Part 2: lecture 1; crisis narrative and the thieving ......analytics. •BGG:analytics is hard!...

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Part 2: lecture 1; crisis narrative and the thieving banker model Lecture to MSc Advanced Macro Students, Bristol, Spring 2014

Transcript of Part 2: lecture 1; crisis narrative and the thieving ......analytics. •BGG:analytics is hard!...

Page 1: Part 2: lecture 1; crisis narrative and the thieving ......analytics. •BGG:analytics is hard! Won’t be directly examined. But you will be expected to know the story. •If you

Part 2:  lecture 1; crisis narrative and the thieving banker model

Lecture to MSc Advanced Macro Students, Bristol, Spring 2014

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Overview

• Schematic account of recent history of thought in macro and finance 

• Quick account of the financial crisis and puzzles it poses for macro

• Analytics of simplified models of credit frictions in Christiano and Ikeda.

• Some questions begged by the models;  account of financial shocks

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More specifically• Banker absconds model• Lazy banker model• Bernanke‐Gertler‐Gilchrist model.• For banker absconds/lazy banker models, we will cover the story, what it does and does not capture, and the analytics.

• BGG: analytics is hard! Won’t be directly examined.  But you will be expected to know the story.

• If you want to take the subject further, there is a taste of the BGG analytics [as simplified by CI] in the slides, notes and assignments.

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Reading:  1st three essential, 2nd lot optional

• Martin Ellison’s Oxford Mphil notes.• Literature survey by Quadrini in Min Fed Review• Christiano and Ikeda

• Bernanke Gertler (1989)• Bernanke Gertler Gilchrist (1999) [sticky price version of above]

• Kiyotaki‐Moore [various].  Not much covered here.• Brunnermeir et al: survey of financial frictions models

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More DSGE papers on credit frictions:  in case you want to take subject 

further• Iocoviello• Gertler‐Karadi:  ‘A model of unconventional monpol’

• Christiano, Motto, Rostagno:  ‘Risk shocks’• Del Negro et al:  ‘The great escape’• Pinter, Theodoridis, Yates:  ‘Risk news shocks and the business cycle’

• Gertler‐Kiyotaki:  Bank runs• Carlstrom‐Fuerst‐Paustian ‘Optimal mon pol in a model with agency costs’.

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Narrative of the financial crisis• ‘Great moderation’:  unusually low and stable inflation;  unusually high and stable growth.

• Deduction that this is ‘good policy’ and not ‘good luck’• Spreads low.• Fast growing emerging economies exporting capital ‘uphill’into West driving up asset prices, driving down yields on risky assets.

• Spreads low, financial sector innovation and deregulation.  Miracle of new risk management?

• Basle accord bases capital requirements on risk‐weighting, using banks’ own models to assess risk.

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‘Imbalances’, wholesale funding and risk

• Imperfectly globalised banks + capital export, means increased wholesale funding across borders.

• Northern Rock’s aggressive entry into UK mortgages built on wholesale funding.

• Wholesale funding is contractually usually short maturity and very mobile.

• Since foreign business is most risky [less relationship history to gauge credit risk] it’s the first to be pulled. 

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Sub‐prime lending

• ‘Sub‐prime’ lending based on political pressure to extend home ownership to those with poor credit histories

• Implemented in US through relaxing risk management in the Federal Agencies.  [See, for example, Calomiris(various)].

• Over‐optimistic forecasts of house price growth.• Under‐recognition of the correlation of risks inherent.  i.e. if one sub‐prime loan fails perhaps most will.

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Originate+hold to:  originate and distribute [securitise]

• Key innovation:  securitisation of mortgages.• Creation of off‐balance sheet subsidiaries called ‘special purpose vehicles to get round capital requirement regulations.

• Supposedly AAA rated securities manufactured from pools of mortgages.

• A way to do business and circumvent capital regulations.

• But unknown, large contractual and ‘goodwill’ liabilities remained.

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Complexity of sub‐prime derivatives

• Complexity of sub‐prime mortgage assets meant holders and credit ratings failed to appreciate risks.

• Sub‐prime mortgages started to fail in 2006.  Even if whole sector failed not that large.

• However, uncertainty about who exposed to what caused wholesale funders to pull money out of banks, investment banks and insurance companies.

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‘Shopping’ for the best security rating

• Some, eg Calomiris, argues that ‘Shopping’ of ratings on ABS made those securities look better than they were.

• Credit ratings agencies get a fee for rating a new bond from the issuer.

• They competed with each other for the business by offering safer ratings.

• Safer ratings get the bond issuer a higher price.

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Residual risk on retail bank balance sheets

• Special purpose vehicles:  separate entities set up by retail banks to hold these risky derivative securities

• But unclear whether retail banks would risk reputation [and deposit flight?] and let the SPV fail.

• Unclear residual, contractual risks embedded in ABS falling on the SPVs and retail banks.

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Rumblings, and UK crunch

• July 2007:  Northern Rock has to be bailed out.  Unable to roll over wholesale funding in increasingly expensive and rationed market.

• Run on its banks.  Queues of depositors on UK TV.• Ratchets up public concern about other UK banks:  buy to let;  UK sub‐prime;  self‐reporting of income history;  high LTVs.

• September 2007 spike in interbank lending rates.• LTROs to provide emergency liquidity.  [Now subject of SFO investigation.]

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The global crunch, 2008• Fed rescues Bear Sterns, March 2008, forming joint venture with JP Morgan.

• Fed in Sept 2008 lets Lehman’s fail, citing inability to quantify the exposure by taking on LB’s liabilities.

• Previous held view that large institutions would be supported – evidenced by rescue of BS ‐ revised sharply.

• At this point, spreads on many assets widen across the world.

• Banks in UK, Iceland, Ireland, France, Germany, Greece, Portugal, Spain look like failing without state assistance.

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• Sharp, unusually synchronised downturn across western world

• Plunges sovereigns into fiscal trouble.• Why?

– Private financial companies’ crisis ‘socialised’ by sovereigns, to differing degrees.

– Formerly vague and implicit guarantees sometimes made explicit.

– Eg Ireland introduces 100% guarantee and is soon forced to get bail out as spreads rise to levels intolerable for it to continue servicing debt.

– Market economies use financial debt obligations as money.  Can’t survive disappearance of this liquidity.  Hence govts have to stand by them.  Unlike other non financial companies.

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Policy responses

• US fiscal stimulus package driven through Congress by new Obama administration.

• Central banks, initially doubting crisis will be so bad, worrying about inflationary pressures, don’t respond.  Soon cut rates to zero.  [See recently released Fed transcripts, for example].

• Forced to undertake lender of last resort, unconventional monetary policy.

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EZ bails out PIGS

• Eurozone:  coordinated fiscal stimulus not possible.  And many sovereigns under stress.

• Greek/Portuguese/Irish case threatens continuation of eurozone.

• If they can’t finance their budgets, either default and/or forced to start printing own currency again to prop up banks. (etc)

• Small peripherals ok, but worry is spreads to large ones ie Spain and Italy.

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Spain and Italy

• Spanish economy hit hard in same way as Ireland.• Spanish fiscal policy quite prudent in run up.• But banks heavily exposed by property and construction boom, despite operating form of ‘macro pru’ [requiring more capital in a boom] known as ‘dynamic provisioning’.

• Italian economy stagnant for 10 years already, no political consensus to sort out persistent deficits.

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ECB and the EZ financial crisis

• ECB edges towards  lender of last resort.• Securities Market Program.  Then Outright Monetary Transactions.

• Promise to buy unlimited short term securities of troubled sovereign from secondary market.

• Provided fiscal problem sorted out by country seeking assistance from the ESM.

• Spreads on peripheral bonds narrow dramatically, quelling panic.

• OMTs so far not needed.

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So many causes

• Political pressure to give mortgages to people who can’t afford them.

• All blind to size and synchronisation of risks.• Complexity of securities, new financial organisations, financial system, leads to opaqueness.

• Weak regulation, implicit subsidies through too big to fail.

• Monetary union without fiscal union.

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Narrative accounts of the crisis and its causes:  not essential reading, but nice 

background• Gary Gorton‐’Misunderstanding financial crises’• Calomiris ‘Fragile by design’• Robert Peston ’How do we fix this mess?’• Gillian Tett – ‘Fool’s gold’• Nouriel Roubini – ‘Crisis economics’• Andrew Haldane ‘The dog and the frisbee’, also see ‘The £xbn question’

• Reinhart and Rogoff – ‘This time is different’ [a joke:  this time it’s the same]

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Case study of prudential failures in Ireland

• Reports into failings of Central Bank of Ireland to regulate its banks.

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Macro and finance:  hubris, then humility

• 1970s.  Schism between micro advances [eg Akerlofand Yellen, Stiglitz and Weiss, Diamond and Dybvig], and macro wars.

• Lucas and Sims vs Cowles Commission.• Focus on rebuilding macro from micro.• Simplicity partly out of necessity;  understanding of competitive equilibria, and computational tools still emergent.

• But necessary simplicity morphed into RBC claim that (efficient) technology shocks drove the business cycle, and that finance ‘the plumbing’ was not important.

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New Keynesian synthesis and monetary policy

• Sticky price models built around RBC core• Monetary policy seen as separable from non‐existent macro issue of financial stability

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First finance in macro

• Bernanke‐Gertler, Carlstrom‐Fuerst, Bernanke‐Gertler‐Gilchrist:  costly state verification model in general equilibrium.

• Kiyotaki‐Moore:  liquidity and resaleabilityconstraints.

• Propagation/amplification of conventional shocks very weak.  Implications for monetary/fiscal policy therefore very mild.

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More recent developments• Go back to micro or partial equilibrium?  Caballero’s ‘pretence of knowledge syndrome’

• Study of financial shocks in macro.  ‘Wedges’.• Introduction of financing problems for banks, and bank runs.

• Relaxation of rational expectations ‘irrational exuberance’;  bubbles.  Eg Adam et al

• Geannokoplous ‐ Optimism, pessimism, leverage• Heterogeneous agents;  eg Heathcote et al• Morris and Shin: Coordination games, imperfect knowledge.

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Three models of financing frictions in Christano and Ikeda

• We will cover:– Banker absconds model.   Gertler‐Karadi.  Banker can run away with some of the funds deposited.

– Lazy banker model.  Banks can’t be bothered to monitor their investments enough to guarantee returns.

– Costly state verification.  Mutual funds have to pay something to check that banks aren’t lying about their profits.  BGG.

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Source:  Christiano and Ikeda (2012), p88.

Some dramatic US facts in graphs about the credit crunch

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1. Moral hazard via bankers absconding

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Banker absconds model

• 2 periods• Simplified version of Gertler‐Karadi• Easy to extend to infinite period model, essence still there.

• Consumer has to decide how much to deposit in the bank, given that the Bank might run off with it.

• Kiyotaki tale about his Grandfather.

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The story of the banker absconds model

• Banker can run away with some of the money and default.

• This gives it an incentive to steal deposits made with it.

• Assume the bank has some net worth, some ‘skin in the game’.

• Can steal deposits, but not extract all its own net worth.  [eg can’t steal the buildings].

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• However, in bad times, when net worth is low, defaulting is more tempting.  

• Depositors have to accept lower deposit rates to give bankers an incentive to stay in the banking business, raising spreads.

• Correspondingly lower deposits, higher first period, consumption, less intermediation, production, and second period consumption, welfare lower.

• Government gifts of net worth to banks restores their incentive not to steal, and eliminate spreads.

• Govts depositing money in banks doesn’t work.  These can be absconded on too.

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Banker absconds model set‐up

uc uC

ux x 1−

1 −

Household maximise sum of 2 period discounted utility.  Small c is period 1, big C is period 2.

c d ≤ yPeriod 1 budget constraint.  Consumption plus what you deposit in bank (d) can’t be more than your endowment (y)

c CR ≤ y

RThe inter‐period budget constraint.R is the gross interest rate.Pi are the profits from the bank.

C ≤ Rd Period 2 budget constraint.  C can’t be more than What you get from your deposits, plus the bank profits.

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Solving household problem

• Dynamic optimisation.• Set up Lagrangian involving constraints.• Differentiate wrt choice variables for consumer.

• Set these derivatives to zero to form FOC’s.• Eliminate Lagrange multipliers.• Solve resulting equations for choice and other endogenous variables.

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Lagrangian, and steps to solve the household problem

L c1−1−

C1−

1− − c CR − y −

R

Differentiate wrt c and CEliminate lagrange multiplier.Get expression for either c or CSubstitute into inter‐period budget constraint assuming that it holds with equality.Find either c or C.Then solve for remaining unknowns.We will see the solution in the next slide, but this will be an exercise for you.

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Solutions to the household’s problem

c y

R

1R1 /R

d y − c,C Rd

Can you explain equations for d and C in words?  How do we get these so simply?

c smoothing motive:  consume some of the profits u r going to get in period 2, but less if the interest rate is high;  R higher means denominator also larger.

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Digression on Barro‐Wallace irrelevance

• Barro:  tax cuts will have no effect as compensating tax rises will be anticipated.

• Wallace:  central bank operations to buy private sector assets [ring any bells?] will have no effect either for same reason.

• Obviously holds under only certain circumstances: RE;  No frictions.

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Barro‐Wallace irrelevance

1 : c d ≤ y − T

2 : C ≤ Rd RT

1,2 : c C/R ≤ y /R − T RT/R

Govt levies taxes T, purchases deposits, earns interest, then returns the taxes in period 2 as a tax cut.Write out the period 1, 2 then interperiod budget constraints.

We are going to get RT when the govt gets its deposits out of the bank, but today we discount this at rate of return R.  So the tax terms cancel.Looming q is what might break this ‘irrelevance’ to motivate government action.

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Now with banks, but no financial frictions

max sRk − Rd

Eqm is values for R, c, C, d, pi, such that:1.    Household and firm problem solved2.    Bank problem is solved3.    Markets for goods and deposits clear4.    0<{c,C}<infinity

Firm issues securities s, produce quantity sR_k, no profits.s=N+d, ie banker buys securities with net worth, plus deposits

R Rk

R Rk d 0

R Rk d

If funding cost>return for bank, wouldn’t offer deposits.If funding costs<returns, would wish to set deposits infinitely high.

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The planning problem with no financial frictions

maxc,C,k uc uC

ux x 1−

1 − s.t.c k ≤ y N,C ≤ Rkk

Equilibrium solves the planning problem, ie gives the first best, if there is no financial frictions and R=R_k

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Solving the no financial frictions version of the banker absconds model

L c1−1−

C1−

1− − c k1 − Rk

R CR − y − N

dLdk 0 −1 − Rk

R

R,,C,c ≠ 0, ≠ 0 R Rk

Here we have substituted in the intertemporal budget constraint.

From FOC wrt k we can deduce that R=R_k.  Only interior eq’ia.Model is the same as before.  Stare at the intertemporal budget constraint.Spread drops out.  As if there were no banks.

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Figuring out that lamda is not zero

dLdc

0 c− − Interior eq only.C>0 so lamda <>0

Inspecting the FOC wrt period 1 consumption reveals lamda not zero.

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Adding in financial frictions to the banks’ problem

max sRk − Rd

s.t.N dRk − Rd ≥ N dRk

1 − N dRk ≥ Rd

Now we have a no‐default condition.LHS=what banks get‐what they pay, if they stay in banking.RHS=what they can steal if default.

Which, re‐written reads ‘i won’t default provided returns to staying>payments to depositors

Theta here is the fraction of resources that the banker can get away with if there is a default.Second line just a re‐writing of the first.

Return on securities

Cost of funding

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Digression on model solution methods

• 2 ways to equivalent ways solve a microfoundedmacro model with no ‘distortions’.

• 1:  a)solve the problem of firms and consumers and banks [or whatever agents you have].  b) solve resulting system of FOCs and resource constraints, market clearing conditions.

• 2:  pose a planning problem.  Benevolent dictator decides on consumption, work, production, profits, everything, one set of its FOCs, plus resource constraints.

• Not equivalent when there are distortions!

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Eqm spread in a no‐default equilibrium

Rk − R 1 R

k

If constraint binds, this means lamda>0, and this implies that the spread is positive.  [Ex – why?]But, importantly, note that constraint binds in bad times, so spreads rise [strictly, emerge] in a recession.

It will be an exercise for you to derive this equation from the FOC for the banker’s problem.

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How does the spread change with banks cash position?

Rk R1−

1

RRk

1 − 1

∂∂

− 11 2

0

This translates to finding the derivative of the spread wrt lamda.So solve for the ratio of the two interest rates and then differentiate.

What’s going on?   As cash position of banks worsens, the benefits to them of keeping the bank as a going concern fall, so to restore those benefits the funding cost has to fall.

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Explaining why funding rate R falls relative to Rk

max sRk − Rd

s.t.N dRk − Rd ≥ N dRk

1 − N dRk ≥ Rd

This was the bank’s problem with financial conditions, when it can run off with theta*resources left.

See how if N falls, we have to find another way to increase the LHS of the inequality in order to relax the no default constraint.

And lowering R does just this.

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Government policy that breaks Barro‐Wallace irrelevance

N T dRk − Rd − RkT N dRk − Rd

Government taxes households by T, gives to banks, expects Rk*T in return in period 2.

So bank profits not affected by the tax‐financed equity injection.

c NyRk

R1/Rk

Neither, as it turns out, is first period consumption, since does not involve T.

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The zero effect on period 1 consumption of T

c y

R

1 R1/

R

c y−T

R RkT

R

1 R1/

R

c y−T NdRk−Rd

R RkTR

1 R1/

R

This was our old expression for c without T financed equity injections into banks.

Now we have an extra term, funds from government investment.  And doesn’t cancel with taxes due to the different rate of return.

Now if we substitute in our unchanged equation for bank profits as we have here, and then note that d=y‐c‐T….We end up with that equation not involving T!

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Taxes reduce deposits, which the bank can run away with

d y − c − TBut deposits d do fall as T financed injections rise.So total intermediation unchanged.

N dRk − Rd ≥ N dRkBut if the no‐default condition binds, then the fall in deposits does have an effect.

Both sides of this inequality fall, since both involve d

But LHS falls by less than RHS.LHS involves spread*d;  RHS involves Rk*d

So fall in d relaxes constraint.  What we have falls by less than what we needs as a minimum.

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Another government policy that works

• Govt taxes consumers in period 1, invests directly in firms, returns Rk*T to consumers in period 2.

• Consumers understand this substitutes for their deposits, so they reduce their demand for deposits, wiping out the spread, since Rthen rises back towards the Rk.

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Government policy that doesn’t work.

• Government taxes consumers, then places the money on deposit in the Bank.

• Bank can run away with these too.• Total deposits unchanged.  Immaterial where they come from.  Spreads unchanged.

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Does the model ‘get’ the crisis?

• Banks did suffer reductions in net worth.  Illustrated by fall in market capitalisation.

• But funding costs rose relative to rok though.– Rise in interbank rates– A deposit/wholesale run is refusal to fund at any price– Rise in bank bond credit default swap spreads 

• Major threat for banks was not being able to meet obligations, not the worry of expropriation by the managers.

• However, there was libor rigging, misselling of payment protection insurance

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Does the model ‘get’ the crisis?:  2• There was failure to manage and monitor risks properly.

• Many senior managers unaware of and insufficiently expert at judging complex risks.

• Paul Flowers of Coop:  thought his own balance sheet was £3.5bn.  Out by a factor of 10.

• Can think of this as a kind of theft.• But we can also think of it as a diversion of effort into other things – leisure, career and empire building.

• Leads us to the ‘lazy banker’ model which we consider in the next lecture.