrong [1969] 2 NSWLR 451. Pointing a toy pistol will suffice:

Everingham (1949) 66 WN (NSW) 122.

Mere Words. Words used over the telephone may constitute assault but there must be a threat of violence

which can be immediately be carried out: Barton v Armstrong [1969] 2 NSWLR 451, Knight

(1988) 35 A Crim R 314.

Hostile Intent.

As a general rule it is not necessary to establish a hostile intent. However if there is a minor

infliction of force the existence of a hostile intent may convert it into an assault: Boughey v

The Queen (1986) 161 CLR 10.

Consent.

Consent is a defence to assault where the blow is not struck in anger, but not where the blows

where likely or intended to cause actual bodily harm: Donovan [1934] 2 KB 498, Brown

(1992) 2 All ER 552. Playing sport does not involve consent to assaults: Stanley (1995) PD

[120].

Consent in medical cases

In a criminal case where the allegation is that a medical procedure constitutes some form of

assault, it is sufficient defence if the accused establishes that the patient was advised in broad terms of the nature of the proecdure to be performed: Rogers v Whitaker (1992) 17 CLR 474 at 490, para[14] , Regina v Reeves [2013] NSWCCA 34 esp at para [86]. For a prosecution to succeed, it is unnecessary for the prosecution to establish malice: Regina v Reeves [2013] NSWCCA 34 esp at para [169].

Battery. Spitting on someone constitutes a battery: JWH (1997) 4 Crim LN [763].

Common Assault

Common assault is an offence which carries a maximum penalty of 2 years gaol: s. 61 Crimes

Act. It is a Table 2 offence.

Contrary to a literal reading of s. 8 Criminal Procedure Act, it has been held that a charge of

common assault can be dealt with on indictment in higher courts: Fisher (2002) 54 NSWLR

467.

Actual Bodily Harm.

Actual bodily harm is any harm more than transient and trifling, but need not be permanent:

Donovan. Bruises and scratches are typical examples: McIntyre v Regina (2009) 198 A Crim

R 549 at para [44]. Emotional harm does not suffice unless there is evidence of psychiatric

harm: Chan Fook (1994) 1 WLR 689. It is not necessary to prove intent to inflict actual

bodily harm: Percoli (1986) 42 SASR, Williams (1990) 50 A Crim R 213. Assault

occasioning actual bodily harm (s. 59) carries 5 years, and 7 years if in company. It is a Table

2 offence.

Grievous bodily harm.

'Grievous bodily harm' means bodily harm of a really serious kind: Smith (1960) 3 All ER

161. This may not include disfigurement only: Tranby (1991) 52 A Crim R 228. Maliciously

inflict gbh requires proof only of intent to assault: Stokes and Difford (1990) 51 A Crim R

25. Where maliciously inflict gbh with intent is charged, there must be specific intent, not

merely recklessness: McKnoulty (1995) PD [18].

For the charge of inflicting grievous bodily harm to be made out, it is not necessary for the Crown to establish that the defendant applied force to the complainant causing immediate injury. Thus, for example, causing someone to contract a disease can constitute inflicting grievous bodily harm: Regina v Aubrey [2012] NSWCCA 254.

The penalties for recklessly inflicting grievous bodily harm is 10 years ( s. 35 (2)), 14 years if

in company ( s. 35 (1)) or with intent to inflict gbh or resist arrest or prevent the apprehension

of any person (s. 33), 25 years.

For the offence of recklessly inflicting grievous bodily harm ( s. 35 (2)), there is a standard

non-parole period of 4 years, or, if in company ( s. 35 (1)), 5 years: Table of Standard Non-

Parole Periods, Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act.

For offences of inflicting grievous bodily harm with intent (s. 33) committed after 3 February

2003 the 'standard non-parole period' is 7 years.

Reckless Wounding. For there to be a wounding there must be a breaking or cutting of the 2 layers of the skin:

Smith (1837) 8 Carrington and Payne 173, Shepherd [2003] NSWCCA 351.

It has been held that the mental element for this offence is foresight of the possibility of

grievous bodily harm. Foresight of some harm is insufficient: Blackwell v Regina (2011) 208

A Crim R 392 esp at para [82]. See also Lawton v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 16.

The penalty is 7 years ( s. 35 (4)), if in company 10 years ( s. 35 (3)), or with intent to inflict

gbh or resist arrest or prevent the apprehension of any person (s. 33), 25 years.

There is a standard non-parole period of 3 years for the basic offence of reckless wounding

(s. 35 (4)), and for the offence of reckless wounding in company( s. 35 (3)), 4 years: Table of

Standard Non-Parole Periods, Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act.

For offences of reckless wounding with intent (s. 33) committed after 3 February 2003 the

'standard non-parole period' is 7 years.

Assault Police.

For the offence of assaulting, stalking, or intimidating a police officer, in the execution of his

duty, where no actual bodily harm is inflicted, the maximum penalty is 5 years (s. 60(1)).

For the offence of assaulting a police officer, while in the execution of his duty, and inflicting

actual bodily harm, the maximum penalty is 5 years (s. 60(2)). For offences committed after 3

February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 3 years.

For the offence of maliciously wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm on a police

officer while in the execution of his duties, the maximum penalty is 12 years (s. 60(3)). For

offences committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 5 years.

Generally these offences only apply if the victim was a police officer while the officer was in

the course of execution of his duty. However, these offences apply if the officer was not on

duty, but the assault was committed in consequence of or in retaliation for actions of the

police officer in the execution of his/her duty, or because the victim was a police officer (s.

60(4)).The prosecution must generally show that the officer was acting in the execution of his

duties: Donnelly v Jackman (1970) 1 All ER 987, Weekes v Lahood [CN 129].

It seems that in a prosecution for assault police it is not necessary to prove that the person

knew that the person was a policeman: The Queen v Reynhoudt (1962) 107 CLR 381,

criticised by Brennan J in He Kaw Teh (1985) 157 CLR 523, 60 ALR 449 at 489.

In order to prove that a person has 'intimidated' a police officer it is necessary to show either

that the person's conduct has induced fear in the police officer or effected his conduct: Mellor

v Low (2000) 48 NSWLR 517. A person convicted of intimidating a police officer cannot

based on the same conduct also be convicted of harassing a police officer because the latter is

subsumed in the former: Vella v DPP (2005) 156 A Crim R 113. .

Resist or Hinder Police

It is an offence to resist or wilfully obstruct a police officer in the execution of his/her duty: s.

58 Crimes Act. This offence carries a maximum penalty of 5 years imprisonment.

It is an offence to resist or hinder a police officer in the execution of his duty: s. 546C Crimes

Act. The offence of resisting or hindering a police officer in the execution of his/her duty

carries a penalty of 12 months imprisonment or $1100:

The actus reus of hinder police is any active interference or obstruction which makes the duty

of the police officer substantially more difficult of performance: Leonard v Morris (1975) 10

SASR 528 at 531.

It has been held that a person who runs away from police is not guilty of hindering police:

Taufahema (2006) 162 A Crim R 12. .

Using an Offensive Instrument to Prevent Arrest.

It is an offence to possess, use, attempt or threaten to use an offensive weapon with intent to

commit an indictable offence or to prevent or hinder the arrest of any person or any

investigation. The maximum penalty is 12 years or if in company 15 years: s. 33B.

An inoffensive object may become offensive by its use and intent: Hamilton (1993) 66 A

Crim R 575. An equivocal object like a knife is only an offensive instrument if there is an

intention to use it as a weapon: Haigh (1995) PD [264].

Discharging a Firearm with Intent

It is an offence to discharge or attempt to discharge loaded arms with intent to inflict grievous

bodily harm or with intent to resist or prevent the lawful arrest of any person. The penalty is

14 years or if in company 20 years (s. 33A Crimes Act).

It is an offence to shoot at or attempt to discharge loaded arms at any person with intent to

resist the lawful arrest of any person. The penalty is 25 years: s. 33 Crimes Act. For offences

committed after 3 February 2003 the 'standard non-parole period' is 7 years. To 'shoot at'

means to intend to hit a person: Marshall (1987) 26 A Crim R 259, Abdallah (2005) 157 A

Crim R 219 esp at para [56].

Kidnapping.

It is an offence to take or detain a person without the person's consent for ransom or for any

other advantage: s. 86 Crimes Act. It appears that it is necessary for the prosecution to

establish that the accused complainant did not consent to be taken away or detained, and that

the accused did not believe that she was willing or consenting: DMC (2002) 137 A Crim R

246. .

'Advantage' is wide enough to include an intention to have sexual intercourse: Rowe (1996)

89 A Crim R 467, Robson [1978] 1 NSWLR 73.

If the victim is under 16, the accused is to be treated as acting without the consent of the

child, unless the accused is the parent of the child, or is acting with the consent of a parent,

and is not in contravention of any order of the court relating to the child: s. 86(5)-(6)

The elements of aggravated detain for advantage are that

the accused detained the victim

the detention was without the victim's consent

the accused did this with the intention of obtaining an advantage

that the accused was in company or actual bodily harm is inflicted on the victim

during or immediately before or after the detaining

Charlesworth v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 27.

The penalty is

14 years for the 'basic offence'

20 years for the 'aggravated offence' of being in company or committing the offence

when actual bodily harm is inflicted on the victim immediately before, during or

immediately after the commission of the basic offence

25 years for the 'specially aggravated offence' if both the aggravating factors referred

to above are present

'Claim of right' is not a defence to kidnapping: Williams (2006) 160 A Crim R 151.

A person can be guilty of detain for advantage if he is present during some part of the

detention and provided assistance and enclursgement: Charlesworth v Regina [2009]

NSWCCA 27.

Common law offences of kidnapping and false imprisonment

It seems that there is still a common law offence of kidnapping: Nguyen and Tran (1998) 99

A Crim R 151.

At common law there is also an offence of unlawful imprisonment. The elements of the

offence are:

the accused compelled the victim to remain in a particular place without the victim's

consent

the restraint was deliberate and intended to constrain the victim from leaving

the accused had no lawful excuse for his conduct

(JCS & JMS (2006) 164 A Crim R 1 esp at para [22]).

Sexual Intercourse.

Sexual intercourse is defined by statute as including oral sex, anal sex, insertion of objects,

and continuation of any of the above: s. 61H. It doesn't matter how much of the lips are

penetrated: Preval [1984] 3 NSWLR 647. Cunnilingus does not require proof of penetration:

Randall (1991) 53 A Crim R 380.

Consent

A person consents to have sexual intercourse if the person freely and voluntarily agrees to

sexcual intercourse: s. 61HA (2).

The fact that a person does not offer physical resistance to sexual intercourse does not of

itself establish that the person is to be reagrded as consenting: s. 61HA (7).

Section 61HA does not apply to offences of attempted sexual intercourse without consent:

WO v DPP [2009] NSWCCA 275.

Absence of consent

A person's consent to have sexual intercourse may be negated:

(a) if the person does not have the capacity to consent to the sexual intercourse, (including

because of age or cognitive incapacity), or

(b) if the person does not have the opportunity to consent to the sexual intercourse because

the person is unconscious or asleep, or

(c) if the person consents to the sexual intercourse because of threats of force or terror

(whether the threats are against, or the terror is instilled in, that person or any other person),

or

(d) if the person consents to the sexual intercourse because the person is unlawfully detained

(s. 61HA (4)).

The Crimes Act specifically provides that the grounds upon which it may be held that a

person does not consent to sexual intercourse include the following:

(a) if the person has sexual intercourse while substantially intoxicated by alcohol or any drug,

or

(b) if the person has sexual intercourse because of intimidatory or coercive conduct, or other

threat, that does not involve a threat of force, or

(c) if the person has sexual intercourse because of the abuse of a position of authority or trust

(s. 61HA (6)).

Apparent consent induced by a mistake

A person who consents to sexual intercourse with a person who knows that the victim has a

mistaken belief as to the identity of the person, the nature of the sexual act involved, or as to

whether or not they are married does not consent: s. 61HA (5). Consenting under a mistake as

to the purpose of intercourse will not vitiate consent: Mobilio (1990) 50 A Crim R 170.

However a mistake as to the nature of the act induced by fraudulent means is not consent: s.

61HA (5).

Consent Obtained by Threats

Consent obtained by threats or terror, or when the complainant has been unlawfully detained,

is not consent: s. 61HA (4).

If a person consents because of intimidatory or other conduct or other threat not involving a

threat of force a person consents it can be established that a person does not consent: s. 61HA

(6). This provision appears to have overturned Regina v Aiken (2005) 63 NSWLR 719 which

held that where the threat was non-violent (such as a threat to report an alleged shop-lifter) it

could not be said that subsequnet sexual intercourse was non-consensual.

Knowledge of absence of consent

In a prosecution for the offence of sexual intercourse without consent the prosecution must

prove that the accused knew that the complainant did not consent.

The prosecution can establish that the accused had knowledge that the complainant did not

consent to having sexual intercourse by establishing any of the following:

(a) the person knows that the other person does not consent to the sexual intercourse, or

(b) the person is reckless as to whether the other person consents to the sexual intercourse, or

(c) the person has no reasonable grounds for believing that the other person consents to the

sexual intercourse (s. 61HA (3) )

Recklessness indifference as to the consent of the victim will suffice. Thus where the accused

is aware that the victim possibly might not be consenting there is no consent: Zorad [1979] 2

NSWLR 764, Hemsley (1988) 36 A Crim R 334. The test is an entirely subjective one:

O'Meagher (1997) 101 A Crim R 196. Where the accused does not consider the issue of

consent at all, there is also no consent: Kitchener (1993) 29 NSWLR 696, Tolmie (1995) 84

A Crim R 293. If the accused is aware that there is a possibility that the complainant is not

consenting, but goes ahead anyway, he is guilty of sexual intercourse without consent on the

basis of recklessness: Banditt v The Queen (2005) 224 CLR 262.

The third leg of the mens rea ('the person has no reasonable grounds for believing...') is a

divergence from the common law. At common law, the test of knowledge that the

complainant was not consenting was a purely subjective test: see for example DPP v Morgan

[1976] AC 192. However the test of having no reasonable grounds to beleive would appear to

be a more stringent test a test of 'did not reasonably believe'.

In determining whether or not the accused knew that the complainant was consenting, the

jury or judge must take into account all the circumstances of the case, including any steps the

accused took to ascertain whether or not the complainant was consenting, but not taking into

account the effects of self-induced intoxication: s. 61 HA (3). It would appear to follow that

when two highly intoxicated people have what would otherwise be consensual sexual

intercourse, both may be guilty of sexual intercourse without consent.

Abolition of Immunities.

It is no longer the case that boys under the age of 14 are presumed to be incapable of sexual

intercourse: s. 61S. The immunity of husbands has also abolished: s. 61T. This abolition was

held not to be unconstitutional: R v L (1991) 174 CLR 379, 66 ALJR 36.

Sexual Assault with GBH.

Sexual assault category 1 is inflicting grievous bodily harm on the victim or a third person

present and nearby with intent to have sexual intercourse or threatening to inflict actual

bodily harm on the victim or a person nearby with an offensive weapon or instrument: s. 61K.

If the threat of harm by means of an offensive instrument is relied on the Crown does not

have to prove that an offensive weapon was produced: Tout (1987) 11 NSWLR 251. The

penalty is 20 years.

Aggravated Sexual Assault.

Sexual assault is treated as aggravated if there are any of the following circumstances of

aggravation:

the offender maliciously inflicts actual bodily harm on the victim or any other person

who is present or nearby at the time of, immediately before or immediately after the

sexual assault

the offender threatens the victim or any person present or nearby with an offensive

weapon or instrument

the offender is in company

the victim is under 16

the victim is under the authority of the offender

the victim has a serious physical or intellectual disability

For aggravated sexual assault the maximum penalty is 20 years (s. 61J). For offences

committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 10 years.

Where s. 61J is charged, it is necessary for the prosecution to establish that the complainant did not consent even if the complainant is under 16: McGrath v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 48.

As to the meaning of 'in company', it has been held that there must be such proximity as

would enable the inference that the coercive effect of the group operated, either to embolden

or reassure the offender in committing the crime, or to intimidate the victim into submission:

Button and Griffen (2002) 54 NSWLR 455.

'Under the authority of a person' is defined as meaning if a person is under the 'care, or under

the supervision or authority', of another person (s. 61H (2)). It has been held that those words

are ordinary English words which do not require further explanation: KSC v Regina [2012]

NSWCCA 179 esp at para [125]. Acting under authority may includes the

employer/employee relationship: DH (1997) 4 Crim LN [725].

Where the age of the victim is alleged to be an aggravating factor, it is not clear that it must

be proved that the accused knew of the complainant's age.

Aggravated Sexual Assault In Company Aggravated sexual intercourse in company is committed when

the offender has sexual intercourse with another person knowing that person does not

consent to sexual intercourse

the offender is in company of another person or persons

one of the following aggravating circumstances applies

o the offender maliciously inflicts actual bodily harm on the victim or any other

person who is present or nearby at the time of, immediately before or

immediately after the sexual assault OR

o the offender threatens the victim or any person present or nearby with an

offensive weapon or instrument at the time of, immediately before or

immediately after the sexual assault OR

o the offender deprives the person of his/her liberty for a period before or after

the commission of the offence.

The maximum penalty is life imprisonment: s. 61JA. For offences committed after 3

February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 15 years.

Sexual Assault (not aggravated)

Sexual Assault is having sexual intercourse with a person without their consent knowing that

they are not consenting: s. 61I. See also Morgan [1976] AC 182, McEwan [1979] 2 NSWLR

926.

Where s. 61I is charged, it is necessary for the prosecution to establish that the complainant did not consent even if the complainant is under 16: McGrath v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 48.

The maximum penalty is normally 14 years. For offences committed after 3 February 2003,

the 'standard non-parole period' is 7 years.

Indecent Assault.

To be an indecent assault there must be an assault and at the time of the assault or

immediately before or after an act of indecency: s. 61L. The maximum penalty is normally 5

years. If there are aggravating circumstances the penalty is 7 years: s. 61M(1). For offences

committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 5 years. However if the

victim is under 16, the maximum penalty is 10 years: s. 61M (2). The 'standard non-parole

period' is 8 years.

Where the victim is over the age of consent, the Crown must prove that the accused was

aware that the complainant did not consent or the accused was reckless as to consent: Bonora

(1994) 35 NSWLR 74, Kuckailis [2001] NSWCCA 333.

The assault can be a non-hostile touching. If there is no touching, the action of the accused

must cause a reasonable apprehension of physical violence: Fitzgerald v Kennard (1995) 84

A Crim R 333.

The test of indecency is whether right minded persons would consider the act to be contrary

to community standards of decency: Harkin, McIntosh (1994) PD [390]. Where the part of

the body that has been touched has no sexual connotation (not genitalia or breasts) there must

be evidence of an indecent intention: Harkin (1989) 38 A Crim R 296.

Act of Indecency.

The maximum penalty for act of indecency is 18 months if the victim is 16 or over, and 2

years if the victim is under 16: s. 61N. An act of indecency does not include indecent assault

or sexual assault: Saraswati v The Queen (1991) 172 CLR 1, 54 A Crim R 183. A charge

alleging that the accused did an act of indecency 'with or towards' the complainant was held

bad for duplicity: Orsos (1997) 95 A Crim R 457. In determining whether or not the act is

'indecent', the context and in particular the intention of the accused can be taken into account:

DPP v Eades [2009] NSWSC.

Sexual Intercourse with Minors A person who has sexual intercourse with a child under 10 is liable for 20 years

imprisonment (s. 66A). For offences committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-

parole period' is 15 years.

A person who has sexual intercourse with a child between 10 and 14 is liable for 16 years

imprisonment (s. 66C (1)). However if the offence is committed in circumstances of

aggravation (including being under authority), the penalty is 20 years (s. 66C (2)).

A person who has sexual intercourse with a child between the age of 14 and 16 is liable to a

penalty of 10 years (s. 66C (3)). If the offence is committed in circumstances of aggravation,

the penalty is 12 years (s. 66C (4)).

'Circumstances of aggravation' are as discussed under 'Aggravated Sexual Assault' discussed

above (with the omission of being under the age of 16, and the addition of taking advantage

of the victim being under the influence of alcohol or drugs).

Where a person has a sexual intercourse with a child between 16 and 17 and under his/her

'special care', the person is liable to 8 years imprisonment. If the child is between the age of

17 and 18, the maximum penalty is 4 years (s. 73 Crimes Act). A person is in a relationship

of 'special care' with a person if he/she is the person's step-parent, guardian, foster parent,

teacher, coach, prison officer or health professional of the child (s. 73 Crimes Act). This may

not apply where a de facto has sexual intercourse with his de facto's daughter: Miller (2001)

127 A Crim R 344. However it appears that 'foster parent' includes someone who is in a de

facto relationship with the mother of a complainant: JAD v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 73.

Consent is no defence for these offences (s. 77).

The former statutory defence of mistake as to age when a child is between the ages of 14 and

16 (s. 77) was abolished. However the High Court held in CTM v Regina [2008] HCA 25

that the defence of honest and reasonable mistake about the age of the complainant was still

available as a defence.

Persistent Sexual Abuse

Where a person commits a sexual offence on 3 occasions with the one child on separate days,

the offender is guilty of an offence under s. 66EA Crimes Act, which carries 25 years.

Incest Having carnal knowledge with a parent, grandparent, sibling child or grandchild is incest.

The penalty is 8 years (s. 78A). The prosecution must be sanctioned by the Attorney General

(s. 78F).

Homosexual Intercourse For most purposes, in 2003 homosexual intercourse was put in the same legal position as

heterosexual intercourse. Homosexual intercourse between adults is not illegal in NSW.

For offences involving sexual intercourse with males under 16, see 'Sexual Intercourse with

Minors' above.

Production, dissemination, or possession of child pornography

It is an offence carrying 10 years imprisonment to produce or disseminate child pornography (s. 91H( 2) Crimes Act).

It is an offence carrying 5 years imprisonment to possess child pornography (s. 91H (3) Crimes Act).

Child pornography is defined as material that depicts or describes persons under or apparently under the age of 16 engaged in sexual activity, or in a sexual context, or as the victim of torture, cruelty or physical abuse, such that a reasonable person would be offended.

There are a number of defences including the defence of artistic merit, and the defence tat the accused did not know that he posssessed child pornography (s. 91H (4).

It has been held that where material was found on an accused's hard drive which had been deleted but could still be retrieved, the Crown could not without more establish that the accused knew that the material was in his possession and the appeal had to be quashed: Clark v Regina (2008) 185 A Crim R 1 .

Offences which straddle a date where the maximum penalty was increased

Where the allegaton is that an offence occurred sometime during a particular period, and

during that time the maximum penalty was increased, and the prosecution cannot prove

whether the offence occurred before or after the increase in the maximum penalty, the

offender is to be sentenced according to the lower maximum penalty: Regina v MAJW

(2007) 171 A Crim R 407 .

Lack of or Delay in Complaint.

Where it is suggested that the victim delayed complaining or did not complain the judge must

tell the jury that a delay in or absence of complaint does not necessarily mean that the

allegation is false, and that there may be very good reasons why a victim might so act: s. 294

Criminal Procedure Act. The judge should not identify possible but unexpressed reasons why

no complaint had been made: Williams (1999) 104 A Crim R 260.

Section 294 does not mean that judges should not tell juries that they can take into account

delay in making a complaint: (Crofts (1996) 186 CLR 427, 88 A Crim R 232) and as a

general rule such a direction should be given: DJK (1997) 96 A Crim R 443, Harvey (NSW

CCA 9/4/98), JTS (1998) 5 Crim LN [913], M (1997) 99 A Crim R 464 (Vic C of A).

However this direction only needs to be given if

(1) the delay is significant, and

(2) the accused has suffered a significant forensic disadvantage caused by the delay, other

than the mere passage of time (s. 294 ).

Judges should also tell the jury the delay in complaint makes it difficult for the accused to

defend himself, referring to any specific difficulties: Harvey, Johnston (1998) 45 NSWLR

362. The direction should refer to the fact that (1) the delay made it harder for the accused to

defend the Crown case, referring to specific difficulties in the case, and (2) as a result there

was a need to consider the Crown case with additional care or caution: Johnston. For a

detailed summary of the necessary directions on delay in complaint, see Chapter 16 in the

Evidence Section.

Victims of Sexual Offences.

There is no longer a rule that the evidence of victims of sexual assault and indecent assault

must be corroborated.

If the sole witness corroborating the Crown case is the complainant a traditional direction is

that the jury should consider the evidence of the complainant with great care (Murray (1987)

11 NSWLR 12). The Murray direction should still be given after the Evidence Act: Vawdrey

(1998) 100 A Crim R 488.

Under s. 294AA of the Criminal Procedure Act a judge is prohibited from warning a jury that

complainants as a class are unreliable, and from warning a jury of the danger of convicting on

the uncorroborated evidence of a complainant. Although this provision appears to have been

intended to do away with the Murray direction, arguably it has not done so.

Victims of Sexual Assault: Delay in Complaint

At common law where there was a lengthy delay in complaint it was necessary to direct the

jury that it would be dangerous to convict unless the jury having scrutinised the evidence

with great care was satisfied of its truth and accuracy. This direction was called the

'Longman' direction: Longman (1989) 168 CLR 179, 43 A Crim R 463 at 471.

However the issues of when the direction is required, and the content of the direction, have

been modified by statute. The direction is only to be given if there is sufficient evidence to

justify such a warning (s. 165B Evidence Act). If a judge in a sexual assault trial is satisfied

that

(a) there is a delay in complaint and

(b) the person on trial has suffered a significant forensic disadvantage because of the delay

the judge may inform the jury (if one of the parties requests) the nature of the disadvantage

and the need to take that disadvantage into account in determining whether or not to accept

the evidence (s. 165B Evidence Act).

As to what is a 'significant' delay' the cases on the meaning of a long delay will be of

assistance. In Longman the delay was 20 years. In Doggett (2001) 208 CLR 343 the High

Court said that there should have been a Longman direction in a case where there was a delay

of 12 years. However in Dyers (2002) 210 CLR 285 it seems 3 High Court judges (Kirby at

para [58], McHugh at [47] and Callinan at [128] to [131]) did not think that there had to be a

Longman direction in a case where there was a delay of 5 years. In WSP [2005] NSWCCA

427 it was suggested it may not be necessary to warn the jury that it may be dangerous to

convict on that evidence if the delay is not 20 years but for example is 4 years (at para [179]).

At the other end of the spectrum of delay, in a case where there was a delay of complaint of

about 6 months, it was held that there was no need to give a Longman direction: MDB [2005]

NSWCCA 354.

The direction is only to be given if the judge is satisfied that the accused has suffered a

significant forensic disadvantage caused by the delay: s. 165B (2) Evidence Act. The death of

or inability to find potential witnesses and evidence are given as examples in a non-

exhaustive list (s. 165B (7) ). The mere passage of time is not of itself to be regarded as a

forensic disadvantage: s. 165B (6). This overturns the common law position, in which it was

presumed that the accused had sufferred a detriment, even though no specific detriment could

be identified: BWT (2002) 54 NSWLR 241, 129 A Crim R 153 especially at paras [13] to

[14].

The direction should be given even when there is corroboration of the complainant: Doggett

(2001) 208 CLR 343.

Content of the Longman direction

As discussed immediately above, at common law the 'Longman' direction was that where

there was a lengthy delay in complaint it was necessary to direct the jury that it would be

dangerous to convict unless the jury having scrutinised the evidence with great care was

satisfied of its truth and accuracy: Longman (1989) 168 CLR 179, 43 A Crim R 463 at 471.

Section 165B (4) of the Evidence Act prohibits a direction that it would be dangerous or unsafe to convict the accused solely because of delay in complaint or the forensic disadvantages suffered as a result of the delay.

If the judge on application of any party is satisfied that the accused has suffered a significant forensic disadvantage because of the consequences of delay, the court must inform the jury:

of the nature of the disadvantage and the need to take that disadvantage into account in considering the evidence (s. 165B(2)

Evidence Act).

It may be that the directions should still include a direction to scrutinise the evidence of the

complainant with great care. It was assumed that such a direction should be given in TJ v

Regina [2009] NSWCCA 257.

The jury should be told of any difficulties caused by the delay to the defence: Johnston

(1998) 45 NSWLR 362, Crampton (2000) 206 CLR 161.

If a Longman direction is given, the direction should not refer to difficulties suffered by both

the Crown and the accused because of the delay. It should only refer to difficulties suffered

by the accused: Folli [2001] NSWCCA 531 esp at para [22], Erohin [2006] NSWCCA 102 at

para [86].

Multiple Victims and Multiple Counts Where there are a number of counts, the jury is usually directed that each count must be

considered separately. However where there is no evidence in the Crown case apart from the

complainant's evidence, the jury should generally be told that if they find the accused is not

guilty on one count, that must be taken into account in assessing the truthfulness of the

complainant generally: Markulevski (2001) 52 NSWLR 82. There is no universal

requirement that the jury be given a 'propensity direction'; that is, a direction that if the jury

found the accused guilty of one of the offences charged, it could not use that finding to reason

that he was the sort of person likely to commit the another of the offences: KRM v The

Queen (2001) 75 ALJR 550.

Where there are multiple complainants each alleging separate assaults, the jury must be

directed that the evidence of one complainant could not be used towards proof of an offence

against another complainant: Mayberry [2000] NSWCCA 531 especially at paras [259] to

[263], KRM v The Queen (2001) 75 ALJR 550 at para 38 (per McHugh J).It should be noted

that generally if there are multiple complainants there should be separate trials unless similar

fact applies: De Jesus v The Queen (1986) 68 ALR 1, Sutton v The Queen (1984) 152 CLR

528 (Brennan). Similar fact will not apply if there is a reasonable possibility of concoction:

Hoch v The Queen (1988) 165 CLR 292, 62 ALJR 582.

Previous Sexual Experience. Evidence of the sexual experience or lack of experience of the victim is inadmissible in a

prescribed sexual offence (defined in s. 3 Criminal Procedure Act) unless the probative value

outweighs the distress etc to the victim and it comes within one of the following fact

situations (s. 293 Criminal Procedure Act ) :

where the evidence is of the complainant's sexual experience/inexperience, or sexual

activity/events are a connected set of circumstances ( s. 293 (4) (a) )

where it is evidence of the relationship between the parties (s. 293 (4)(b))

in a case where the accused does not concede that sexual intercourse took place, and

the evidence is relevant to whether where the presence of injury, semen, disease or

pregnancy is attributable to the accused (s. s. 293 (4) (c))

if the evidence is relevant to whether at the time of the alleged sexual intercourse the

accused or the complainant had a disease (s. 293 (4) (d))

if the evidence is relevant to whether the allegation of sexual assault was first made

following a realization or discovery of disease or pregnancy of the complainant (s.

293 (4) (e)).

if the prosecution case has disclosed or implied that the complainant has sexual

experience or a lack of sexual experience of a general or specified nature, or had taken

part in or not taken part in sexual activity of a general or specified nature (s. s. 293

(6)).

AND the probative value outweighs the complainant's distress etc. See White (1989) 46 A

Crim R 251.

Evidence of a 'set of circumstances' ( s. 293 (4) (a)) may include intercourse with another

person an hour later: Morgan (1993) 67 A Crim R 526. 'Relationship' in this context (s. 293

(4) (b) ) has been held to mean 'an emotional connection between people sometimes

involving sexual relations': White (1989) 18 NSWLR 332. It may include intercourse

between the parties a few weeks after the incident: Regina v Warner (NSWCCA unreported

7/5/1997), Taylor v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 180.

The reference in s. 293 (4) (c) to 'injury, disease' is not limited to injury to genitalia, and this

provision should be construed broadly- see Dimian (1995) 83 A Crim R 358.

The prosecution has not 'disclosed' the complainant's sexual history or lack of sexual history

merely by the prosecution serving material on the accused recording that the complainant was

a virgin: Spratt v DPP [2010] NSWSC 355.

The applicant should set out in writing the areas he wishes to question on, but not the specific

questions: Dimian (1995) 83 A Crim R 358, Taylor v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 180 esp at

paras [45] to [48].

If the accused is charged with one prescribed sexual offence and one offence which is not a

prescribed sexual offence, s. 293 Criminal Procedure Act still appears to apply: ARS (CCA

unreported 25/9/97).

The provision appears to preclude cross-examination about previous false complaints: M

(1993) 67 A Crim R 549, Bernthaler (1994) PD [10]. The provision will not justify a stay of

proceedings: PJE (CCA u/r 9/10/95). It will not be sufficient to make the verdict unsafe and

unsatisfactory: but see HG (1999) 197 CLR 414, overruling Morgan 67 A Crim R 526.

S. 293 Criminal Procedure Act also prohibits evidence of non-consensual sexual activity of

the complainant: HG (1999) 197 CLR 414.

The complainant's evidence

A complainant in a prescribed sexual offence is entitled to give evidence by closed circuit television or shielded from the accused and from anyone else in the court room by use of screens: s. 294B Criminal Procedure Act.

Cross-Examination of a Complainant by an Unrepresented Accused

Section 294A Criminal Procedure Act prohibits an unrepresented accused from cross-

examining a complainant in a sexual offence. However, in such a court situation, the court

must appoint someone to ask the complainant the questions that the unrepresented person

requests. A challenge to the constitutional validity of this legislation was rejected in MSK

and MAK (2004) 61 NSWLR 204, 148 A Crim R 453.

The representative of the accused should be present for the evidence in chief of the complainant and the proposed questions of the complainant should not have to be submitted to the judge before the evidence in chief of the complainant is given: Clark v Regina [2008] NSWCCA 122.

Medical Evidence that it is probable that the complainant had been sexually assaulted

A doctor's opinion that, in light of the complainant's history and the doctor's examination, it

was probable that the complainant had been sexually assaulted, is inadmissible: Davis [2004]

NSWCCA 298 esp at paras [37] to [38].

Time on the Indictment

Late amendment of the date on the indictment can be fatal for the Crown case: Westerman

(1991) 55 A Crim R 353. The date of the offence is not normally an element of the offence,

but is a matter of particulars: VHP (NSW CCA 7/7/97), Kennedy (2000) 118 A Crim R 34.

However, in a particular case, the date of the offence can achieve importance by indicating

that the offence is not maintainable at law or is bad for duplicity: Greenaway (2001) 118 A

Crim R 299.

7/. Drug and People Smuggling Offences

Commonwealth Offences. Under the Commonwealth Criminal Code it is an offence to

import or export a border controlled drug or plants (ss. 307.1-4)

have in possession a bordered controlled drug or plants which was illegally imported

(ss. 307.5- 307.7)

have in possession bordered controlled drug or plants which are reasonably suspected

of being illegally imported (ss. 307.8-307.10)

Elements of Importing the Commercial Quantity of a Border Controlled Drug/Plants

For the Crown to establish that an accused is guilty of the offence of importing the

commercial quantity of a border controlled drug or plants, the Crown must establish:

the person imported a substance

the substance was a border controlled drug or plant

the amount imported was the commercial quantity.

Similarly for the offence of import the marketable quantity.

As to the mens rea for these offences, see below.

Meaning of 'import'

The word 'import' has been interpreted as meaning requiring proof that the border controlled goods arrived in Australia from abroad and were delivered to a point which would result in the goods remaining in Australia. It is necessary that the Crown proves that the accused had the relevant mens rea at the time the goods were imported: Campbell v Regina (2008) 73 NSWLR 272, 188 A Crim R 1 .

This interpretation is considerably narrower than the position with the former offence of being knowingly concerned with the importation of drugs.

Mens Rea of Importation: Offences Committed after 28 September 2004

For offences committed after 28 September 2004, and for offences allegedly committed

before the Code was introduced the following applies.

In a charge of importation there must be proof of intention to import, so there must be

knowledge of the existence of the drugs: He Kaw Teh v The Queen (1985) 157 CLR 523.

Under the Commonwealth Criminal Code, the fault element for knowledge that the substance

imported was a prohibited drug or plant is recklessness. Intention to import narcotics can be

inferred from awareness that the thing being imported contains narcotic goods.

It is sufficient if the Crown establishes that the accused was aware that it is likely that the

thing being imported was narcotic goods: Kural v The Queen (1987) 162 CLR 502,

Tomasevic (1990) 51 A Crim R 72, Chi Thanh Cao v Regina (2006) 65 NSWLR, 172 A

Crim R 1 esp at para [63]. The jury should not be directed in terms of wilful blindness:

Zakaria (1992) 62 A Crim R 259.

In importation matters, the element that the substance being imported was of the marketable

or commercial quantity is a matter of absolute liability. The Crown is not required to prove

that the accused knew the amount being imported: Cheng v The Queen (2000) 203 CLR 248,

Keung v Regina (2008) 191 A Crim R 317 .

Mens Rea of Importation: Offences before 28 September 2004 It has been held that it is a misdirection to tell a jury that awareness that there was a

substantial risk that the contained narcotic goods is sufficient to establish intention: Regina v

Saengsai-Or (2004) 61 NSWLR 135, 147 A Crim R 172 at para [75]. However, the judge

may direct the jury that the intention to import can be established by an inference that the

accused was aware of the likelihood that the container narcotic goods: Saengsai-Or (2004) 61

NSWLR 135 at para [74].

Penalties Under the Commonwealth Act.

There are alternative penalties:

where the amount of the drug is the commercial quantity: life imprisonment (s. 307.1)

where the quantity is the marketable quantity: 25 years imprisonment (s. 307.2)

for importing less than the marketable quantity of a prohibited drug/plant:10 years

where the offender proves that he/she did not intend to sell any of the border

controlled drug and did not believe that any of it would be sold: 2 years

Schedule of Penalties for Importing Particular Drugs Under the Criminal Code, there is a table of penalties for offences under varying according to

the type of drug. The complete schedule can be found in s. 314.1. The relevant quantities for

commonly imported drugs are set out in this table:

DRUG TRAFFICKABLE

QUANTITY MARKETABLE

QUANTITY COMMERCIAL

QUANTITY

Amphetamine 2 g 250 g 750 g

Cannabis 250 g 25 kg 125 kg

Cannabis Resin

20 g 25 kg 125 kg

Cocaine 2 g 250 g 2 kg

Heroin 2 g 250 g 1.5 kg

LSD .002 g .05 g .002 kg

Ecstasy .5 g 100 g .5 kg

Knowingly Concerned in Importation.

To be convicted of 'knowingly concerned' it is necessary to establish proof of some act or

conduct prior to or during the act of importation, some practical connection, not just mere

knowledge or inaction: Tannous (1987) 10 NSWLR 303, Marcell (1993) PD [88]. There must

be knowledge of the essential elements of the principal offence: Edwards (1992) 62 A Crim

R 100. You can be 'knowingly concerned' by conduct after the importation is complete: Leff

(1996) 86 A Crim R 212.

People Smuggling

The Migration Act makes it an offence to organise or facilitate the bringing or coming of a

person, or the entry or proposed entry of a person into Australi, where the person is a non-

citizen, and the person has no right to come to Australia: s. 233A Migration Act. Aggravated

forms of the offence exist where the smuggler exposes the non-citizen to the risk of death or

serious harm (s. 233B), or where at least 5 people are being smuggled (s. 233C).

The maximum penalty for an offence under s. 233A is 10 years imprisonment, and the

maximum penalty for an offence under s. 233B or s. 233C is 20 years imprisonment.

However, where there is an offence under s. 233B there is a mandatory minimum sentence of

8 years with a non-parole period of 5 years, and where there is an offence under s. 233C there

is a mandatory minimum sentence of 8 years with a non-parole period of 5 years for a first

offence, and a mandatory minimum sentence of 8 years with a non-parole period of 5 years

for a subsequent offence: s. 236B.

It is an element of the offence that the accused knew that the island to which the accused was

taking the non-citizens was part of Australia: Alomalu v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 225 esp at

para [82].

Possession of Minute Amounts.

Possession of minute amounts of a drug does not constitute possession: Williams v The

Queen (1978) 140 CLR 591.

The Physical Aspect of Possession. The physical aspect of possession is exclusive physical control: DPP v Brooks (1974) 2 WLR

899. Holding for a short time for the purposes of concealment is still possession: Todd (1977)

6 A Crim R 105.

The Mens Rea of Possession. It is necessary for the prosecution to prove knowledge of the existence of the drug: He Kaw

Teh (1985) 157 CLR 523, 59 ALJR 620. Proof of the belief that the drugs were present will

suffice: Kural. If a person forgets that he has the drugs in his possession he can still be

convicted: Martindale [1986] Crim LJ 737, Kennedy (1998) 100 A Crim R 377. Possession

does not require proof that the defendantknew precisely where the item was or that he knows

that it is in his bag at the relevant time: DPP v Fairbanks [2012] NSWSC 150.

The Shared House. Mere knowledge of the existence of the drugs, their location in the premises, and sanction of

them being there does not amount to possession: Hinton (1978) PSR 1749.In a shared house

situation the mere finding of the drugs will not amount to possession unless the possibility of

sole possession by others is excluded: Fillipetti (1984) 13 A Crim R 335, Burns (19/8/88

CCA), Bazley (23/3/89) and Dib (1991) 52 A Crim R 65.These common law principles now

have to be read subject to the specific statutory provisions relating top 'drug premises' (as to

which see immediately below).

'Drug Premises'

It is an offence to be found on or entering or leaving 'drug premises'. There is a defence if the

accused satisfies the court that he/she had a lawful purpose or lawful excuse. The maximum

penalty for the first offence is a fine of $550 and 12 months imprisonment, for subsequent

offences the maximum penalty is $5500 and 5 years imprisonment: s. 36X Drug Misuse and

Trafficking Act. Similarly it is an offence for an owner or occupier of premises to knowingly

allow premises to be used as drug premises, penalty $5500 and 12 months for the first

offence, and $55, 000 and 5 years for subsequent offences: s. 36Y DM and T Act. The same

penalties apply for organising or conducting, or assisting in organising or conducting, drug

premises. This offence includes acting as a look-out, door attendant or guard: s. 36Z DM and

T Act.

For all of these offences the prosecution is required to prove beyond reasonable doubt that the

premises are 'drug premises': (s. 36W DM and T Act). That requires the court to be satisfied

that at the relevant time the premises were being used for the manufacture or supply of a

prohibited drug: (s. 36W DM and T Act). It is not necessary for the prosecution to prove that

the accused had a prohibited drug in his possession or that there was a prohibited drug in the

premises: s. 36V DM and T Act . In order to determine whether the premises are 'drug

premises', the court can take into account:

evidence that a police officer was obstructed from entering the premises

evidence of security devices to delay police entry

evidence of look outs

evidence of the presence of means of supply or manufacture of prohibited drugs such

as syringes

evidence of the presence of firearms or prohibited weapons

evidence of drug records

evidence of the presence of drug affected persons

(s. 36W DM and T Act). 'Premises' is defined widely in s.3 and appears to include motor

vehicles.

The Car. Where drugs are found in a car, a passenger cannot be convicted of possession without

further evidence: Harris [1961] Crim LJ 256, Lester & Byast (1955) 39 Cr App R 157. Where

the owner of a car has the drugs locked in the boot but he does not have the keys, prima facie

he does not have exclusive physical control: Barron v Valdamis [1978] ACLD 374. Mere

possession of the keys to a car does not of itself prove knowledge of the contents of the car,

especially if others have access to the car: Amanatidis (2001) 125 A Crim R 89. Someone in

a car from which drugs are being sold may be charged with being in drug premises as to

which see the paragraph immediately above.

Hidden Drugs. Where a person hides drugs so effectively he can take it into his custody and others are

unlikely to find them, they are in his possession: Delon (1992) 29 NSWLR 29.

Possession of an Implement. It is an offence to have in your possession an implement for the administration of a prohibited

drug. There is an exemption for hypodermic syringes: s. 11 Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act.

It is necessary to show that the person possessed the utensils for future use: Erickson v Pittard

[1976] 2 NSWLR 528.

Penalty: $2200 or 2 years

Administration. It is an offence to administer drugs to your self or to another person: ss. 12 and 13.

Penalty: $2200 or 2 years

Hearsay Admissions. The courts can take into account street expressions for drugs such as 'grass' (Ringstaad v

Butler [1978] 1 NSWLR 754) but not 'speed' (Woodward v Wallace NSW SC Cantor J

23/4/85). However the admissions only become admissible of what the drugs were if the

maker has personal knowledge or expertise: Ringstaad v Butler, Brady [1980] 7 PSR 2199.

Cultivate.

It is an offence to cultivate indian hemp: s.23. Watering plants with the intention of keeping

the plants alive is cultivation: Eager v Smith (1988) 38 A Crim R 272.

Where the accused is charged with cultivating a particular quantity of plants (for example the

commercial quantity), the Crown must establish that the crop contained the relevant number

of plants, not the number of plants which were tendered: Mouroufas v Regina [2007]

NSWCCA 58.

A number of separate sites can be the subject of a single charge of supply the commercial

quantity: Regina v Whalen and Willer (2002-3) 56 NSWLR 454.

Actual Supply. It is an offence to supply or take part in the actual supply of a prohibited drug: s.25. If the

defendant merely asks someone to obtain a drug and supply it to him he has not caused the

person to supply: Castle v Olen [1985] 3 NSWLR 26. However it seems this can constitute

incitement to supply: Regina v Eade (2002) 131 A Crim R 390.

The relevant intention is an intentional making of an offer with the intention that it would be

regarded by the offeree as genuine, so a 'rip-off' may constitute supply: Dendic (1987) 34 A

Crim R 40, Addison (1993) 70 A Crim R 213. However this does not mean that the

sentencing principles applicable to drug dealers are relevant: Kalpaxis [2001] NSWCCA 119.

Supply includes buying a drug with pooled money and splitting the result: Buckley [1979]

Crim LR 665. Supply includes causing a package to be forwarded to another person by a mail

delivery system, even if the drugs end up being delivered by undercover police: Pinkstone v

The Queen (2004) 219 CLR 444.

Under the extended definition of supply, 'suffering or permitting' a supply is included. This

appears to include a failure of a police officer to intervene knowing that a supply is likely to

occur: Jasper (2003) 139 A Crim R 329.

Does supply include sharing a joint? The cases go either way: King [1978] Crim LR 228,

Moore [1979] Crim LR 789.

A number of supplies can be included in one count: Hamzy (1994) 74 A Crim R 341, F

(1996) 90 A Crim R 356, Deng (1996) 91 A Crim R 80, and Jacobs (1997) 94 A Crim R 15,

but see Walsh v Tattersall (1996) 188 CLR 77, 88 A Crim R 496.

For offences of supply of the commercial quantity of a drug (not cannabis) committed after 3

February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 10 years. For the large commercial

quantity, the 'standard non-parole period' is 15 years.

Holding. Giving drugs to someone to hold for you is not supplying (Maginnis [1987] 2 WLR 765) nor

is the holder giving the drugs back to you: Carey (1990) 50 A Crim R 163, (1991) 55 A Crim

R 120, Tuckey (1991) 57 A Crim R 468, Pelham (1995) 82 A Crim R 455. Where the

defence is that the defendant is simply holding the drugs for someone else, the jury should be

specifically directed that this is a defence at law: Regina v Frazer (2002) 128 A Crim R 89.

However holding the goods of the true owner as leverage to get money from him is supply, if

the true owner has not given them to you: Regina v Asim (1997) 92 A Crim R 97. Holding

drugs for someone else, which you then give to someone else, is supply: Blair (2005) 152A

Crim R 462. .

Possession for the Purpose of Supply. You can't be convicted both of possession and supply in the sense of possession for the

purpose of supply: Dodd and Dodd (1991) 56 A Crim R 451.

Deemed Supply.

A person who has in his possession the trafficable quantity of a drug is deemed to have it in

possession for the purpose of supply unless he proves the contrary: s.29. The burden of proof

is on the balance of probabilities: R v R (no. 2) (1990) 19 NSWLR 573. Possession for the

purpose of disposing of the substance is not possession for the purpose of supply: Orban

(CCA 5/7/84 ). The provision only applies to someone actually in possession of the drug, not

to someone attempting to or conspiring to possess: Krakouer v The Queen (1998) 194 CLR

202.

Evidence of possession of money is relevant: Popa (1991) 53 A Crim R 102, McGhee (1993)

68 A Crim R 220, Sultana (1994) 74 A Crim R 27 but see Lewis (1989) 46 A Crim R 365.

Evidence of customers ringing may be inadmissible: Kearby (House of Lords 66 ALJ 468),

Omar (1992) 58 A Crim R 139, but see Firman (1989) 46 A Crim R 150, Al Khair (1994) PD

[254], Sokvari (1995) PD [383]. Possession of plastic bags, pistols and scales is admissible:

Edwards (1993) 67 A Crim R 539, Sultana. It has been held that possession of bullets, even

without guns, is admissible: Radi v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 265

Police can give evidence that conversations could be referring to drugs, but not that they do

so refer: David (1995) [PD] 351.

Aid and Abet Supply.

The deeming provision does not apply to aid and abet supply. There must be proof of actual

knowledge: Davis (1991) 66 ALJR 22.

Supply on An Ongoing Basis

A person who supplies on 3 or more occasions within 30 days a prohibited drug (other than

cannabis) for financial or material reward is guilty of supplying drugs on an ongoing basis

and faces a penalty of 20 years: s. 25A Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act. It is necessary for

the prosecution to establish that the accused himself receives the financial or material reward,

not simply financial or material reward to another person: Jackson [2004] NSWCCA 110.

Deemed Drugs.

When a substance is represented as being as drug for the purpose of supply it will be deemed

to be a drug: s. 40. There must be an actual substance represented as the drug for the section

to operate: Miller v Page 6 PSR 2854.

Quantity of Drugs. Where the accused is charged with eg cultivating or supplying more than a specified quantity

of the drug (eg the commercial quantity), the Crown must prove that the accused knew that

the relevant amount of drugs was involved: CWW (1993) 70 A Crim R 517. It appears that it

is sufficient if the jury is aware that the accused believed that there was a significant or real

chance that the drugs contained the commercial quantity: Lau (1998) 105 A Crim R 167.

Under state legislation a reference to a drug is deemed to include an 'admixture', so the

impure quantity is what is relevant to the quantity of the drugs: s. 4 DMT Act. This does not

apply if say the heroin is not mixed in with other white powder (Regina v Asim (1997) 92 A

Crim R 97 at 100).

Analysts Certificate. An analysts certificate is prima facie evidence of the quantity of the drug: s.43. The drug

must be traced from hand to hand from the police who seize the drug to the analyst for the

certificate to be admissible: Young v Commissioner of Railways [1962] SR NSW 647,

Barron v Valdamis [1978] ACLD 374. It may be a matter of fact for the jury: Reynolds

(1992) PD [292]. The onus of proving that the resin has been extracted is on the defence: s.

40A.

Conspiracy to Supply.

It is actual supply rather than conspiracy to supply for A and B to agree for A to supply B

(Chow 1987 11 NSWLR 561), or A and B to supply C (Trudgeon (1988) 39 A Crim R 252).

Manufacture Drugs

It is an offence to take part in the manufacture or production of a prohibited drug: s. 24. This

is defined as taking part in or participating in any step in the manufacture of a prohibited

drug, or providing finance or premises for such a step: s.6 . It appears not to include

transporting and acquiring chemicals or equipment: Regina v BD [2001] NSWCCA 184,

Regina v Spicer (2003) 139 A Crim R 206 . It appears not to include a situation where the

accused intends to take a step in the manufacture of chemicals but in fact the chemicals he

has are incapable of making a drug: Regina v McCoy (2001) 51 NSWLR 702, 123 A Crim R

81, but see Regina v El Azzi (2001) 125 A Crim R 113

Where the drug produced is not cannabis, the amount is the commercial quantity, and the

offender is arrested after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 10 years: Table

of Standard Non-Parole Periods, Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act.

Where the drug produced, cultivated or supplied is cannabis, there is a standard non-parole

period of 10 years: Table of Standard Non-Parole Periods, Crimes (Sentencing Procedure)

Act.

Penalties

Drug Small

Quantity

('Deemed')

Traffickable

Quantity

Indictable

Quantity

Commercial

Quantity

Large

Commercial

Quantity

Amphetamine 1 g 3 g 5 g 250 g 1 kg

Cannabis:

-Plant 5 - 50 250 1000

-Leaf 30 g 300 g 1 kg 25 kg 100 kg

-Resin 5 g 30 g 90 g 2.5 kg 10 kg

-Oil 2 g 5 g 10 g 500 g 2 kg

Cocaine 1 g 3 g 5 g 250 g 1 kg

Heroin 1 g 3 g 5 g 250 g 1 kg

Ecstasy .25 g .75 g 1.25 g 125 g .5 kg

LSD 4 DDU 15 DDU 25 DDU .5 g 2 g

Small Quantity:

If under this amount, can be dealt with summarily without consent of accused.

Maximum penalty: 2 years, $5500.

If the person being supplied to is under 16 the penalty is increased to 2 years 6 months.

Traffickable Quantity.

If there is any more than the traffickable quantity, the deemed supply provisions apply (s. 29).

The maximum penalty in the Local Court is $11,000 and 2 years.

Indictable Quantity, under Commercial Quantity:

If under this amount, can be dealt with in the Local Court unless the prosecution or defence

elects otherwise.

Maximum penalty summarily: 2 years, $11 000. If the person being supplied to is under 16

the penalty is increased to 2 years 6 months.

If dealt with indictably:

Cannabis Plant or Leaf: $220 000, 10 years

Otherwise: $220 000, 15 years

If the person being supplied to is under 16 the penalty is increased to 25 years. If there are 3

supplies of any drug other than cannabis in a period of less than 30 days, s. 25A applies, and

the maximum penalty becomes 20 years.

More Than Commercial Quantity Cannabis Plant or Leaf: $385 000, 15 years

Otherwise: $385 000, 20 years.

If the person being supplied to is under 16 the penalty is increased by a fifth.

Over Large Commercial Quantity Cannabis Plant or Leaf: $550 000, 20 years

Otherwise: $550 000, life.

If the person being supplied to is under 16 the penalty is increased by a fifth.

8/. Public Order Offences.

(a) general

Public Place. Public place is defined in the Summary Offences Act as any place or part of premises open to

the public or used by the public whether or not it is normally so used, whether or not it is

open only to a limited class of persons. It does not include a school: s.3 . It does not exclude

private property or property where the defendant has no right to go: Camp [1975] 1 NSWLR

452.

Drunkenness. Drunkenness is no longer a crime. Under s. 206 Law Enforcement (Powers and

Responsibilities) Act a person who is found intoxicated in a public place and either behaving

in a disorderly manner or in a way likely to cause injury to person or property can be detained

until he sobers up.

Consorting.

It is still an offence to habitually consort with people convicted of indictable offences after

being given an official warning : s. 93X Crimes Act.

Loitering with Intent. It is an offence to be found near any premises or in a public place with intent to commit an

indictable offence: s. 546B. It is not necessary to prove an intention to commit any particular

felony: Harrison v Hegarty [1975] VR 362.

Police Powers to Move People on If a police officer believes on reasonable grounds that a person's behaviour

is obstructing people or traffic

constitutes harassment or intimidation

is likely to causing or likely to cause fear to other people, so long as the conduct

would be such as to cause fear to a person of reasonable firmness

is for the purpose of drug supply or purchase

the officer can give the person a direction (typically, to move on): s. 197 Law Enforcement

(Powers and Responsibilities) Act. It is an offence to fail to comply (maximum penalty, 2

penalty units or $220). See s. 199 LE (PAR) Act.

Possession of Knives

It is an offence to have in your custody a knife in a public place or school without reasonable

excuse, proof of which is on the defendant. The penalty is 5 penalty units for a first offence,

and for subsequent offences 10 penalty units and/or 12 months imprisonment (s. 11C

Summary Offences Act). Self defence is specifically defined not to be a reasonable excuse.

(b) offensive conduct

Offensive Language or Conduct. It is an offence to engage in offensive conduct in, near or within view of a public place or

school, penalty $600 or 3 months gaol: s.4 . Offensive language now carries a maximum

penalty of 6 penalty units: 4A Summary Offences Act. The word 'fuck' is not of itself

necessarily offensive: Hortin v Rowbottom (1993) 68 A Crim R 381.

Intention. Offensive conduct must involve an intention to an offend, which seems to mean doing an act

with knowledge that the activity could at least offend: Pregelj and Wurramurra v Manison

(1988) 31 A Crim R 383, Stone v Ford (1992) 65 A Crim R 459. Thus intoxication is a

defence to offensive conduct: Jeffs v Graham (1987) 8 NSWLR 292.

Offensive. Offensive seems to mean something that would wound the feelings or arouse disgust or

outrage in a reasonable man: Ball v McIntyre (1966) 9 FLR 237, Smith [1974] 2 NSWLR

586. The reasonable man is reasonably tolerant and contemporaneous: Spence v Loguch (CN

[103]).

Evidence of By-Stander Police Officers.

The evidence of bystanders that they were offended is relevant but not necessary, although it

getting a conviction without it may be difficult. The fact that the bystanders were police

officers only goes to weight: Connolly v Willis [1984] 1 NSWLR 378. There is no need to

prove any person actually heard it: Stutsel v Reid (1991) 20 NSWLR 661.

Reasonable Excuse. There is a statutory defence of having a reasonable excuse. Examples may be a belief that a

beach is in fact a nude beach ( Featherstone v Fraser (1983) PSR 2962) or a cry after a heavy

implement has fallen on your foot: Karpik v Zisis (1979) 5 PSR 2055.

(c) wilful and obscene exposure

Wilful and Obscene Exposure. Under s. 5 of the Summary Offences Act wilful and obscene exposure of your person in or

within view of a public place or school is an offence punishable by $1000 fine or six months

gaol. Person seems to mean genitals: Evans v Ewels [1972] 2 All ER 22, Eyles (NSW CCA

1/10/97). There may be a defence of honest and reasonable mistake: Willy Wampfler (1987)

11 NSWLR 541.

Obscene. Obscene has a narrower definition than indecent although they are related. The circumstances

are relevant as is the reaction of the average man: Moloney v Mercer [1971] 2 NSWLR 208.

(d) public assemblies

Riot. It is an offence under s. 93B Crimes Act if

12 or more persons present together, whether or not at the same time

use or threaten to use of unlawful violence, whether to persons or property, including

any violent conduct such as throwing missiles that fall short (for a common purpose-

can be inferred from conduct)

such that would cause a reasonable person to fear for his personal safety (no such

person need actually be present)

the accused used unlawful violence

need not be in public

Maximum penalty: 15 years

It appears that the prosecution must prove that each accused used unlawful violence, and that

the threat of violence is insufficient: Regina v Tyler (1993) 96 Cr App R 332, and Regina v

Jefferson [1994] 1 All ER 270.

Affray.

It is an offence under s. 93C Crimes Act if

a person uses or threatens unlawful violence, whether to persons or property,

(including any violent conduct such as throwing missiles that fall short) not including

a threat by words alone

and the conduct is such that it would cause a person of reasonable firmness to fear for

his personal safety- no such reasonable person need be present

need not be in public

Maximum penalty: 10 years

When an offender is sentenced for affray conduct of others aggravating the affray should not

be taken into account: Fajka [2004] NSWCCA 166.

Violent Disorder.

Violent disorder:

3 or more persons present together

use or threaten unlawful violence

such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness to fear for his/her safety

Maximum penalty: 6 months (s. 11A Summary Offences Act)

Public Assemblies.

Where an application is made to the Commissioner of Police 7 days before a planned public

assembly, the Commissioner must apply to the courts to stop the demonstration. If less than 7

days notice is given the organizers can approach the court for approval. The benefit of being

in an authorised public assembly is that you cannot be convicted of being in a public

assembly assembly or obstruction on that basis alone. It is not necessary for the police to

prove that there is likely to be a breach of the peace. Reasons such as competing public

interests (eg. Christmas day, Anzac marches) will suffice: Commissioner of Police v Allen

(1984) 14 A Crim R 244.

(e) trespass

Trespass.

Under s. 4 of the Inclosed Lands Protection Act a person who enters inclosed lands without

the consent of the owner or who remains on inclosed lands after being requested to leave by

the owner or occupier or a person apparently in charge is liable to a fine of $500. If the

inclosed lands are a school, child care service, hospital or nursing home the maximum

penalty is doubled. Once you have permission to enter an enclosure you do not need separate

permission to enter each enclosure inside: Press v Tuckwell (1968) 69 SR (NSW) 17.

'Inclosed lands' can include premises open to the piblic such as a shop: DPP v Strang [2011]

NSWSC 259.

Defences to Trespass. Lawful excuse is a defence. An honest belief which is wrong at law does not appear to be a

defence: Darcey v Pre-Term Foundation Clinic [1983] 2 NSWLR 497. Protesting is not a

lawful excuse: O'Donohue v Wille [1998] NSWSC 661.

(f) property damage

Malicious damage. Malicious damage or destroying property is an offence punishable by 5 years, but if done by

fire or explosives, 10 years: s. 195 Crimes Act. The offence is Table 1 but if the damage is

over $5,000 it is Table 2.

There must be proof of intention or recklessness involving foresight: Kippist v Parnell (1988)

36 A Crim R 18, Kelly v Hillyer (Cantor J 12/3/84), Tzarrangos v Hayes (1991) 53 A Crim R

220. It is not an offence to damage property you solely own, but it seems it is an offence to

burn down a house with a mortgage to a bank: Holden (1998) 103 A Crim R 70. 'Damage'

means physical harm, and it need not be permanant or irreparable: DPP v Fraser and

O'Donnell [2008] NSWSC 244

(g) prostitution

Soliciting. Soliciting near or within view of a dwelling, school, church or hospital is punishable by $600

or three months: s. 19(1) Summary Offences Act. The prosecution does not have to prove

pestering by the defendant: Jitjardn v Thompson (1995) 85 A Crim R 24. Soliciting in those

areas in a manner that harasses or distresses others is punishable by $800 or three months.

Public Acts of Prostitution.

Where there is a public act of prostitution (sexual activity for payment whether of the same or

different sexes in a car or in view of the public or a dwelling etc) the crime is punishable by

$1000 or 6 months: s. 20 Summary Offences Act.

Sex of Defendant.

The sex of the defendant is determined by the external sexual characteristics: Harris and

McGuiness (1988) 35 A Crim R 146.

Living from the Earnings of a Prostitute. It is an offence to live wholly or partly from the earnings of a prostitute punishable by $1000

or 12 months: s. 15. A person is deemed to live wholly or partly from the earnings of a

prostitute if he lives with or is habitually in the company of a reputed prostitute and has no

visible means of support unless he satisfies the court he has sufficient lawful means of

support. A person who lives with a prostitute but has other means of support may not be

convicted even if he benefits: Shalunga (1958) 75 WN (NSW) 120. Letting a room to a

prostitute at grossly inflated rents may justify a conviction: Thomas [1957] 2 All ER 181.

Keeping Premises for the Purpose of Prostitution. There is still a common law offence of keeping a brothel: Rahme (1993) 70 A Crim R 357. A

prostitute who is the sole occupier of a house is not guilty of this offence: Bell v Stewart

(1989) 43 A Crim R 400.

9/. Traffic Offences

Public Street. A public street is defined as any street, road lane or thoroughfare or place open to or used by

the public, including any place open to or used by the public on payment of a fare or

otherwise. A public street appears to include any car park open to the public without

discrimination such as a hotel car park (Abrahams [1984] 1 NSWLR 491) or service station:

Doherty v Barbaric (1982) 7 PSR 2465.

Drives. The test for driving seems to be using controls for directing the direction of the vehicle:

Mercorella v Page (1975) 12 SASR 431. It does not appear to include a vehicle under tow:

Hampson v Marin [1981] 2 NSWLR 782. The crucial matter may be control over the

propulsion: Affleck (1992) 65 A Crim R 96. Even if a passenger has grabbed hold of the

steering wheel, if the person in the driver's seat has controal over the accelerator and the

brake, he or she is the driver: Williams [2012] NSWCCA 286.

Dangerous Driving.

This offence is created by s. 52A of the Crimes Act. It has been held that that the elements of the offence are that:

the accused drove a vehicle the vehicle was involved in an impact the impact occasioned the death or grievous bodly harm of another person the driver was, at the time of the impact, driving the vehicle under the influence of an

intoxicating liquor or a drug, or at a speed dangerous to another person or persons, or in a manner dangerous to another person or persons

(see Whelan v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 147 at para [81]).

Where the alleged victim is an unborn child who is alleged to have died as a result of the

accident, the prosecution must prove that:

firstly, that the child was in utero at the time of the impact; secondly, that as the result of the impact it was born alive; and thirdly, that its later death was the result of that impact. That is, that the impact was a

substantial or significant cause of its death.

(see Whelan v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 147 at para [81]).

It is not necessary for the Crown to establish that the defendant was negligent, as dangerous driving can be constituted by momentary inattention: see King v The Queen [2012] HCA 24.

The trial judge should not direct the jury that it is not necessary to be satisfied that the driving

was deserving of criminal punishment: King v The Queen [2012] HCA 24.

S. 52A is not restricted to public highways. Passengers will be treated as members of the

public unless possibly on a joint escapade: S (1991) 53 A Crim R 263.

Penalty: 10 years for death and 7 years for gbh for dangerous driving, except for aggravated

dangerous driving- see below.

Aggravated Dangerous Driving To be convicted of aggravated dangerous driving, in addition the Crown must prove that at

the time of the impact:

the accused had the pca in his blood, or

the accused was driving 45 kph more than the speed limit, or

the accused was driving to escape a police pursuit.

The penalties for aggravated dangerous driving are 14 years for death and 11 years for gbh.

Driving in a speed or manner dangerous to the public.

Driving at a speed dangerous to the public can be constituted solely by speed: De Keyzer

(1987) 9 NSWLR 709. Danger to the public is an objective standard, and does not depend on

realization of the risk to the public. It refers to potential danger not merely actual danger:

Hain (1966) 85 WN (NSW) (pt 1) 7.

The jury should be instructed that negligence, driving in a manner dangerous to the public

and culpable driving are all divergences from the standard of driving of the ordinary prudent

driver: Buttsworth [1983] 1 NSWLR 658. However to find the accused guilty of this offence,

the jury would have to be satisfied that there was a serious breach of what the jury considered

to be the proper management and control of a vehicle on a public road, so serious as to be in

reality a potential danger to other persons on or in the vicinity of that road: Goodman

(NSWCCA 10/12/91, cited in Saunders (2002) 133 A Crim R 104. The jury should usually be

directed that mere negligence is not enough: Regina v Hopton (NSW CCA 8/10/98),

Saunders (2002) 133 A Crim R 104.

Drive Under the Influence.

If a person drives or occupies the drivers seat of a motor vehicle and is under the influence of

a drug or alcohol that person is guilty of an offence: s. 112 Road Transport Act. The evidence

of a police officer that a person's breath smells of liquor, is unsteady on their feet, has bleary

eyes etc is admissible and the police officer can give expert evidence that the person is drunk:

Whitby (1957) 74 WN (NSW) 441.

It is not necessary to prove that the person is incapable of properly controlling a motor

vehicle: Molloy v McDonald (1939) 56 WN (NSW) 159

Breath Testing.

The procedure for breath testing is as follows:

a police officer can require any person driving or occupying the driving seat of a

motor vehicle and attempting to put the motor vehicle in motion to submit to a breath

test: clause 3 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act.

if in consequence of a breath test the police officer is of the opinion that the person

has in their blood the prescribed concentration of alcohol or refuses a breath test the

police officer may arrest the person and require the person to undergo a breath

analysis: clause 4 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act. if the person refuses or declines to undergo a breath test the police officer may arrest the

person: clause 4 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act

if a person is admitted into hospital in consequence of a motor vehicle accident it is

the duty of the medical practitioner treating him to take a sample of blood: clause 11

Schedule 3 Road Transport Act. It is an offence for the driver to refuse to comply.

The offence is an offence of strict liability: Brown v Bergan (1991) 53 A Crim R 417.

If this procedure is not carried out the certificate may still be admissible. Under Bunning v

Cross (1978) 141 CLR 54, 52 ALJR the following factors need to be considered when for

example the breath test is administered:

the police were not aware of the unlawfulness of their action

the illegally of the action did not affect the cogency of the evidence

the ease of compliance: here equivocal

drink driving endangers innocent people

intention of the legislation (see also s. 138 Evidence Act).

Exemptions.

As a result of clause 2 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act a person cannot be required to undergo

a breath analysis:

if they have been admitted to hospital and the treating doctor objects

if the sample taker objects on the grounds that it would be dangerous to the person's

health

2 hours after the event entitling the breath test (applies to the analysis, but not the

breath test: Wilson (1990) 47 A Crim R 391)

at the person's home (not the front fence (Hall v Coughlan (1970) 91 WN (NSW)

886), but may include car park of a building (Clampett (1984) 11 A Crim R 103) or

the driveway (DPP v Skewes [2002] NSWCCA 1008). The onus is on the Crown to

disprove this exemption beyond reasonable doubt: Vatner (1992) 29 NSWLR 311.

Certificates.

A certificate purporting to be signed by an authorised officer as to a person's alcohol reading

is prima facie evidence of the things in the certificate: clause 35 Schedule 3 Road Transport

Act. A certificate outside the 2 hour limit is inadmissible unless there is expert evidence

about continuance: Olejarnik [1994] 72 A Crim R 542.

A certificate as to blood analysis is evidence of the things stated in the certificate if the

certificate states that:

the operating officer is authorised by the Commissioner to so do-the person named in

the certificate submitted to a breath analysis

the apparatus used by the officer was a breath analysing instrument

the analysis was done at the date and time stated on the certificate

a concentration of alcohol was found in the blood at the date and time stated in the

certificate

a certificate stating the above was delivered to the defendant as soon as practicable:

clause 35 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act (2013).

Wilfully Alter Concentration.

It is an offence to wilfully alter the concentration of alcohol in the blood after having been

required to undergo a breath test: clause 16 Schedule 3 Road Transport Act. The penalties are

the same as for high range pca. The act of the driver must be done with the object of

distorting a blood test: McRae v Bower (Yeldham J 26/6/86 ).

Refuse Breath Test

It is an offence to refuse a breath test and the penalty is a $1100 fine: clause 13(1), Schedule

3, Road Transport Act.

Refuse Breath Analysis.

It is an offence to refuse a breath analysis and the penalty is exactly the same as for high

range pca: clause 13(1), Schedule 3, Road Transport Act.

Refusing a breath analysis is an offence of absolute liability: Walker (1994) 77 A Crim R

236.

Aid and abet PCA.

It is necessary to prove that the aider and abettor knew that the driver had drunk excessive

alcohol: Bruce v Williams (1989) 46 A Crim R 122. Recklessness does not suffice.

Drive While Disqualified.

It is an offence to drive whilst disqualified or cancelled: s. 54 Road Transport Act. It appears

that the defence of honest and reasonable mistake is a defence to drive whilst disqualified, but

there must be some evidence of the mistake from the defendant: El Hassan v DPP [2000]

NSWCA 330, but see Vlahos [1975] 2 NSWLR 580. It is not necessary to prove that the

notice was served. Once honest and reasonable mistake has been raised, it is up to the Crown

to disprove honest and reasonable mistake beyond reasonable doubt: Valentine v Eid [CN

119]. The mistake of fact must be such that if the mistaken belief was true, no offence would

have been committed: DPP v Kailahi (2008) 191 A Crim R 145 .

Use Motor Vehicle. The offence of use motor vehicle applies only to converting a vehicle to your own use (eg by

driving it): Willis v Sugden [CN 114].

Particulars. There is an obligation to stop and give particulars after an accident which is not limited to the

scene of the accident: Solman v Libdy [CN 127].

Major Traffic Offences

For the purposes of disqualification periods, 'major traffic offence' is defined in s. 4 Road

Transport Act as:

murder or manslaughter arising from use of a motor vehicle

malicious wounding or inflicting gbh under the Crimes Act arising from use of a

motor vehicle predatory driving (s. 51 A Crimes Act), or driving recklessly or in a speed dangerous to

the public in a police pursuit (s. 51 B Crimes Act) driving at a speed or manner dangerous to the public occasioning death or grievous

bodily harm (s. 52A Crimes Act)

drive manner or speed dangerous to the public (s. 117 Road Traffic Act)

negligent driving occasioning death or grievous bodily harm (s. 117 Road Traffic Act)

pca or refuse breath analysis (s. 110 Road Transport Act, clause 16, Schedule 3, Road

Transport Act)

wilfully alter concentration of alcohol (clause 18, Schedule 3, Road Transport Act)

drive under the influence of drugs or alcohol (s. 112 Road Transport Act)

fail to stop and give assistance when a person is killed or injured in a motor vehicle

accident (s. 146 Road Transport Act).

Penalties.

The penalties for major traffic offences are set out below. There is a higher penalty for a

second major offence within 5 years.

The disqualification periods are found in s. 188 Road Transport (General) Act. In working

out the fines, it is important to bear in mind that the term 'penalty unit' is currently defined as

being $110: s. 17 Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act.

The penalties are set out in the table below. In this table 'RTA' is an abbreviation for Road Transport Act.

Abbreviated Offence Maximum

Goal Maximum

Fine

Minimum

Disqualification

Automatic

Disqualification

Novice range pca (s. 110(1) RTA)

nil $1100 3 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

6 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent nil $2200 6 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

12 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

Special category pca (s. 110(2) RTA)

nil $1100 3 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

6 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent nil $2200 6 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

12 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

lpca (s. 110(3) RTA) nil $1100 3 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

6 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent nil $2200 6 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

12 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

mpca (s. 110(4) RTA) 9 months $2200 6 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

12 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent 12 months $3300 12 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

3 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

hpca (s. 110(5) RTA) 18 months $3300 12 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

3 years (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent 2 years $5500 2 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

5 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

DUI (s. 112 RTA) 9 months $2200 6 months(s. 205(2) RTA)

12 months (s. 205(2) RTA)

second or subsequent 12 months $3300 12 months (s. 205(3) RTA)

3 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

DWC/DWS/DWD (s. 54 RTA)

18 months $3300 12 months (s. 54 (9) RTA)

12 months (s. 54 (9) RTA)

Second 2 years $5500 2 years (s. 54 (9) RTA)

2 years (s. 54 (9) RTA)

Fail to stop and render assistance (s. 146 RTA)

18 months $3300 12 months(s. 205(2) RTA)

3 years (s. 205(2) RTA)

Second 2 years $5500 2 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

5 years (s. 205(3) RTA)

'PCA' of course refers to the 'prescribed concentration of alcohol.' Novice range pca' applies

only to drivers who hold a learner's licence or a provisional licence. The range is less than .02

but more than zero (s. 108 Road Transport Act).

'Special category PCA' is pca for special categories of driver, who include learners,

provisional drivers, disqualified or cancelled drivers, and drivers who have not held a licence

for more than 6 months (s. 107 (2) Road Transport Act). The range is .02 or more but less

than .05 (s. 108 Road Transport Act).

LPCA is 'low range pca' and is .05 or more but less than .08 (s. 108 Road Transport Act)

MPCA is 'mid range pca' and is .08 or more but less than .15 (s. 108 Road Transport Act)

HPCA is 'high range pca' and is .15 or higher (s. 108 Road Transport Act).

DUI is 'drive under the influence'.

'DWC' is the offence of 'drive while cancelled', 'DWS' is drive while suspended, and 'DWD'

is the offence of 'drive while disqualified' under: s. 54 Road Transport Act.

'Fail to stop' (s. 146 Road Transport Act) is the offence of failing to stop and render

assistance after an accident in which a person is killed or injured.

Penalties for drive manner dangerous, refuse analysis, and alter concentration are the same as

hpca.

It has been held that where a person is charged with drive whilst disqualified, the only

offences relevant to determine whether the offence is a second or subsequent offence is the

offence of drive whilst disqualified: DPP v Partridge (2009) 74 NSWLR 62 .

There is a guideline judgment on pca offences, Application by the Attorney General... (2004)

61 NSWLR 305, 147 A Crim R 546, which is dealt with in more detail in the chapter on

sentencing.

Commencement of Disqualification Periods

Where an offender receives a prison sentence, it is doubtful if the sentencing judge can commence the disqualification period at a later date (such as the date the non-parole period expires): Hei Hei v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 87 esp at para [46].

10/. Offences of Dishonesty

(a) larceny

Elements of Larceny.

Larceny has the following elements:

the taking and carrying away of

the property of another

with the intent to permanently deprive the owner of the property

and the taking is without the owner's consent

Illich (1986)162 CLR 110 at para [10].

Owner.

The prosecution can charge a person with stealing property, the owner of which is unknown,

but there must be proof that the goods are actually stolen and the prosecution must adduce

evidence that the owner cannot be ascertained: Ellis v Lawson (1987) 33 A Crim R 69.

Property.

The property must be a specific moveable item and must have some value, no matter how

slight: Daley (1879) 12 SCR (NSW) 151.This includes illegal drugs: Anic (1993) 68 A Crim

R 313. It appears not to include confidential information: (Stewart (1988) 41 CCC (3d) 481)

or withdrawals from a bank account: Croton (1967) 117 CLR 326.

Intention to Permanently Deprive.

There must be proof of an intention to permanently deprive the owner of the property, despite

the existence of s. 118 Crimes Act: Foster (1967) 118 CLR 117.

Dishonestly.

A stealing must be 'dishonest,' and in deciding whether or not it is dishonest the jury should

apply the current standards of ordinary people, and then determine whether or not the

defendant must have realised that what he was doing was dishonest: Feely [1973] 1 QB 530

and Ghosh [1982] 1 QB 1053, adopted for larceny in Weatherstone (1987) 8 PSR 3729. See

also Macleod (2003) 214 CLR 230.

Intention and Taking.

The taking of the property must take place at the same time as the intention to steal.

Therefore if the initial taking is innocent, a later intention to steal will not suffice: Matthews

(1950) 34 Cr App R 55.

However if the initial taking is trespassory, a later dishonest intention will suffice: Riley

(1853) 169 ER 674.

Larceny by Finding.

Where the Crown alleges stealing by finding, the Crown must negative the possibility that the

goods have been abandoned and that the accused did not believe that the owner could be

found. What the accused does to attempt to locate the owner is relevant: MacDonald [1983] 1

NSWLR 729. A later discovery of the owner and intention to keep the goods will not suffice:

Thurborn (1848) 169 ER 293. Occupiers of land have possession of lost things on it: Hibbert

v McKiernan [1948] 2 KB 142.

Claim of Right.

If the accused honestly even if unreasonably believed that he was asserting a lawful claim of

right there is no larceny: Bernhard [1938] 1 KB 264. It is sufficient if the defendant honestly

believed that he was legally entitled to the property, even if he did not believe that he had a

right to claim it the way that he did: Love (1989) 44 A Crim R 416, Fuge (2001) 123 A Crim

R 310. You can make a claim of right on behalf of someone else: Saunders (1991) 57 SASR

102. The defence only applies if you can only take what you believe you are owed: Sneddon

(1994) PD [75], Fuge (2001) 123 A Crim R 310.

The defence applies not only to stealing but crimes which have larceny as an element of the

offence, such as robbery: Fuge (2001) 123 A Crim R 310. For Commonwealth offences see

Commonwealth Criminal Code section 9.5

Mistake.

If a person hands another property under a mistake, it appears that there can be no larceny

unless the mistake is a fundamental one as to the identity of the accused or the item handed

over, but not for example as to the amount of money handed over: Ilich (1987) 162 CLR 110

interpreting Ashwell (1885) 16 QBD 190 and Middleton (1873) LR 2 CCR 38. It may be that

these cases should not be followed at all and property handed over as a result of a mistake

cannot found a conviction for larceny: Ilich, Potisk (1973) 6 SASR 389, Marshall v Szommer

(1989) 44 A Crim R 198.

Stealing from Machines.

Making a withdrawal from an automatic teller when you have closed your account is stealing,

even though the machine arguably 'consented': Kennison v Daire (1986) 160 CLR 129, 60

ALJR 249. It even appears to be stealing if the withdrawal is for more than the balance of the

account: Evenett (1987) 24 A Crim R 330.

Larceny by a Trick.

If the accused obtains possession from the victim by reason of a trick, then larceny has been

committed although the owner voluntarily handed over possession. However if the owner

intends to hand over ownership to the accused, then larceny is not available but false

pretences may be: Ward (1938) 38 SR (NSW) 308, Justelius [1973] 1 NSWLR 471.

Larceny by a Bailee.

Where money is alleged to have been stolen by a bailee, there cannot be a conviction of

larceny as a bailee unless the bailment is in relation to the actual notes and coins: Ward.

Car Stealing

Where a car an offender 'takes and drives' a car, without necessarily intending to permanently

deprive the owner of the car permanently, the offender can still be guilty of 'deemed' larceny

by way of s. 154A Crimes Act. Importantly this includes being someone who knows the car

is stolen agreeing to be a passenger in the car. As a result 'taking and driving' a car is deemed

to be larceny, the maximum penalty for which 5 years imprisonment ( see s. 117 Crimes Act).

A conviction under s. 154AA involves a finding that the offender intended to permanently

deprive the owner of the car. The maximum penalty in these circumstances is 10 years

imprisonment.

(b) fraud and deception

Fraudulent Misappropriation.

This offence only applies if the money is entrusted to the accused not to use as he thinks fit

but to apply it in a particular way or to retain an equivalent sum: Stephens (1978) 139 CLR

315. There must be a fiduciary element in the relationship between the accused and the

property: Andrews (1968) 126 CLR 198. 'Fraudulently' means dishonestly: Lawrence (1996)

86 A Crim R 412. 'Money' includes cheques and bank accounts: Hunt (1996) 88 A Crim R

307.

The offence can be committed if a person receives property even if it is not delivered to him

by the owner and the owner has no knowledge of it, such as when a car dealer receives

money on behalf of a finance company: R v J (1987) 9 NSWLR 615.

False Pretences.

False pretences is committed when a person obtains property from another as a result of a

false pretence or a wilfully false promise: s. 179. It appears that even if the contractual

arrangement is to pass possession, and not ownership, false pretences can be committed:

Petronius-Kuff [1983] 3 NSWLR 178.

A false statement of future intention is not a false pretence: Greene (1949) 79 CLR 353.

However this is covered by the 'wilfully false promise' part of the section. A wilfully false

promise is one which is knowingly intentionally false at the time it was made: Harrison

[1957] VR 117. A promise is meant in the same sense as a contract, and can be one whose

performance depends upon the actions of others (eg false promises about returns on a

business): Freeman and Sargent (1981) 4 A Crim R 55.

If the person upon whom the deception is practised realizes the deception is false, no crime is

committed even if the property is handed over, but there may be an attempt: Kassis v

Katsontonis [1984] 3 NSWLR 330.

The requirement for proof of an intention to defraud requires only proof of an intention to

deprive a person by deceit, even if the person does with the property exactly what he says he

will: Balcombe v De Simoni (1972) 126 CLR 576, London and Globe Finance Corporation

[1903] 1 Ch 728. Where the person deceived is a public official, there is no need to prove

economic loss: Welham [1961] AC 103.

Obtaining a Benefit By Deception.

It is an offence to by deception to dishonestly obtain property or a financial advantage: s.

192E. It is not clear whether or not gaining time to pay an existing debt suffices: Fisher v

Bennett (1987) 85 FLR 469, Matthews v Fountain [1982] VR 1045. Using a credit card after

it has been cancelled can constitute the offence: Lambie [1981] 3 WLR 88. The cause of the

benefit being handed over must be the deception: Ho (1989) 39 A Crim R 145. Serving a

statement of claim is protected: Jamieson (1993) 67 A Crim R 150.

An omission to inform the alleged victim of some matter where there is no express legal duty

to do so will not constitute the offence: CDPP v Poniatowska [2011] HCA 43.

Conspiracy to Defraud.

A conspiracy to defraud is made out where there is an agreement by fraudulent means to

inflict economic loss on a person or deprive him of an advantage, or to cause a public official

to act contrary to his duty. Fraudulently means dishonestly: Horsington and Bortolus [1983] 2

NSWLR 72.

It is not necessary to give the jury a Ghosh [1982] 1 QB 1053 direction that the prosecution

must prove that what the accused did was dishonest according to the ordinary standards of

reasonable and honest people, unless an issue about whether what the accused did was

dishonest arises on the evidence: Peters (1998) 192 CLR 493, 72 ALJR 517.Conspiracy to

defraud is an offence against the common law of Australia and so may be tried in any state

where there is a real connection with the crime: Lipohair & Winfield [1999] HCA 65.

Forgery.

Forgery, or making a false instrument, is an offence: s. 253 Crimes Act. Forgery means

making or altering a document so it tells a lie about itself. This does not include falsely

witnessing a genuine signature: Brott (1992) 173 CLR 426, 66 ALJR 256, 58 A Crim R 97.

Using a false instrument.

It is an offence to make or use a false instrument, intending to induce another person to accept the instrument as genuine, to obtain property, to obtain a financial advantage, or to influence the exercise of a public duty: s. 254 Crimes Act.

For a person to be convicted of using a false instrument as a principal in the first deegree, there must be prove that the accused dealt with the document in some way: Sultan v Regina [2008] NSWCCA 175.

A document can be a copy: Nikolaidis v Regina (2008) 191 A Crim R 556 .

(c) robbery, burglary and blackmail

Robbery.

Robbery is constituted by an intention to steal, with some degree of force putting the person

in fear, and a taking from the person. It is not necessary for the Crown to establish that the

item was held or worn by the victim, it is enough if the item is in his immediate presence:

Delk (1999) 46 NSWLR 340, 106 A Crim R 240. There must be proof that force was used to

overpower the other party and prevent him resisting, not just to get the property: Gnosil

(1824) 171 ER 1206. The force or threat of force must come before the property is taken:

Foster (CCA 7/4/95).

There must be an intention to permanently deprive some-one of their property: Salameh

(1987) 26 A Crim R 353.

The charge should not be described as assault and rob in the charge, but as robbery: Smith

and Kirton (1990) 47 A Crim R 43.

Claim of right is a defence to robbery: Langham (1984) 12 A Crim R 391, Skivington (1967)

1 All ER 483, Fuge [2001] NSWCCA 208.

The penalty for robbery or stealing from the person is 14 years (s. 94). Sentences for 'steal

from person' tend to be lower than sentences for robbery.

Robbery in Circumstances of Aggravation. A robbery is in circumstances of aggravation if any of the following occur before, during or

immediately after the robbery:

the offender uses corporal violence on any person

the offender maliciously inflicts actual bodily harm on any person

the offender deprives any person of his or her liberty (s. 95).

Under previous legislation, a 'push' was held not to constitute striking: Clarke (1993) 71 A

Crim R 58.

The penalty for aggravated robbery is 20 years gaol (s. 95).

Armed Robbery or Robbery in Company. Armed robbery or robbery in company is an offence (s. 97).

'Armed robbery' means armed with an offensive weapon or instrument. 'Offensive weapon or

instrument' is defined as

a dangerous weapon (as to which see below);

anything made or adapted for offensive purposes; or

anything that in the circumstances is used, intended to be used or threatened to be

used for offensive purposes whether or not it is used for offensive purposes or

whether or is capable of causing harm

(s. 4 Crimes Act). The definition of 'offensive weapon or instrument' is clearly wide enough

to cover (for example) guns, knives, screwdrivers, and blood filled syringes.

'Dangerous weapon' is defined to mean a firearm, a prohibited weapon under the Prohibited

Weapons Act, or a spear gun (s. 4 Crimes Act). Replica firearms are included in the

definition of prohibited weapons (see Schedule 1 to the Weapons Prohibition Act). For

practical purposes, it is important to note that a normal knife (not for example a flick knife) or

a screwdriver are offensive weapons, but are not dangerous weapons (see Schedule 1 to the

Weapons Prohibition Act). The difference between offensive weapons and dangerous weapon

has practical consequences in relation to the maximum penalty (as to which see below) and

also the availability of felony murder.

'In company' requires more than that others were present, at least they must be ready to assist

or encouraging: Crozier (1996) PD [282]. The requisite intention is that the offender placed

himself in a position where he knew or expected that the victim would know of his presence

and ability to assist in the robbery if called upon: Leoni [1999] NSWCCA 14. To establish

that offenders were 'in company', it has been held that there must be such proximity as would

enable the inference that the coercive effect of the group operated, either to embolden or

reassure the offender in committing the crime, or to intimidate the victim into submission:

Button and Griffen (2002) 54 NSWLR 455. It is also necessary to show that the accused had

a common purpose, that is, that there was an express or implied agreement to achieve an

agreed end: Markou v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 64 at paras [27] to [28].

The penalty is 20 years unless the offence is aggravated by carrying a dangerous weapon, in

which case the penalty is 25 years (s. 97).

Robbery with Wounding.

Where there is an armed robbery or robbery in company and immediately before during or

immediately after the robbery the accused wounds or inflicts grievous bodily harm on the

person being robbed the penalty is 25 years (s. 98). For offences committed after 3 February

2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 7 years.

It is not necessary for the Crown to prove that there was an intent to wound: Ryan (121) CLR

205.

Demanding Money with Menaces.

Demanding money with menaces is an offence under s. 99. There is no need to prove an

intention to overbear the will of the victim, only to establish an intention to steal: Evans

(CCA 7/12/79). A threat to property will suffice to be a menace: Kuo (1999) 49 NSWLR 226.

The offence is complete when the demand is made in circumstances where the demand is

likely to be communicated: Austin v The Queen (1989) 166 CLR 669, 63 ALJR 413, 40 A

Crim R 355. The maximum penalty is 10 years, or if in company, 14 years (s. 99).

Carjacking

It is an offence to assault someone with intent to take a motor vehicle and take and drive or

take with intent to drive the motor vehicle. It is also an offence to take a motor vehicle

without the owner's consent when there is a person in it (s.154C).The penalty is for the basic

offence 10 years (s.154C (1)). For offences committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard

non-parole period' is 3 years. Where there are circumstances of aggravation (in company or

armed with an offensive weapon or inflicting actual bodily harm) the penalty is 14 years

(s.154C (2)). For offences committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period'

is 5 years.

Breaking and Entry.

It is an offence to break and enter premises and commit a serious indictable offence ( s. 112).

'Serious indictable offence' is defined as an offence which carries a maximum penalty of 5

years or more (s. 4 Crimes Act). Typically the person may be charged with break, enter and

steal.

Breaking can consist of opening a closed but unlocked door or window, but not opening

something already partly open: Smith (1827) 1 Mood 178, Galea (1989) 46 A Crim R 158

and Stanford v Regina (2007) 70 NSWLR 474, 179 A Crim R 541. The opening of a closed

interior door is sufficient: Regina v Johnson (1786) 2 East PC 448. Entry of any part of the

body will suffice.

The penalty is normally 14 years, unless the offence is aggravated (see below).

Aggravated Break and Enter.

The aggravated offence ('home invasion') is committed if the offender is

armed with an offensive weapon or instrument

is in company

uses corporal violence on some person

maliciously inflicts actual bodily harm on some person

deprives any person of their liberty

knows that there is a person (or persons) in the place where the offence is committed

(s. 105A).

'Offensive weapon' includes anything which is made or adapted for offensive purposes, or

which is used, attempted to be used or threatened to be used for offensive purposes (s. 4

Crimes Act). The definition of 'offensive weapon or instrument' is clearly wide enough to

cover (for example) guns, knives, screwdrivers, and blood filled syringes.

As to the meaning of 'in company', it has been held that there must be such proximity as

would enable the inference that the coercive effect of the group operated, either to embolden

or reassure the offender in committing the crime, or to intimidate the victim into submission:

Button and Griffen (2002) 54 NSWLR 455.

For aggravated break enter and steal the penalty is 20 years (s. 112 (2)). For offences

committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 5 years.

Specially Aggravated Break and Enter

The specifically aggravated offence is committed when the offender maliciously inflicts

grievous bodily harm on any person or is armed with a dangerous weapon (s.

105A).'Dangerous weapon' is defined to mean a firearm, a prohibited weapon under the

Prohibited Weapons Act, or a spear gun (s. 4 Crimes Act). Replica firearms are included in

the definition of prohibited weapons (see Schedule 1 to the Weapons Prohibition Act). For

practical purposes, it is important to note that a normal knife (not for example a flick knife) or

a screwdriver are offensive weapons, but are not dangerous weapons (see Schedule 1 to the

Weapons Prohibition Act).

For specially aggravated break and enter the penalty is 25 years (s. 112 (3)). For offences

committed after 3 February 2003, the 'standard non-parole period' is 7 years.

Related Offences.

Exactly the same penalty structure that applies to break enter and steal also applies to

entering premises with intent to commit a felony and breaking out (s. 109).

For the offence of break and enter with intent to commit a felony, the maximum penalty is 10

years, if aggravated, 14 years, and if specifically aggravated, 20 years (s. 113).

(d) receiving and goods in custody

Receiving.

The elements of receiving are:

the goods are stolen

the stealing is a felony

the accused received disposed of or attempted to dispose of the goods AND

he knew at the time the goods were stolen (s. 188 Crimes Act).

The maximum penalty is 10 years, but if the property is a motor vehicle or a motor vehicle

part, 12 years.

Proof of Theft. The fact that the goods are stolen must be proved by evidence admissible against the alleged

receiver (e. g. not the out of court admissions of the thief- but see Ollerton (1989) 40 A Crim

R 1, Mabbott (1989) 40 A Crim R 243). Normally the owner of the property must be called to

give evidence.

Proof of Possession.

The receiver must be in possession of the goods. Mere presence in a car where the goods are

found is insufficient: Fien (1962) NSWR 134.

Knowledge.

It must be proved that the accused knew had a state of belief about the goods which

amounted to:

knowledge (Parker [1974] 1 NSWLR 14 )

belief equivalent to knowledge (Raad [1983] 3 NSWLR 344, Armstrong (1990) 48 A

Crim R 382, Dykyj (1993) 66 A Crim R 567) or

suspicion coupled with a failure to make inquiries: Schipanski (1989) 17 NSWLR

618.

It is not sufficient that a reasonable man would have known that the goods were stolen:

Parker. However it is permissible for the judge to say that the jury may convict if they find

that the accused must have known that the goods were stolen: Fallon (1981) 4 A Crim R 413,

Whalebone (1983) PSR 2904. If directions are given about wilful blindness, it must be

stressed to the jury that this is only a step and that the crucial question was the actual belief of

the accused: McConnell (1993) 69 A Crim R 39, Dykyj (1993) 66 A Crim R 567.

An altered engine number doesn't necessarily mean that even a dealer will know the goods

are stolen: Seaton [1994] PD [178].

The belief that the goods were stolen must exist at the time when the goods come into the

possession of the defendant: Curlija [1967] SASR 1, Murphy (1984) 12 A Crim R 38.

Recent Possession.

Where the accused is in possession of goods which are recently stolen, the jury is entitled to

convict the accused of stealing or receiving unless it finds that the explanation given by the

accused could reasonably be true: Bellamy [1981] 2 NSWLR 727, Ately (1985) 9 NSWLR

226, Kavanagh (CCA 1/9/82 PSR 2576), Bruce (1987) 74 ALR 219, 61 ALJR 603 . It is

incorrect to refer to the doctrine as raising a presumption: Claxton (CCA 23/3/84 ). The

doctrine does not operate unless there is first proof that the goods are stolen: Trainer (1906) 4

CLR 126.

The Alternative Count.

Where an accused is charged with both larceny and receiving a special verdict is available

where the jury is unable to determine if the goods were stolen or received: s. 121 Crimes Act.

The jury should be directed that before returning a verdict of guilty for larceny, the jury must

be satisfied unanimously that the accused is guilty of larceny, not receiving, and vice versa:

Nguyen (NSW CCA u/r 20/2/97, (1997) 4 Crim LN [669]). The counts of receiving and

larceny must relate to the same property, and the jury must be directed that they can only

return a verdict of guilty on the special verdict if they are not satisfied beyond reasonable

doubt on the larceny and receiving counts: Clarke (1995) 78 A Crim R 226.

Money laundering

It is a an abuse of process to charge an accused with a substantive offence of selling an illegal object, and also charging the accused with a money laundering offence for possession of the money: Nahlous v Regina [2010] NSWCCA 58.

The Offence of Goods in Custody

The offence of goods in custody has the following elements:

the defendant had in

his custody

in the custody of another person

in premises or

gives custody to a person not lawfully entitled to possession of the thing AND

a thing that may reasonably be suspected of being stolen or otherwise unlawfully

obtained

The maximum penalty is $550 or 6 months gaol. but if the 'thing' is a motor vehicle or motor

vehicle part, $1100 or 1 year gaol: s. 527C Crimes Act.

Goods in Custody.

The goods can consist of bank notes (Dittmar [1973] 1 NSWLR 722) but not credits in a bank

account: Grant (1981) 147 CLR 503. The very goods must be suspected of being stolen. It

does not suffice to be the proceeds of sale of stolen goods: Brebner v Seager [1926] VLR

166. It is enough if some of the items are suspect: Edens v Cleary [1975] 1 NSWLR 278.

Custody.

Custody means immediate de facto control: Ex parte McPherson (1933) 50 WN (NSW) 25.

In shared premises there must be evidence of knowledge of the existence of the goods and

evidence excluding possession on the part of other residents: JAL and LL (1974) 3 DCR 182

.

The custody must be at the time of arrest: English (1989) 17 NSWLR 149, Larkey v Lahz

(1993) PD [24]. If the goods are found by the police after the accused is in custody, arguably

the goods are not in his custody: DPP v Miers (1997) 96 A Crim R 408, Dahl (1997) 96 A

Crim R 502.

S. 527C (1) (d) includes the situation where suspect goods have been sold to an innocent third

party: Gilroy v Jebra (1992) 29 NSWLR 20. Prosecutions under s. 527C (1) (d) relating to

giving custody of a motor vehicle to another must be commenced within 2 years of the date

of the offence (s. 527(1A)).

Reasonably Suspected of Being Stolen.

The magistrate must be satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that the goods are reasonably

suspected of being stolen or unlawfully obtained on the basis of all the evidence available to

him: Ex parte Patmoy; re Jack (1944) 44 SR (NSW) 351, Anderson (1992) 62 A Crim R 277.

It may not be enough to show that there are competing lawful inferences: Chan (1992) 28

NSWLR (per Mahoney J, but contra see Abadee J: must be the strongest inference available).

It is not necessary to show that the goods were stolen or unlawfully obtained in NSW: Porter

[2004] NSWCCA 353.

It is the opinion of the magistrate, not the arresting officer that is important: Parker v

Todhunter (1987) 26 A Crim R 169. Suspicion must attach to the goods, not just the thief:

O'Sullivan v Tregaskis [1948] SASR 12. Hearsay has been said to be admissible (Tucs v

Manley (1985) 62 ALR 460), but this is really a case on expert evidence.

There must be an intention to use the goods in a way inconsistent with the owner's use:

Neilands (Ducker 4/4/91 u/r).

The Defence.

It is a defence for the defendant to show on the balance of probabilities that he had no

reasonable grounds to suspect the items: Tegge v Caldwell (1988) 15 NSWLR 226.

(e) implements

Possession of an Implement.

Possession of an implement without lawful excuse capable of housebreaking or entering a car

is an offence: s. 114. If the item is carried by a companion, there must be evidence not only of

knowledge but of joint control: Pierpoint (1993) 71 A Crim R 187.

Older authorities said that the implement is one ordinarily used for lawful purposes there

must be evidence that the accused had the implement with the intention of using it: Oldham

(1852) 3 Carrington and Kirwan 249, Kirwan (1932) JP Reports 137, and Marijancevic

(1991) 54 A Crim R 431. However it was held in Reynolds (NSWCCA unreported

22/8/1986) that the Crown simply has to establish that the item is capable of being used for

that purpose (see also Pierpoint). It is submitted that the earlier authorities are to be preferred.

The accused has the onus of proving lawful excuse on the balance of probabilities: Patterson

[1962] 2 QB 429.

The maximum penalty for the offence is 7 years imprisonment

11/. Attempt, Conspiracy and Complicity.

Accessorial Liability

Accessorial liability is probably the most complicated area of the criminal law. In this

chapter, I have attempted wherever possible to draw out what directions should be given in

practice.

(a) Attempt

Mens Rea of Attempt.

The mens rea for attempt is intention. Recklessness will not suffice, but may be evidence of

intention: Mohan [1976] QB 1, Alister v The Queen (1984) 154 CLR 404, 58 ALJR 97,

Knight v The Queen (1992) 175 CLR 495, 66 ALJR 860, 63 A Crim R 166.

Actus Reus of Attempt.

There are a number of competing tests for the actus reus of attempt:

unequivocality test- Davey v Lee [1968] 1 QB 366

perpetration rather than preparation- Robinson [1915] 2 KB 342

last act depending on the accused- Stonehouse [1977] 2 All ER 1269, Eagleton (1855)

Dears CC 515

proximity test- are the acts sufficiently proximate, or too remote- Eagleton, Hope v

Brown [1954] 1 All ER 330.

For Commonwealth offences, the test is whether the conduct was more than merely

preparatory to the commission of the offence: Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.1.

The intention of the accused is relevant in determining whether or not the acts were

sufficiently proximate: O'Connor v Killian (1984) 15 A Crim R 353. Thus trying the doors of

a car will not be sufficiently proximate unless there are also admissions: Brinkworth v

Zimmer (Yeldham J 16/10/84 )

Impossibility.

If an accused is charged with attempting to commit an offence, if the Crown proves intention,

and an unequivocal act going beyond mere preparation, impossibility is no defence: Mai

(1992) 60 A Crim R 49 and Gulyas (1985) 2 NSWLR 260, not following Donnelly [1970]

NZLR 980 cited in Haughton v Smith [1975] AC 476. See also Commonwealth Criminal

Code section 11.1(4) and Onuorah v Regina [2009] NSWCCA 238.

In McCoy (2001) 51 NSWLR 702, 123 A Crim R 81 a conviction for knowingly take part in

the manufacture of methylamphetamine was quashed because the materials used could never

make methylamphetamine. However, a conviction of conspiracy to manufacture drugs with

the ingredients which could never make those drugs was upheld in El-Azzi [2004] NSWCCA

455.

Attempting to Pervert the Course of Justice.

It is not necessary to prove that the act has a prospect of perverting the course of justice, as

long as it is aimed at having that effect: Murphy [1985] 4 NSWLR 42. There must be

identifiable court proceedings, not just a police inquiry: The Queen v Rogerson (1991) 51 A

Crim R 359, (1992) 60 A Crim R 429, (1992) 174 CLR 268, 66 ALJR 500. Where

proceedings have not been commenced, it is necessary for the Crown to prove that the was

apprehensive of a prosecution for the offence, and took the actions to avoid a prosecution

being brought: Regina v OM [2011] NSWCCA 109. Sentences: collected in Taouk (1993)

PD [61].

Attempting to Aid and Abet or Conspire

It is not an offence to attempt to aid and abet or conspire: Commonwealth Criminal Code

section 11.1(7).

(b) Conspiracy.

Conspiracy.

Conspiracy is an agreement to do an unlawful act, or to do a lawful act by unlawful means.

The actus reus is the agreement itself. The mens rea is the intention to carry out the unlawful

purpose: Wilson (1994) PD [385]. Recklessness is not sufficient: Peters v The Queen (1998)

192 CLR 493, 72 ALJR 517 at 530.

It is necessary for there to be at least two parties to the conspiracy, both of whom intend to

carry out the agreement: Gerakiteys (1984) 153 CLR 137, 58 ALJR 182. A conspiracy cannot

be constituted simply of a husband and wife because they are regarded at law as one person:

Mawji [1957] AC 126, but this does not apply to de facto couples: Byast (1997) 96 A Crim R

61. It is not necessary for at least two parties to be convicted of conspiracy: Darby (1982) 148

CLR 668, 56 ALJR 688, Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.5(3). Where the evidence

against one party is significantly different from that against other parties consideration should

be given to separate trials: Darby.

Under the Commonwealth Criminal Code a conviction can be sustained for conspiring to

commit more than one offence: B v Regina [2008] NSWCCA 85.

Types of conspiracy.

Conspiracies to commit a criminal act are conspiracies but so are:

conspiracy to defraud

conspiracy to commit a tort

conspiracy to corrupt public morals

conspiracy to pervert the course of justice: there must be an intention to do this:

Freeman [1985] 3 NSWLR 303

conspiracy to effect a public mischief: may not exist: Withers [1975] AC 842 , Cahill

[1978] 2 NSWLR 453.

Multiple Parties.

A conspiracy involving many people cannot be established if the only evidence is that there

were many small conspiracies: Gerakiteys (1984) 153 CLR 317, 58 ALJR 182.

Withdrawal from a Conspiracy

A person cannot be convicted of conspiracy to commit a Commonwealth offence if before an

overt act was committed, the person withdrew from the agreement and took all reasonable

steps to prevent the commission of the offence: Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.5

(5).

Co-Conspirators Rule.

Acts or statements of a co-accused in furtherance of a conspiracy may be admissible against a

co-accused. Normally narrative accounts of what has already happened are not in furtherance

of the conspiracy: Tripodi v The Queen (1961) 104 CLR 1.

Statements of a co-accused in furtherance of the conspiracy are admissible to prove the

existence of the conspiracy. Statements are only admissible to prove that an accused

participated in the conspiracy if there is already reasonable evidence of the existence of the

conspiracy. Reasonable evidence appears to mean the same as prima facie case, with a

discretion to reject the evidence: Ahern v The Queen (1988) 165 CLR 87, 62 ALJR 400,

Masters (1992) 59 A Crim R 445 at 459. The statements by which the conspiracy is made are

not admissible: Masters.

The jury should be warned that evidence admitted under the co-conspirators rule should be

scrutinized with care: Chai (1991) 60 A Crim R 305. The jury should be directed what

evidence is admissible against each accused: Checconi (1988) 34 A Crim R 160, Salib and

Hanna (u/r, 8/12/89 ).

Conspiracy and Substantive Offences.

Where there is a substantive offence there should not be a duplication in penalties, and the

penalty for the conspiracy should not exceed that set for the offence. Generally it is

undesirable to profer a charge of conspiracy where a substantive charge is available: The

Queen v Hoar (1981) 148 CLR 32. In Commonwealth matters, the court may dismiss a

charge of conspiracy if it is in the interests of justice to do so: Commonwealth Criminal Code

section 11.5 (6).

Conspiracy with Party Unknown.

A count of conspiracy can refer to a conspiracy with persons unknown: Gerakiteys v The

Queen (1984) 153 CLR 313 at 334, Harrison (1995) 79 A Crim R 149.

Conspiring to Commit the Impossible.

It is not an offence to join in a conspiracy to do an act which is impossible to commit :

Barbouttis (1995) 82 A Crim R 432. This is not the case with Commonwealth offences:

Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.5(3).

Conspiring to be reckless

The Crown can charge an accused with conspiring to commit an offence where the mental

element is recklessness, but both under the Commonwealth Criminal Code and at common law, in order to establish the offence the Crown must prove actual knowledge of the facts which

make the act or acts unlawful: Regina v RK and LK [2008] NSWCCA 338. Special leave to

appeal against this decision was granted and the High Court is currently reserved on the

matter.

Conspiracy and Jurisdiction.

It now appears that a NSW court has jurisdiction to deal with a conspiracy in Australia as

long as there is a real connection with NSW: Lipohar v The Queen (1999) 200 CLR 485 . It is

an offence in NSW to conspire outside NSW to commit an offence in NSW. It is not clear if

it is an offence in Australia to conspire in Australia to commit a crime outside Australia

(Isaac (1996) 87 A Crim R 513).

Procedure.

The accused is entitled to particulars of the precise scope of the conspiracy: Mok (1987) 27 A

Crim R 438. If the Crown moves away from the conspiracy as opened upon, the trial may

miscarry: Wong (u/r, 27/5/88), Mok.

Penalty for Conspiracy

At common law the penalty for conspiracy was at large (i.e. there is no maximum penalty).

For conspiracy to commit a Commonwealth offence, the maximum penalty is the maximum

penalty for the substantive offence: Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.5(1).

(c) Complicity

Degrees of Participation.

There are the following degrees of participation:

principal in the first degree-commits the act- there may be more than one

principal in the second degree- present at the commission of the crime, encouraging

but not participating physically

accessory before the fact- takes part in the preliminary stages of the crime but not

present when it is committed

accessory after the fact- takes part in subsequent stages of the crime- eg. preparing a

hiding a hiding place.

See Osland v The Queen (1998) 197 CLR 316

Proof that a Crime Has been Committed.

It is necessary for the prosecution to establish that a crime has actually been committed:

Demirian (1989) VR 97. It cannot be proved by a certificate of conviction of the principal:

Triffett (1992) 64 A Crim R 145, Welsh (1998) 105 A Crim R 448, but see Carter and Savage

(1990) 47 A Crim R 55. However because the principal can raise a defence does not prevent

the accessory from being guilty: Cogan and Leak (1975) 2 All ER 1059, Howe (1987) AC

417, Attorney General's Reference (no. 1 of 1975) (1975) QB 777, Osland v The Queen

(1998) 197 CLR 316.

Knowledge.

It was not enough to establish that the accused was aware that some illegal venture was

planned, there must be evidence of knowledge that the accused was aware that a venture of

the type committed was planned: Bainbridge (1960) 1 QB 129.

Presence.

Mere presence is not enough, unless there is an intention to encourage, ready to assist:

Wilcox v Jeffrey (1951) 1 All ER 464, Phan (2001) 53 NSWLR 480, 123 A Crim R 30.

Withdrawal. To withdraw there must be timely communication of the intention to abandon the common

criminal purpose communicated to those who desire to continue with it: Becerra and Cooper

(1975) 62 Cr App R 212, White v Ridley (1978) 140 CLR 342, Tietie (1988) 34 A Crim R

438. The accused must take reasonable steps to withdraw his encouragement: Wilton (1993)

64 A Crim R 359, White v Ridley. If the accused honestly does not believe that the others

will still commit the crime he is entitled to be acquitted: Truong (1998) 5 Crim LN [879]. For

Commonwealth offences see Commonwealth Criminal Code section 11.2 (4), 11.5(4).

Mens Rea.

To establish the mens rea for being an aider and abettor there must be proved knowledge of

the essential facts that constitute the offence and intention that the offence be committed.

Recklessness is not sufficient. Wilful blindness is only relevant in that it may be evidence of

intention: Giorgianni v The Queen (1985) 156 CLR 473.

Joint Criminal Enterprise

In Tangye (1997) 92 A Crim R 545 at 556-7 Hunt CJ at CL set out the principles relating to

joint criminal enterprise which have been accepted in other cases including Regina v

Chishimba [2010] NSWCCA 228 at para [29]:

“(1) The law is that, where two or more persons carry out a joint criminal enterprise, each is

responsible for the acts of the other or others in carrying out that enterprise. The Crown must

establish both the existence of that joint criminal enterprise and the participation in it by the

accused.

(2) A joint criminal enterprise exists where two or more persons reach an understanding or arrangement amounting to an agreement between them that they will commit a crime. The understanding or arrangement need not be express, and its existence may be inferred from all the circumstances. It need not have been reached at any time before the crime is committed. The circumstances in which two or more persons are participating together in the commission of a particular crime may themselves establish an unspoken understanding or arrangement amounting to an agreement formed between them then and there to commit that crime.

(3) A person participates in that joint criminal enterprise either by committing the agreed crime itself or simply by being present at the time when the crime is committed, and (with knowledge that the crime is to be or is being committed) by intentionally assisting or encouraging another participant in the joint criminal enterprise to commit that crime. The presence of that person at the time when the crime is committed and a readiness to give aid if required is sufficient to amount to an encouragement to the other participant in the joint criminal enterprise to commit the crime.

(4) If the agreed crime is committed by one or other of the participants in that joint criminal enterprise, all of the participants in that enterprise are equally guilty of the crime regardless of the part played by each in its commission” (at 556 – 557).

Joint enterprise for manslaughter by way of unlawful and dangerous act

The Judicial Commission bench book suggests the following direction be given where the

Crown case is that there is joint enterprise between A and B to commit a robbery on (V1) and

B stabs and kills a bystander (V2):

1. The accused A and B entered into a joint criminal enterprise to rob V1. 2. B did an unlawful and dangerous act by stabbing V2 with a knife, thereby causing the

death of V2. 3. B did the act of stabbing of V2 as an incident in the carrying out of the joint criminal

enterprise to rob V1. 4. At the time of entering into the joint criminal enterprise to rob V1, and up to and

including the time of the stabbing, the accused knew that B had the knife, which B used to stab V2.

5. At the time of entering into the joint criminal enterprise to rob V1, and up to and including the time of the stabbing, the accused contemplated that as an incident in the carrying out of the joint criminal enterprise to rob V1, B might do an unlawful and dangerous act, namely stabbing someone with the knife, thereby causing an appreciable risk of serious injury to that person, and the accused, having that contemplation, continued to participate in the joint criminal enterprise to rob V1.

Where the Crown case is that A and B agreed to assault V, and he dies as a result of an assault, the Crown must establish that:

A and B agreed to assault V B did an unlawful and dangerous act (an assault) which caused the death of V A and B had an understanding or agreement that an act would be committed which

exposed V to an appreciable risk of serious injury

See TWL v Regina [2012] NSWCCA 57.

Joint Enterprise for Maliciously Inflict Grievous Bodily Harm

The mens rea for a principal in the second degree in the offence of maliciously inflict GBH

was held to be:

(1) that A knew (or was aware):

(a) of the intention of B to hit the victim, and

(b) that B:

(i) intended thereby to inflict some physical injury upon the victim, or

(ii) realised the possibility that some such injury might result but he nevertheless intended to

go ahead and hit the victim; and

(2) that, with that knowledge, A intentionally assisted or encouraged B to commit the crime

of maliciously inflicting grievous bodily harm upon the victim (Stokes and Difford (1990) 51

A Crim R 25 at 41).

Joint Enterprise for Malicious Wounding

The elements of the offence of malicious wounding for a principal in the second degree have

been held to be (where A is the principal in the second degree and B is the principal in the

first degree).

· First, that B intended to strike the victim causing injury.

· Second, that such injury would involve a wounding, that is, the breaking of the skin.

· Third, that knowing these things, A intentionally assisted or encouraged B to commit the

offence

(Shepherd [2003] NSWCCA 351).

It would seem to be necessary for the Crown to prove that A knew B had a knife.

Common Purpose.

This doctrine only applies to an unexpected incidental crime added to an agreed foundational

crime. It does not apply when people are carrying out exactly the crime they agreed to carry

out: Mills and Sinfield (1985) 17 A Crim R 411, Stokes and Difford (1990) 51 A Crim R 25

at 35, McFarlane (1993) PD [210], Tangye (1997) 92 A Crim R 545, May v Regina [2012]

NSWCCA 111. It should not be applied even when it is not clear which of a number of

people present committed the act: Clough (1993) 64 A Crim R 451 at 455.

An accessory before the fact and a principal in the second degree are liable for a crime within

the contemplation of both of them as a possible incident of the originally planned venture:

Johns v The Queen (1980) 143 CLR 108, McAuliffe v The Queen (1995) 183 CLR 108, 69

ALJR 621, (1995) 79 A Crim R 229. There may be a question of the remoteness of the risk,

and negligible possibilities may need to be disregarded: Chan Wing-Siu [1985] AC 168.

Query the result where common purpose and reckless indifference overlap: Annakin (1987)

37 A Crim R 131. If the incidental crime is contemplated as a possibility, an accessory before

the fact or principal in the second degree will be guilty even if he did not agree to the

secondary crime: see Gillard v The Queen (2003) 219 CLR 1 esp at paras [111] to [112].

A challenge to the doctrine of common purpose was rejected by the High Court in Clayton

and Hartwick v The Queen (2006) 81 ALJR 439.

Common Purpose Murder.

The Crown must prove (in the standard 'robbery gone wrong' case):

that A & B agreed to rob C

that A knew B was armed with an offensive weapon

that B used the weapon intending to kill or cause gbh

that A contemplated B might use the weapon with the intention of causing really

serious bodily harm: Sharah (1992) 30 NSWLR 292, 63 A Crim R 361.

There must be proof of knowledge of the weapon's presence or that some use of a weapon is

within the scope of the common design (less likely with guns): Duong (1992) 61 A Crim R

140. It has been held that the jury need not be directed that to return a verdict of guilty, the

jury would have to be satisfied that A contemplated the use of the gun by B other than in self-

defence: Bikic [2002] NSWCCA 227.

A failure to direct the jury that the Crown must establish that A contemplated that B might

use the weapon with the intention of causing really serious bodily harm is fatal to the

directions: Taufahema [2007] NSWCCA 33.

Common Purpose Felony Murder.

The Crown must prove:

that A & B agreed to rob C

that A knew B was armed with an offensive weapon

that during or immediately after the robbery B used the weapon causing the death of

C

A had in mind the 'contingency' that the weapon would be discharged: Sharah (1992)

30 NSWLR 292, 63 A Crim R 361.

Common Purpose Manslaughter

If a person counsels or procures another person to do an act which is unlawful and likely to

cause harm to another person, and results in a death (even though death was not foreseen or

intended), the first person can be guilty of manslaughter: Chai [2002] HCA 12.

It has been held that it is wrong to direct a jury that if the accused contemplates that

something more than trivial harm will be occasioned to the victim the accused is guilty of

manslaughter: Rees [2001] NSWCCA 23. Model directions are not easy to frame, but it

appears that directions similar to these have the approval of the NSW CCA in Puta [2002]

NSWCCA 495. The Crown must prove:

o that A & B agreed to assault C

o that A knew B had a gun

o B fired the gun killing C

o A foresaw the possibility that B would use the gun, (but not that it would be

used with the intention of killing or inflicting grievous bodily harm)

o the use of the gun was a dangerous and unlawful act

Principal in Second Degree.

Where the accused is present, the Crown must establish that the accused was aware of the

intention of the principal perpetrator: Clough (1993) 64 A Crim R 451 at 455, but see

McAuliffe & McAuliffe (1993) 70 A Crim R 303.

The Crown is required to prove:

o the accused was present when the crime was committed

o knew that the crime was to be or was being committed

o intentionally assisted or encouraged another participant to commit the crime

(at least, being present and ready to assist)

(Tangye (1997) 92 A Crim R 545).

Model directions are given in Tangye at 556-7.

Accessory Before the Fact.

With an accessory before the fact, no event, after the accessory parts company with the

others, is evidence of common purpose: Duong (1992) 61 A Crim R 140.It appears that in a

case of accessory before the fact to murder on the basis of joint enterprise, the Crown must

establish that:

A asked B to cause really serious harm or death to C

B applies force to C and kills C, AND

A contemplated the possibility that B would inflict grievous bodily harm on C as part

of the common enterprise to harm him

It appears that in a case of accessory before the fact to murder on the basis of common

purpose, the Crown must establish that:

A asked B to assault C (not necessarily to inflict really serious injury upon him),

B applies force to C and kills C

the application of force by B on C for the purpose of causing him grievous bodily

harm was within the scope of the joint criminal enterprise

See Suteski (2002) 56 NSWLR 182, 137A Crim R 371(especially at para [144]).

Accessory after the Fact.

An accessory after the fact must have knowledge of all the facts constituting the particular

offence at the time he renders assistance to the principal: Stone [1981] VR 737. The act must

be done with the intention of helping the principal avoid detection: Young and Phipps (1995)

PD [389]. Thus sharing in the proceeds with nothing more will not suffice: Barlow (1962) 79

WN (NSW) 756.

At common law a wife could not be convicted of being an accessory after the fact to a crime

committed by her husband: CAL (NSW CCA 24/10/96). However this immunity has been

abolished: s. 347A Crimes Act.

Conceal Serious Offence (formerly Misprision of a Felony).

Misprision of a felony has been abolished by s. 341 Crimes Act. It is an offence to fail to

inform the police which might be of material assistance in arresting or prosecuting an

offender of a serious crime (punishable by over 5 years): s. 316. The maximum penalty is 2

years.If the principal offender is dealt with summarily the offence is still applicable: Sinclair

(Sperling J (1997) 4 Crim LN [673]). The accused must have subjective knowledge of the

commission of a felony, not mere suspicion: Wozniak (1989) 40 A Crim R 290. Material

facts are not facts already known to the police: Stone [1981] VR 737. Silence of a person

after a caution and when an answer would tend to incriminate does not constitute an offence:

King (1965) 49 Cr App R 140, Lucraft (1966) Cr App R 296.

12. Offences Against the Justice System

(a) escape

Escape.

Escape is the conscious and intentional withdrawal from custody. A prisoner innocently at

large is not guilty of escape: Scott (1967) VR 276. A person who appears on bail but flees

from the court is guilty of common law escape: Peehi (1997) 41 NSWLR 476, (1997) 92 A

Crim R 539.

Lawful Custody.

It seems that it is not necessary for the Crown to prove each step in a chain of custody of the

prisoner: Powch v The Queen (1987) 163 CLR 496, effectively overruling Templeton [1956]

VLR 709.

Maintain an Escapee.

It is not enough to supply an escapee with one meal, maintenance must be continuous:

Blinkhorn (1994) 71 A Crim R 472.

(b) perjury

Elements of Perjury.

The elements of perjury are:

in connection with any judicial proceeding made false statement

on oath

concerning any matter material to the proceeding

knowing the statement to be untrue (s. 327 Crimes Act).

Corroboration.

The requirement of corroboration has been preserved under s. 164 Evidence Act. There must

be corroboration of the alleged lie: Yates (1841) 174 ER 441.

Swearing.

Swearing involves an appeal to a higher being: Sossi (1985) 17 A Crim R 405. There should

be proof not merely of a signature on an affidavit, but of evidence of the oath being

administered on that occasion or by invariable practice: Rickards (1849) 13 JP Reports 201.

There is an alternative verdict if swearing is not proved under s. 31 Oaths Act.

Materiality The lie must relate to a matter material to the case: Murray (1858) 1 F& F 80, Alsop (1869)

11 Cox 264 , Hellifont (1991) 57 A Crim R 256. The question of materiality is a matter of

law (s. 327(4)). If the lie is not material, there is an alternative verdict for false swearing

under s. 329. Any matter which is practically relevant to the proceedings is material: Dineen

(NSW CCA 25/2/98), Charles (1998) 5 Crim LN [826].

Knowing the Statement to be Untrue.

The Crown must prove that the accused made a statement knowing at the time that he made it

that it was false or at least that he did not believe it to be true. If the jury concludes that the

accused made a genuine (even if unreasonable) mistake the jury must acquit: MacKenzie v

The Queen (1996) 190 CLR 348, 90 A Crim R 468.

Sentence.

The tariff for perjury is about 6 months: Fifita (CCA 26/11/92 PD [413]), Bulliman (1993)

PD [152]: 9 months. Except in very particular circumstances someone convicted of perjury

should be jailed: Aristomedou [Bulletin 74]. Attempting to bribe a judge: 4 years: Taouk

(1993) 65 A Crim R 387.

(c) Attempt Pervert the Course of Justice.

It is an offence to attempt to pervert the course of justice carrying a maximum penalty of 14

years: s. 319 Crimes Act.

'Attempt to pervert the course of justice' means obstructing, preventing, perverting or defeating the course of justice or the administration of the law: s. 312 Crimes Act.

'The administration of law' in this context means the administration of the civil and criminal

courts and tribunals, and not for example, swearing false statutory declarations to avoid

administrative speeding fines: Einfeld v Regina (2008) 71 NSWLR 31.

The Crown cannot use a charge of attempt to pervert the course of justice when the facts are

perjury: Tsang Ping Nam (1982) 74 Cr App R 139.

(d) Reprisals Against Public Justice Officials, Jurors and Witnesses It is an offence to threaten to or to cause injury to another person intending to influence the

person not to bring material information about an indictable offence to the attention of a

police officer. The maximum penalty is 7 years imprisonment: s. 315A Crimes Act.

It is an offence to threaten or cause violence to a witness, a juror, a judge, or any public

justice official in connection with a judicial proceeding: s. 326 Crimes Act. The penalty is 10

years. Strangely, a 'public justice official' has been held to include police officers, but

arresting a suspect and taking him to a police station has been held not to be 'in connection

with judicial proceedings': Orcher [1999] NSWCCA 356.

(e) Contempt of Court

The maximum penalty for contempt of court is 5 years, as a result of s. 4 of the Crimes

(Sentencing Procedure) Act: Registrar of the Supreme Court of NSW v Jando (2000-2001) 53

NSWLR 527.

Chapter 13- Sentencing

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