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Parallel SyStem InterconnectIonS

and communIcatIonS

Abdullah Algarni

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Parallel Architectures- SISD- SIMD- MIMD-Shared memory systems-Distributed memory machines

Physical Organization of Parallel Platforms-Ideal Parallel Computer

Interconnection Networks for Parallel Computers-Static and Dynamic Interconnection Networks-Switches -Network interfaces

Outline

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Network Topologies-Buses-Crossbars-Multistage Networks-Multistage Omega Network -Completely Connected Network -Linear Arrays -Meshes -Hypercubes -Tree-Based Networks-Fat Trees-Evaluating Interconnection Networks

Grid Computing

Outline (con.)

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SISD: Single instruction single data– Classical von Neumann architecture

SIMD: Single instruction multiple data

MIMD: Multiple instructions multiple data – Most common and general parallel machine

Classification of Parallel Architectures

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• Also known as Array-processors• A single instruction stream is broadcasted to multiple processors, each having its own data stream

– Still used in graphics cards today

Single Instruction Multiple Data

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• Each processor has its own instruction stream and input data

Further breakdown of MIMD usually based on the memory organization

– Shared memory systems– Distributed memory systems

Multiple Instructions Multiple Data

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All processes have access to the same address space– E.g. PC with more than one processor

Data exchange between processes by writing/reading shared variables

Advantage: Shared memory systems are easy to program

– Current standard in scientific programming: OpenMP

Shared memory systems

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• Two versions of shared memory systems available today:

– Symmetric multiprocessors (SMP)

– Non-uniform memory access (NUMA)

Shared memory systems

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• All processors share the same physical main memory

• Disadvantage: Memory bandwidth per processor is limited

• Typical size: 2-32 processors

Symmetric multi-processors (SMPs)

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• More than one memory but some memory is closer to a certain processor than other memory

◦ The whole memory is still addressable from all processors

NUMA architectures (1)(Non-uniform memory access)

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• Advantage: It Reduces the memory limitation compared to SMPs• Disadvantage: More difficult to program efficiently

• To reduce effects of non-uniform memory access, caches are often used

• Largest example of this type:SGI Origin with10240 processors

NUMA architectures (cont.)

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Columbia Supercomputer

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Each processor has its own address space Communication between processes by explicit data exchange Some protocols are used:

– Sockets – Message passing – Remote procedure call / remote method invocation

Distributed memory machines

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• Performance of a distributed memory machine strongly depends on the quality of the network interconnect and the topology of the network interconnect Two classes of distributed memory machines:

1) Massively parallel processing systems (MPPs)2) Clusters

Distributed memory machines(Con.)

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Physical Organization

of Parallel Platforms

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A natural extension of the Random Access Machine (RAM) serial architecture is the Parallel Random Access Machine, or PRAM.

PRAMs consist of p processors and a global memory of unbounded size that is uniformly accessible to all processors.

Processors share a common clock but may execute different instructions in each cycle.

Ideal Parallel Computer

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Depending on how simultaneous memory accesses are handled, PRAMs can be divided into four subclasses. ◦ Exclusive-read, exclusive-write (EREW) PRAM. ◦ Concurrent-read, exclusive-write (CREW) PRAM. ◦ Exclusive-read, concurrent-write (ERCW) PRAM. ◦ Concurrent-read, concurrent-write (CRCW) PRAM.

Ideal Parallel Computer

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What does concurrent write mean, anyway? ◦ Common: write only if all values are identical. ◦ Arbitrary: write the data from a randomly selected

processor. ◦ Priority: follow a pre-determined priority order. ◦ Sum: Write the sum of all data items.

Ideal Parallel Computer

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Processors and memories are connected via switches. Since these switches must operate in O(1) time at the

level of words, for a system of p processors and m words, the switch complexity is O(mp).

Physical Complexity of an Ideal Parallel Computer

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Imagine how long it takes to complete Brain Simulation?

The human brain contains 100,000,000,000 neurons each neuron receives input from 1000 others

To compute a change of brain “state”, one requires 1014 calculations

If each could be done in 1s s, it would take ~3 years to

complete one calculation.

Brain simulation

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Imagine how long it takes to complete Brain Simulation?

The human brain contains 100,000,000,000 neurons, each neuron receives input from 1000 others

To compute a change of brain “state”, one requires 1014 calculations

If each could be done in 1s s, it would take ~3 years to complete one calculation. Clearly, O(mp) for big values of p and m, a true PRAM is not realizable.

Brain simulation

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Important metrics:– Latency:• minimal time to send a message from one processor to another• Unit: ms, μs– Bandwidth:• amount of data which can be transferred from one processor to another in a certain time frame• Units: Bytes/sec, KB/s, MB/s, GB/s, Bits/sec, Kb/s, Mb/s, Gb/s

Interconnection Networks for Parallel Computers

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Important terms

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Static and Dynamic Interconnection Networks

Classification of interconnection networks: (a) a static network; and (b) a dynamic network.

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Switches map a fixed number of inputs to outputs.

degree of the switch: the total number of ports on a switch is the degree of the switch.

The cost of a switch: grows as the square of the degree of the switch.

Switches

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Processors talk to the network via a network interface. The network interface may hang off the I/O bus or the

memory bus. In a physical sense, this distinguishes a cluster from a

tightly coupled multicomputer. The relative speeds of the I/O and memory buses impact

the performance of the network.

Network Interfaces

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Network Topologies

Single Campus Networkn 538 nodesn 543 links

10 campus networks connected in ring

- A variety of network topologies have been proposed and implemented. - These topologies tradeoff performance for cost. -Commercial machines often implement hybrids of multiple topologies for reasons of packaging, cost, and available components.

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Some of the simplest and earliest parallel machines used buses. All processors access a common bus for exchanging data. The distance between any two nodes is O(1) in a bus. The bus also

provides a convenient broadcast media. However, the bandwidth of the shared bus is a major bottleneck. Typical bus based machines are limited to dozens of nodes. Sun

Enterprise servers and Intel Pentium based shared-bus multiprocessors are examples of such architectures.

Buses

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Buses (First type)

The bounded bandwidth of a bus places limitations on the overall performance of the network as the number of nodes increases!

The execution time is lower bounded by: TxKP secondsP: processorsK: data items T: time for each data access

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Buses (Second type, with chache memory)

If we assume that 50% of the memory accesses (0.5K) are made to local data, in this case:

The execution time is lower bounded by:0.5x TxKP secondsWhich means that we made 50% improvement compared to the first type.

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Crossbars

A crossbar network uses an p×m grid of switches to connect p inputs to m outputs in a non-blocking manner

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The cost of a crossbar of p processors grows as O(p2).

This is generally difficult to scale for large values of p.

Examples of machines that employ crossbars include the Sun Ultra HPC 10000 and the Fujitsu VPP500.

Crossbars

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Crossbars have excellent performance scalability but poor cost scalability.

Buses have excellent cost scalability, but poor performance scalability.

Multistage interconnects strike a compromise between these extremes.

Multistage Networks

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Multistage Networks

The schematic of a typical multistage interconnection network

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One of the most commonly used multistage interconnects is the Omega network.

This network consists of log p stages, where p is the number of inputs/outputs.

So, for 8 processors and 8 memory banks we need 3 stages

Multistage Omega Network

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Each stage of the Omega network implements a perfect shuffle as follows:

Multistage Omega Network

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The perfect shuffle patterns are connected using 2×2 switches. The switches operate in two modes – crossover or passthrough.

Multistage Omega Network

Two switching configurations of the 2 × 2 switch:

(a) Pass-through; (b) Cross-over. 2/26/2009

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A complete Omega network with the perfect shuffle interconnects and switches can now be illustrated:

Multistage Omega Network

An omega network has p/2 × log p switching nodes, and the cost of such a network grows as (p log p).

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Let s be the binary representation of the source and d be that of the destination.

The data traverses the link to the first switching node. If the most significant bits of s and d are the same, then the data is routed in pass-through mode by the switch else, it switches to crossover.

This process is repeated for each of the log p switching stages using the next significant bit.

Multistage Omega Network – Routing

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Multistage Omega Network – Routing

Routing from s= 010 , to d=111Routing from s= 110 , to d=101

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Each processor is connected to every other processor. The number of links in the network scales as O(p2). While the performance scales very well, the hardware complexity is not realizable

for large values of p. In this sense, these networks are

static counterparts of crossbars.

Completely Connected Network

crossbars

Completely Connected

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Every node is connected only to a common node at the center. Distance between any pair of nodes is O(1). However, the central node becomes a

bottleneck. In this sense, star connected networks are static counterparts of buses.

Star Connected Networks

BusStat Stat

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In a linear array, each node has two neighbors, one to its left and one to its right.

If the nodes at either end are connected, we refer to it as a 1-D torus or a ring.

Linear Arrays

Linear arrays: (a) with no wraparound links; (b) with wraparound link.

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Meshes

Two and three dimensional meshes: (a) 2-D mesh with no wraparound; (b) 2-D mesh with wraparound link (2-D torus); and (c) a 3-D mesh with no wraparound.

Two- and Three Dimensional Meshes

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HypercubesThe Construction

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Properties :- The distance between any two nodes is at

most log p.- Each node has log p neighbors.

Hypercubes

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Tree-Based Networks

Complete binary tree networks: (a) a static tree network; and (b) a dynamic tree network.

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Properties : The distance between any two nodes is no

more than 2logp. Links higher up the tree potentially carry

more traffic than those at the lower levels. For this reason, a variant called a fat-tree,

fattens the links as we go up the tree.

Tree-Based Networks

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Fat Trees

A fat tree network of 16 processing nodes.

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Diameter: The distance between the farthest two nodes in the network.

Bisection Width: The minimum number of wires you must cut to divide the network into two equal parts.

Cost: The number of links or switches Degree: Number of links that connect to aprocessor

Evaluating Interconnection Networks

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Evaluating Static Interconnection Networks

Network Diameter BisectionWidth Degree

Cost (links& switches)

Completely-connected

Star

Complete binary tree

Linear array

2-D mesh, no wraparound

2-D wraparound mesh

Hypercube

Wraparound k-ary d-cube

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Evaluating Dynamic Interconnection Networks

Network Diameter Bisection Width

Arc Connectivity

Cost (No. of links)

Crossbar

Omega Network

Dynamic Tree

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Can we make Sharing between different organizations?

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How? By using Grid computing we can make Computational Resources sharing Across the World. What is the relationship between parallel

computing and grid computing? Grid computing is a special case of parallel computing

Grid Computing

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Can we tie all components tightly by software?

High Speed Network

DisksPCs, SMPsClusters

Problem Solving Environment

RAID

Visual Data Server

Menu-Template- Solver- Pre & Post- Mesh

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User Access Point

Resource Broker

Grid Resources

Result

GRID CONCEPT

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Goals of Grid Computing

Reduce computing costs

Increase computing resources

Reduce job turnaround time

Reduce Complexity to Users

Increase Productivity

Are Grids a Solution?

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What is needed?

Reply Choice

Computational Resources

Clusters

MPP

Workstations

MPI, PVM,Condor...

RequestBroker

Scheduler

Database

Client - RPC like

MatlabMathematicaC, Fortran Java, Perl Java GUI

Gatekeeper

ISP

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You submit your work

And the Grid◦ Finds convenient places for it to be run

◦ Organises efficient access to your data

Caching, migration, replication

◦ Deals with authentication to the different sites that you will be using

◦ Interfaces to local site resource allocation mechanisms, policies

◦ Runs your jobs, Monitors progress, Recovers from problems, Tells you when your work is complete

What does the Grid do for you?

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INTERNET

Virtual organisations negotiate with sites to agree access to resources

Grid middleware runs on each shared resource to provide◦ Data services◦ Computation services◦ Single sign-on

Distributed services (both people and middleware) enable the grid

Typical current grid

E-infrastructure is the key !!!

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TeraGrid (www.teragrid.org)◦ USA distributed terascale facility at 4 sites for open scientific research

Information Power Grid (www.ipg.nasa.gov)NASAs high performance computing grid

GARUDA

Department of Information Technology (India Gov.).

It connect 45 institutes in 17 cities in the country at

10/100 Mbps bandwidth.

Examples of Grids

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  [1] Introduction to Parallel Computing. By Ananth Grama, Anshul

 Gupta, George Karypis, and Vipin Kumar. [2] Parallel System Interconnections and Communications. By D.

Grammatikakies, D. Frank Hsu, and Miro Kraetzl [3] Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [4] Introduction to Grid Computing with Globus (ibm.com/redbooks) [5] Network and Parallel Computing: Ifip International Conference Npc

2008 Shanghai China Octob. By Jian (EDT)/ Li Cao [6] Network and Parallel Computing . By Jian (EDT) Cao & Minglu (EDT)

Li & Min-you (EDT) Wu & Jinjun (EDT) Chen

References:

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Any Questions?

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List three types of dynamic interconnection networks that are used in parallel computing and evaluate each of them.

The answer:

My Question

Network Diameter Bisection Width

Arc Connectivity

Cost (No. of links)

Crossbar

Omega Network

Dynamic Tree

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Abdullah Algarni

THANK YOU

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