GEOLOGIILMU YANG MEMPELAJARI SECARA LUAS SEGALA ASPEK TENTANG BUMI MELIPUTI SIFAT FISIK DAN KIMIA, PROSES YANG TERJADI SERTA SEGALA SESUATU YANG TERKANDUNG DI DALAMNYA DAN SEJARAH KEHIDUPAN

Materi dasar GEOLOGIGeologi FisikKristal dan mineral serta Batuan GeomorfologiStratigrafiPaleontologiSedimentologiStruktur Geologidsb

PALEONTOLOGY Paleontology - study of history of life & EOD in which life evolves.Grk paleo- (ancient) + onto- (life) + -logos (study)term coined independently by (1) Fischer von Waldheim (1834) and (2) Ducrotay de Blainville (1832)prior to 1832-4, study of fossils called oryctology (Grk. oryctos = dug or formed from digging)Neontology (~ biology) study of living organisms

Silabus ringkasMembahas tentang prinsip-prinsip dasar paleontologi, tentang fosil dan proses fosilisasi, arti ruang dan waktu dalam evolusi dan pelontologi, kegunaan paleontologi/fosil dalam geologi. Dibahas juga tentang metode kuantitatif dan dan kualitatif dalam paleontologi (Biometri) juga arti fosil dalam penyusunan skala waktu geologi. Diuraikan dan diperkenalkan sistematika makrofosil terutama invertebrata. Identifikasi fosil-fosil, serta penciri untuk tiap-tiap zaman (geologi) serta

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MingguTopikSub Topik1Pendahuluan Perkenalan dan Uraian Umum2Resume dasar Geologi Batuan dan Fosil3Ringkasan Prinsip Dasar Paleontologi Ringkasan Proses Pembentukan Fosil, Sejarah Perkembangan Paleontologi4Proses Fosilisasi dan Evolusi Proses Pembentukan Fosil, SejarahPerkembangan Paleontologi5Pemerian Paleontologi Invertebrata Filum Protozoa, Porifera, Briozoa6Pemerian Paleontologi Invertebrata Filum Coelenterata, Arthropoda7Pemerian Paleontologi Invertebrata Filum Brachiopoda, Moluska, Echinodermata8Ujian Tengah Semester 9Pemerian Paleontologi Invertebrata Moluska Lanjutan10Dasar Paleontologi Vertebrata Anatomi Vertebrata, Penyebaran Vertebrata di Indonesia11Paleontologi Vertebrata Pemerian Vertebrata dan Paleoekologi12 Ichnofossil Pemerian13Aplikasi Paleontologi Paleontologi dan Eksplorasi14Ujian Akhir Semester

Daftar BukuPrinciples of Invertebrate Paleontology, Shrock & Twenhofel; Mc Graw-Hill Book Comp, 1997Invertebrate Paleontology, Clarkson; Charman & Hall, 1993The Practical Paleontologist, Parker & Bernor, Fireside Book, 1990Paleontology, Romer, The Univ. Chicago Press, 1966Basic Paleontology, Benton & Harper ; Longman, 1997Materi dari Internet

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ATURAN MAINKuliah tidak boleh pakai sandal jepitKuliah tidak boleh pakai celana pendekSelama kuliah tidak boleh tidurHP harus matiTidak boleh telat dari jadwal kuliah yang disepakati.

Paleontology as a science actually straddles the fields of biology and geology. The former, because it is still a study of life albeit in the past; and the latter, mainly because such evidence of past life is in the form of fossils, which are found in rocks and other matter embedded in the natural formation of the earth

Tell of Long Ago

Fossil - primary evidence of ancient organisms- term coined by G. Agricola (1495-1555)- fossilis (past tense of fodore, Latin verb) meaning to dig up - a fossil is petrified time -- George Canguileum - remains or traces of once living organisms - must be naturally preserved - generally > 10,000 years old (arbitrary)- coincides with end of Pleistocene Epoch & glaciation- because few changes in organisms over past 10,000 years.WHAT IS A FOSSIL?Is an arrowhead a fossil? It is made of chert!Are cemetery corpses fossils? How about Egyptian mummies?

What characteristics (biological, geological) favor fossilization?

What characteristics (biological, geological) favor fossilization?Many individualsHard parts (fewer the better)Quick burialLow O2 contentNo exhumation; favorable preservationLittle geologic deformation

How do animals and plants become fossils when they die?Most dontthey just rot and disappear, often in swampy forest soil called peat.

The Fossil Record

This section explains how fossils form and how they can be interpreted. It also describes the geologic time scale that is used to represent evolutionary time.

PALEONTOLOGIMIKRO PALEONTOLOGIMAKROPALEONTOLOGIBerukuran kecilBerukuran besarPenentuan UmurPenentuan Lingkungan PengendapanPenentuan Iklim PurbaSejarah perkembangan Makhluk HidupMembantu dalam merekonstruksi perkembangan bumiINVERTEBARATAvERTEBRATA

Fossils and Ancient Life Scientists who study fossils are called___. paleontologists

Fossils and Ancient LifeWhat is a fossil record?

It is information about past life that is based on fossils.

Fossils and Ancient LifeWhat evidence does the fossil record provide?

It provides evidence about the history of life on Earth and how different groups of organisms, including species, have changed over time.

Fossils and Ancient LifeSpecies that died out are said to be ___.

extinct

Fossils and Ancient LifeIs the following sentence true or false?

About half of all species that have ever lived on Earth have become extinct.

FALSE

How Fossils Form Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about fossils. Fossils can include footprints, eggs, or other traces of organisms.

The quality of fossil preservation varies.

How Fossils FormHow do fossils form in sedimentary rock? Sediments settle to the bottom of lakes and seas and bury dead organisms. The weight of upper layers of sediment compresses lower layers into rock and turns the dead organisms into fossils.

Fossils are animals or plants that lived a very long time ago.After they died, they turned to stone.

How do animals and plants become fossils when they die?Most dontthey just rot and disappear, often in swampy forest soil called peat.

Sometimes leaves fall in the peat. The leaf may rot away, but the mark of its shape is left.The peat with the leaf hardens into a rock, called coal. Coal is a fossil too.

Sometimes animals die and only their bones are left, covered in mud.Thousands of years go by, the mud piles up in layers and the weight of the mud presses down on the bones. The mud turns to rock.

As that happens, ground water seeps through the changing layers of mud.

Minerals are dissolved in the water.The water seeps into all the tiny holes in the fish bones.

After a very long time the bones turn to stone and become a fossil.

Start with Living Organism

The organism can be either a plant or an animal.

The Organism DiesThe soft parts that are exposed to air decompose quickly.

Hard parts like bones, shells, or wood, dont decompose as quickly. They have the greatest chance of becoming a fossil.

What is a Fossil?A fossil is any remains, traces, or imprints of life that has been preserved at some time in the geologic past. Fossils must be at least ten thousand years old. Only a very small number of organisms get fossilized.The three main types of fossils are 1. body fossils2. trace fossils2. pseudofossils

Fossils are rarely perfect1. Decomposition/predation: Often burying occurs after decomposition or following predation.

Consequently, only a section of an organism may have been buried, or sections may have been buried in an orientation different from that seen in the living organism (consider what a fossilized

2. Geologic distortion:

A buried fossil may also be subject to distorting forces from the rock around it.These distortions can lead to reconstruction problems, i.e., ambiguities can exist with regard to spacial relationships

3. Weathering: Fossils are very often found at the surface during the course of weathering.An exposed fossil likely has been subject to some degree of weathering and erosion.Weathering results in a loss of parts of the fossil even given their successful and complete preservation up to the point of exposure

4. Removal from rock:

Fossils very often have to be removed from the strata in which they are found.Much skill and patience is often necessary to successfully and wholly extract a complex fossil and properly preserve and interpret all of the information, including positional information, plus various things often found associated with a given fossil

First, the animal dies.

Then layers of sediments start covering it. The flesh decays.

Sediments go into the bones.

Sediments replace the bonesas they harden.

After 10,000 years, it is a fossil.

Sap

An insect is stuck.

The insect is trapped.The sap hardensand turns into amber.

After millions of years, we have a true-life fossil.

The organism may be buried with layers from the earth. These layers might be mud, lava or water.

How are Fossils Found?http://faculty.etsu.edu/wallaces/mosa.html

How do fossils help us to learn more?

Thinking like a paleontologist

Would the bear on the left live in this warm environment?.Or, would the bear on the left live in this colder environment?How do you know?First Look at the bear in this picture. What environment do you predict it lives in? How did you decide which environment the bear lives in?http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery.html

Now you are the paleontologistHere in an example of the kinds of fossil your team has found. What do you think the environment might have been like in the past?

This is the environment where you are looking for fossils.

Now you are the paleontologistYou just found the plant fossils, on the left, in an area where it is now hot and dry like the picture on the right. What predictions can you make about what the environment might have been like in the past?

Small animal fossils are one of the best indicators of prehistoric ecosystems and environments. For example, a fossilized frog tells scientists that the habitat within which it lived must have been wetter because the frog was dependent on permanent water to breed. In other words, it was a captive within its environment.

A quote from a Scientist from the Page Museum's Laboratory http://www.tarpits.org/education/guide/index.html

Once Upon a TimeWooly MammothAsian Elephanthttp://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/frontiers_20020515.shtmlHow are these two animals the same? How are they different?

Once Upon a Time A Look at the Horse Horse A Horse B

Change Over Time A Horses FootNote how the distance of the wrist bones from the ground changes. What else has changed? wrist Adapted from Florida Museum of Natural History. For more information visit their website at http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/relatives1.htm

How have the bones in horse feet changed over time? Why might this have happened?

Lets Look More Closely Adapted from Florida Museum of Natural History. For more information visit their website at http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/relatives1.htm

Fossils are formed under very special conditions.

They give us clues about what life was like long ago.

Fossils also give us clues about the environment from a long time ago.

They help us understand that plant and animal species change over time.

Wrap-Up

Some fossils are actual parts of plants or animals that have turned to stone.Sometimes a fossil is only an imprint of a plant or an animal.

Not all fossils are found in stone. Some are found in the frozen ground of the Arctic, like the bones of the ancient mammoth.

Millions of years ago, a fly was caught in the sticky sap of a tree.The sap hardened and became a fossil known as amber. The fly was preserved in the amber.

We can learn many things from studying fossils.Fossils tell us about the past.

FORMATION OF FOSSILSFossils are preserved remains or traces of living things.Most fossils form when living things die and are buried by sediments.The sediments slowly harden into rock and preserve the shapes of the organisms.Paleontologists are scientists who study fossils.

What do fossils tell us?Fossils provide evidence of how life has changed over time.Fossils help scientists infer how Earths surface has changed.Fossils are clues to what past environments were like.

The Fossil Record and lifeThe fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. The fossil record also shows that different groups of organisms have changed over time.Evolution is the gradual change in living things over long periods of time.Extinct is if an organism no longer exists and will never again live on Earth.

Types of fossilsPetrified fossilsMolds and castsCarbon filmsTrace fossilsPreserved remains

Petrified FossilsFossils in which minerals replace all or part of an organism.How does this happen?Water rich in dissolved minerals seeped into spaces, evaporated, leaving the hardened minerals behind.Example petrified wood

Molds and castsMost common type of fossil.Both copy the shape of the organism.A mold is a hollow area of sediment in the shape of the organism.A cast is a copy of the shape of an organism.

Carbon FilmsCarbon film is an extremely thin coating of carbon on rock.How does this happen?All organisms are made of carbon. When they are buried, the materials that make up the organism evaporates. These gases escape leaving carbon behind.

Trace FossilsTrace fossils provide evidence of the activities of ancient organisms.ExamplesA footprint provide clues about the size and behavior, the speed, how many legs it walked on, lived alone or with others.A trail or burrow can give clues about the size and shape of the organism, where it lived, and how it obtained food.

Preserved remainsPreservation of remains with little or no change.Preservation materialTarThe sticky oil that seeps from Earths surface. Tar soaks into the organisms bones, preserving the bones from decay.AmberThe hardened resin, or sap, of trees. The amber seals the organism from the air protecting it from decay.Ice

1. Body Fossils are the actual body or body parts of an organism that has been preserved. These fossils may or may not be altered (fossils that have gone through a chemical change or physical change). The two main types of body fossils are (A) unaltered remains and (B) altered remainsBody FossilsA. Unaltered remains of fossils means that the remains have gone through little or no chemical or physical change. There are four main types of unaltered remains of fossils

- Original skeletal material: this means that the hard parts of the organism are preserved as the original material.Body FossilsA. Unaltered remains

Body FossilsA. Unaltered remains- Tar impregnation: tar pits are excellent areas to preserve life as a fossil. La Brea tar pits in California is one of the most famous areas because of the large number of preserved life forms found in it.

Body FossilsA. Unaltered remains- Amber entombment: some trees make a sticky and thick liquid called pitch or resin. Small animals such as insects and spiders or plant seeds and spores can get trapped in the pitch and become preserved. If this gets buried it can become amber.

A. Unaltered remainsBody Fossils- Refrigeration: doesnt mean putting it in the fridge. Animals can get trapped in cracks of ice sheets, called glaciers, and freeze. Mammoths have been found frozen in ice.

Body FossilsUnaltered remains of fossils have gone through little or no chemical or physical change. Fossils must also be at least ten thousand years old.Lets review the five main types of unaltered remains of fossilsThe types of unaltered remains of fossils are- Original skeletal material---Tar impregnationAmber Entombment Refrigeration

Body FossilsB. Altered remains of fossils means that the organisms have gone through chemical or physical change.- Permineralization: means that the hard parts of bones, shells and plants have microscopic (too small to see with our eyes) holes in them. When these hard parts are buried, water that has dissolved minerals in it can soak into the hard parts and collect on them. Can you see the how well the pine cone is preserved?

Body FossilsB. Altered remains- Replacement: means that groundwater with dissolved minerals in it can replace the hard parts of buried organisms with minerals.

Body FossilsB. Altered remains- Recrystallization: means that there is a chemical change of the atoms that make up the hard parts of the organism. In this ammonite, the hard parts have been changed to Calcite, a mineral.

Body FossilsB. Altered remains- Carbonization: when the soft parts of organisms get buried in sediment, they can get squeezed and preserved.The soft parts of organisms might also get preserved.

Body FossilsLets review the four main types of altered remains of fossilsAltered remains of fossils means that the organisms have gone through chemical or physical change and must be at least ten thousand years old.The types of altered remains of fossils are- Permineralization- Replacement- Recrystallization- Carbonization

They are the actual body or body parts of an organism that has been fossilized. Lets review Body FossilsDo you remember what body fossils are?Do you remember what the two types of body fossils are?The first type is the unaltered remains of fossils that have gone through little or no chemical or physical change. The second type is the altered remains of fossils that have gone through chemical or physical change.Now, we are going to talk about trace fossils.

Trace Fossils2. Trace Fossils are not the actual body or body parts of life that has been preserved. These fossils show how an organism lived, how it moved, what its feet looked like, how it raised its offspring (its children), what it ate and what its shape was.There are five main types of trace fossils

- Mold: This isnt the green fuzzy stuff that grows on old food. In paleontology, a mold is the imprint that an organism makes in the sediment as it is fossilized. When you push your finger into clay, the hole you made is the mold.Trace Fossils2. Trace FossilsThis fossil seed was found in Nueces County.

Trace Fossils2. Trace Fossils- Cast: A cast is the same shape as the original organism. Not all organisms will have these. Casts are formed when the original parts are all dissolved away and the empty space is filled with sediment or minerals. None of the original material is in the cast.

Trace Fossils2. Trace Fossils- Burrows: These trace fossils show how an animal such as a worm (an annelid) moved through the soft sediment.

Trace Fossils2. Trace Fossils- Tracks: can show how an animal moved and what its footprint looked like. These tracks can tell us a lot about the animal that made them in the geologic past.

Trace Fossils2. Trace Fossils- Coprolite: This is fossilized poop, called dung. Dont worry, its ok to touch it because it has been turned to stone. Coprolite can tell a lot about how an animal ate and what it hunted.Ok, now were going to talk about a fun trace fossil

Lets review Trace FossilsDo you remember what trace fossils are?They are not fossilized body or body parts. Trace fossils help us find out what prehistoric life was like.Do you remember what the five types of trace fossils are?- Mold- Cast- Burrow- Track- Coprolite

PseudofossilsPseudofossils (meaning fake fossils) are not fossils at all even though they may look like one. These fossils may look like many different things such as small branches.

1. Body Fossil - actual remains (therefore direct evidence)3 CATEGORIES OF FOSSIL?Trilobite - Isotelus

3 CATEGORIES OF FOSSIL?Trace (ichnofossil) - evidence of behavior (indirect evidence)footprints, coprolites, bite marks, etcVinegar Pie Rusophycus

ArthrophycusSkolithosTN TracesRusophycus

3 CATEGORIES OF FOSSIL?Ex. Bone Marrow in 10myo frog (2005, Spain) Red of bone marrow & yellow of fatty marrow visible Preserved in microbe-free EOD rapid burial Marrow may have DNA! Example of Knservat Lagersttten (= conserved mother load)3. Molecular/Chemical (biomarkers) relict biogenic or organic compounds detected geochemically (indirect evidence)Ex. Lipid Biomarkers (= geolipids)All orgs. produce lipidsCell membrane componentsHydrophobic & resists breakdownRange = Archean RecentEvidence of eukaryotes prior to oldest known body fossil

T. rex blood cells found(NCSU, Schweitzer, 2005)

68mya collagen blood protein sequenced ~ to birds!

2007 Harvard biologist Organ estimated size of dinosaur genome by correlated with bone cell size, which closely tracks genome size in modern organisms

Dinosaur genome size most ~ to modern birds

Modes of Fossil PreservationAltered Preservation some change has occurredRecrystallization change x-tal structure w/out changing compositionOriginal microstructure distorted due to shuffling of molecules during solution & recrystallizationOrignial skeletal mineral reorganized into new x-tals of same mineralGrain size increasesUsually re-xtallize aragonite & opal b/c < stable @ surface or diagenetic conditons

Modes of Fossil PreservationReplacement original material substituted w/ new mineralIon-by-ion substitutionOldest known aragonite fossil = Buckhorn Asphalt (Penn.)Calcification/calcified = original shell replaced w/ calciteSilicification/silicified = original shell replaced w/ qtz or opalPyritization/pyritized = original shell replaced w/ pyriteDolomitization/domolitized = original shell replaced w/ dolomite

Modes of Fossil PreservationPermineralized fill interstices (voids) w/ minerals ppt from passing fluidsPetrifiedIncrease density of fossilUsually SiO2 or CaCO3Ex. petrified wood Ex. bone

Modes of Fossil PreservationCarbonization volatiles driven off by heat & compression, leaving behind C film= DistillationBlack appearanceCoal formationEx. Pennsylvannian leaves

Modes of Fossil PreservationMolds & Casts Mold removal of original skeletal material leaving a cavity (negative impression of details)Cast refilled mold or replica of original fossilRefilled with sediment, not mineralInternal Mold mold of inside of a shellSteinkern (stone core) cast of inside of a shellExternal Mold mold of outside of shellComposite Mold internal mold superimposed on external mold during compactionCompression/Impression - plants

Modes of Fossil PreservationIchnofossils (Trace Fossils) indirect evidence of fossils or behaviorFoot Prints individual printTracks/trackways series of individual printsTrails continuous trace Burrows cavity in soft sediments where org. livedBorings excavation in hard substrateCoprolites fossilized fecal materialGastroliths gizzard stonesMarkings bite marks, scratch marks, etc.

Morrison Fm Dinosaur Coprolite

Arthrophycus (Bean Station Clinch Mtn Overlook)What type of trace fossil is this?

What is this?

Where do you think fossilization works better:

Marine vs Terrestrial EOD?

Interpreting Fossil Evidence List the two techniques paleontologists use to determine the age of fossils. Relative datingRadioactive dating

Interpreting Fossil Evidence Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about relative dating. It determines the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock. It uses index fossils. It provides no information about absolute age.

Geologic Time Scale Fill in the missing eras and periods in the geologic time scale below.

EraCenozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic PeriodQuaternaryTertiaryCretaceousJurassicTriassicPermianCarboniferousDevonianSilurianOrdovicianTime(millionsof years ago)1.8 present65 1.8145 65208 145245 208290 245363 290410 363440 410505 440

Geologic Time ScaleCircle the letter of the choice that lists the eras of the geologic time scale in order from the most recent to oldest Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic

Geologic Time ScaleCircle the letter of each sentence that is true about the geologic time scale. The scale is used to represent evolutionary time. Major changes in fossil organisms separate segments of geologic time.

HISTORY OF PALEONTOLOGY

PRE-1750: PRE-SCIENTIFIC PERIODAristotle a few hundred years B.C.Founder of the science of biologyOriginated the type conceptBelieved in the immutability of speciesMade a crude hierarchical classification of organismsWrote about genera and speciesNoahan flood (for some people) accounted for fossils& extinctionsDark Ages: 5th century to about 14th centuryScientific explanations of the natural world considered unacceptable because of church opposition and political power"Magical interpretations""Plastic forcesDevils doingsSome correct interpretations of fossils and strataLeonardo Da Vinci

1750-1850: EARLY SCIENTIFIC PERIODLinne's classification (revolutionized biology in mid-1700's)Followed Aristotles type concept, improved on his hierarchical classification scheme, & used genus & species

Fossils became recognized correctly more often than before

Practical concepts & applications being discovered by pioneersPrinciples (Hutton) & 1st geol textbook (Lyell)Correlation & age dating (Wm. Smith & others)Paleoenvironmental interpretations (dOrbigny & others)Geologic time scale (Sedgwick, Murchison, etc.)Earth history (= Historical geology developed, many workers)

Debates & controversiesEvolution versus Catastrophism & Special CreationCuvier vs. LamarckBeginnings of paleobotany, vertebrate paleontology, invertebrate paleontology, micropaleontology, paleoecologyDescriptive phase dominant

1850-1900: MIDDLE SCIENTIFIC PERIODDarwin's theory of evolution (early 1850's + 1858 & 1859) shook biology by its roots. Concept of natural selection caused a scientific revolution. Not enough fossils known to support him.More fossils became better knownVertebrateInvertebrateMicrofossils (dating aquifers from well cuttings, Vienna, 1877)Plants1st paleontology textbookEvolution was becoming better documented with fossilsDescriptive phase continued to dominate workGeneralizations or principles were being developed

1900 to Mid 20th CenturyGenetic theory developed in biologyFrom the turn of the centuryMendel's laws (1865) rediscoveredBiological interest in fossils increasedEvolutionary histories of invertebrate fossils documentedEvolutionary concepts evaluated more with vertebrate fossilsPractical applications of paleontology to resource explorationMicropaleontology matured early in century with ForaminiferaUdden (1911), Augustina College, Illinois, correlated aquifers with microfossilsUdden, Texas Bur. Econ. Geol., used microfossils to find PetroleumMany other workers followed his lead worldwideFaunal descriptions and documenting new species still dominant

Mid-1900's to 2003: MODERN PERIODNew & more sophisticated practical applications of paleontologyMuch more emphasis on principles of paleontology (many new textbooks)Greater biological interest in fossils (Paleobiology)Ichnology expanded and developed as a subdisciplinePaleoecology matured as a subdisciplineGreater evolutionary interest in fossils (punctuated equilibrium theory of Elldredge & Gould, cladistic analysis of Hennig)Literary explosionMicropaleontology diversified (ostracodes, diatoms, pollen, dinoflagellates, coccoliths, dinoflagellates, etc., not just forams )Popular paleontology boomedHobyists = collectors, amateursMedia sensationalismVertebrate emphasis, especially dinosaursAsteroid impacts and extraterrestrial causes of extinctionsDeclining # of professional paleontologists - inspite of popularity.

CONTEMPORARY PALEONTOLOGY1) Emphasizes less memorization (Really!) 2) More general biology, soft anatomy, & ecology emphasized3) Is more hypothesis, problem solving, & principles oriented4) Developing more interdisciplinary & quantitative studies5) Taxonomy still considered fundamentalDocuments diversity and evolution of life, etc...RepresentsEvolving concepts of evolutionary pathwaysReflects & guides philosophical approaches to classificationValue of any fossil (in any application)Directly proportional to the quality of identification, location, age, etc.Poorly identified fossils result in inaccurate or erroneous applications, conclusions6) Well located fossils (geography & stratigraphy) important toAge-dating & correlationsPaleoecology & paleoenvironmental studiesEvolutionary studiesOther practical applications

CONTEMPORARY PALEONTOLOGY7) Three main, interrelated fronts:Paleobiology & evolutionPaleoenvironments (strata) & paleoecology (organisms)Biostratigraphy (age of fossils & enclosing strata)8) Interdisciplinary (more in some subdisciplines)Vertebrate paleontology is more zoological (in Bio Depts)Paleobotany is more botanical (in Bot or Bio Depts)Invertebrate paleontology is more geological (in Geo Depts)Micropaleontology is more geological (in Geo Depts)Invertebrate and Micropaleontology are more applied, need more geological information, & stress the biology less.Biology & botany stress nonmarine organismsBut most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, so that there is a strong oceanographic orientation

CONTEMPORARY PALEONTOLOGYExamples of multidisciplinary studiesGeochemical studies of isotopes & trace elements in skeletons, especially calcareous ForaminiferaSophistocated mathematical analysis of fossil dataMultivariate statisticsCluster and factor analysesNumerical taxonomy replaced by cladistic analysisSkeletal mineralogy and microstructuresFunctional morphological studiesPaleobiogeography and plate tectonicsPaleoclimatological studiesSedimentary basin analysisFacies & paleoenvironmentsCorrelation & age determination Thermal maturation studies in HC exploration (conodonts)

Temporal SequencesMaggie Koopman and Erik Hoffmann

Time is on my sideNow!First hard partsFirst multicellularFirst eukaryotesFirst life!The beginning!1.02.03.04.00.0

The OutcropSometimes you have a lot to work with...

The Outcrop...and sometimes you dont!

The OutcropDooley et al., 2004 No absolute dating Imprecise age calibration

The OutcropDooley et al., 2004Unconformities Stratigraphic gaps caused by non-deposition or erosion

The bigger the time window, the bigger and more frequent the gaps will be

The OutcropDooley et al., 2004Cover Prevents examination vegetation loose sediment/soil snow/ice/permafrost

The (so-so) Outcrop

Modified from Tibert et al., 2003.Constant Motion

No Outcrop!

Resolution depends on depositional ratesHigh rates allow high resolutionLow rates allow low resolutionNegative rates erase the recordNot all environments are created equal!Schindel, 1982

Dooley et al., 2004

Gingerich, 1983

Limitations Preservable hard parts only!

Morphological change only!

Limitations cont. Cant detect fine changes.Small directional changes followed by reversals show up as variability within the population

Geary et al., 2002

Long periods (relative to species durations) of morphological stasis coupled with brief periods of very rapid morphological changeStasis does NOT mean nothing is happeningChanges in soft partsChanges in tolerances/behaviorsSmall directional morphological change followed by doubling backPunctuated Equilibrium

Lineage (size, hard parts, frequency)Location (range, availability)Temporal resolution ((sub)stage level)Character setsUsefulness/Interest

Biases

Does the fossil record need to be complete?

Can we work around the gaps?Can we derive viable sequences from a spotty record?

Quality of the fossil record through time

Offers evidence that the fossil record provides uniformly good documentation of past life.

What does this paper do? Assesses the congruence between stratigraphy and phylogeny.

Valid techniques for comparing large samples of cladograms to try to estimate variations in congruence between the fossil record for different groups of organisms and for different habitatsRCI (relative completeness index)GER (gap ratio index)SCI (stratigraphic consistency index)

The Congruence MetricsDepend on branching point estimates and calc. Of ghost ranges

Stratigraphic consistency index(Huelsenbeck 1994)Fit of the record to the tree= proportion of the nodes that are stratigraphically consistent.

Significance of the fit= generate a null distribution for SCI under the hyp. That the statigraphic fit is not better than expected at random.

Hypothesis 1: congruence is better than random (bars to the left)Alternative hypothesis: congruence is worse than expected from a random model: direct conflict between data (bars to the right)

Fig 1 a/b Benton et al 1999RCISCI

What causes poor matching of age and clade data? Bias in the metricDifference in quality of treesDifference in quality of fossil recordStratigraphic problems TaxonomySampling density

Molecular Clock Divergence Estimates and the Fossil Record of Cetartiodactyla

Why this paper?Ties molecular clocks to the fossil record

Introduces cetaceans and hippopotamids

Molecular Clocks vs. the Fossil RecordArtiodactyla/Cetacea split 60 MaEarliest fossil whales 53.5 MaEarliest fossil artiodactyls 55 MaOdontocete/Mysticete split 34-35 MaRare at 34 Ma, good record ~30 MaHippopotamid/Cetacean splitEarliest fossil whales 53.5 MaEarliest fossil hippos 15.6-15.8 MaAnthracotheres - ~43 Ma

New study using one mitochondrial and one nuclear gene sequence

Boisserie et al., 2005

Take home messagesThe fossil record is necessary to calibrate molecular clocks (and refute the bad ones)The fossil record fills gaps in phylogenetic trees, allowing us to confirm evolutionary sequences

Paleontology and PaleoecologyHistorical Perspectives on Fossils & Principles of Paleoecology

Historical Perspectives on FossilsShaped Stones

Lightning scars, supernatural temptations, divine jokes and mysterious vapors

Washed in during biblical flood

Crawled into rock and died

Fossil something dug up (Latin)

Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519)Leonardo sketched fossils and recognizedthem as the remains of ancient life.

Niels Stenson(a.k.a. Nicholas Steno)(1638-1686)Observations on sediments:SuperpositionOriginal horizontalityOriginal lateral continuitytongue stones

Niels Stenson(a.k.a. Nicholas Steno)(1638-1686)Tongue stones looked like teeth because they were teeth!Fossils are remains of once living creatures (revival of DaVincis interpretation).

Robert Hooke (1703)These remains have a fixed life span and therefore can be used like Roman coins in determining age relationshipsFirst statement of fossil successionConcept revisited by William Smith in early 1800sSmith used fossils to correlate and make the first geologic map

FossilsRemains or traces of ancient life

Bones, Teeth, Shells, Tracks, Trails

Soft tissues rare

Utility of FossilsHistory of Life on EarthEvolution appearances of new speciesExtinction disappearances of speciesFramework for other events in Earths HistoryGuide in exploring for fossil fuelsImportant clues to ancient environmental conditions

Principles of PaleoecologyOrganisms adapt to their environmentsFossils provide clues to organism lifestyleAnalogy to living relativesFunctional MorphologyAssociation with other fossils similar preferencesType of substrate

Environmental Factors that Influence Distribution of OrganismsSalinityOxygenationTemperatureLightNutrients:TypeAbundanceDistributionAgitation/CurrentsClarity/Cloudiness of WaterSubstrate preferencesGrain Size firm/softCompositionMobility/stability

Preferences/Lifestyles of Organisms Tell Us About Environmental ConditionsSessile organisms rely on currents to bring foodMotile organisms can search for food in water or in/on sedimentDistribution of food related to agitation/currentsTherefore, related to oxygenation also

Ways to FeedProducer PlantsPrimary Consumer HerbivoreSecondary Consumer CarnivorePassive/semi-activeFilter feedingActive FeedingSwimming, crawling, scavenging, preying

SAMPAI KULIAH BERIKUTNYA

*(read from slide)*(read from slide)

Ask children what it means to decompose. (to breakdown, to rot, to disintegrate)

You might have your students feel their own hand for soft parts (skin, tendons, muscles) and hard parts (bones and joints)

Some fossil beds contain soft-bodied fossils. To find out more, do a web search for Burgess Shale. *http://www.opencourtresources.com**(read from slide)

When an organism is covered, it is protected from weather damage, rotting or decay and from scavengers who might eat the dead organism.

Layers shown from the top

Top two layers are sedimentBasalt Fossil layerSandstoneBasaltSedimentaryBasaltBasalt

*

Sometimes fossils are found on the surface of the earth. They become exposed by:WeatheringErosionEarthquakesThe activity of humans

Once fossils are found, scientists often dig in the same area to find other fossils.

*Point out that the scientist in the picture is making observations of an animal skull. From observations, the scientist makes inferences about the environment and life of long ago.

Observation: The skill of recognizing and noting facts or occurrence in the natural world.

Inference: The skill of arriving at a decision or conclusion (best guess) after examining all of the known facts and information.*A paleontologist is a scientist who studies fossils. Paleontologists and many other scientists use inference this is not what they actually observe but what they think about their observations.

This picture shows a scientist working in a lab. What tools is the scientist is using? (microscopes, lights, magnifying glasses, small hand tools.

What fossil evidence do they see? (skull on shelf, bones on table, specimens on shelves)*(read from slide)

BACKGROUND FOR THE TEACHER: Students need to make observations about this polar bear, then ask them to make an inference about the environment in which the polar bear lives.

Possible Observations of why they chose a certain environmentThick white furStanding on snow

*(read from slide)

BACKGROUND FOR THE TEACHER: The fossil, that of a fish, lived in a lake or ocean certainly not the sand dunes where it was found by scientists. This should tell the students that the area must have been covered by water in the past.*(read from slide)

BACKGROUND FOR THE TEACHER: The plant (fern) fossils would indicate a moist, shady environment, certainly not the desert where it was found.*(read from slide)

This is a page from a paleontologists notebook.*(read from slide)Have students compare the wooly mammoth and the Asian elephant. How are they alike and how do they differ. As a group you might want to create a Box & T-chart on the overhead, flipchart or whiteboard. Remind your students that the Box & T-chart is based upon observations only not inferences.

EXAMPLE Of BOX & T-CHART

Compare and Contrast with a Box and T-Chart

Large white tusks SimilaritiesLump on headLong, flexible trunks that touch the groundBig body shape Asian Elephant Wooly Mammoth Short HairLong hair DifferencesLess curved tusksMore curved tusksNo hump on backLarge hump on backSmaller ear flapsLarger ear flaps

*Horse A is an example of an ancient horse. Over time Horse A evolved to look like Horse B, a modern day horse.

Background Information

Horse A - Hyracotherium 55 million years ago (Eocene Epoch) This small dog-sized animal represents the oldest known horse. It had a primitive short face, with eye sockets in the middle and a short diastema (the space between the front teeth and the cheek teeth). Although it has low-crowned teeth, we see the beginnings of the characteristic horse-like ridges on the molars. Hyracotherium is better known as "eohippus" - which means "the dawn horse." The name also refers to the fact that it lived during the Eocene.

Horse B - Equus 5 million years Pliocene to PresentEquus is the only surviving genus in the once diverse family of horses. Domesticated about 3,000 years ago, the horse had a profound impact on human history in areas such as migration, farming, warfare, sport, communication, and travel. Species of Equus lived from 5 million years ago until the present. Living species include horses, asses, and zebras. Fossils of Equus are found on every continent except Australia and Antarctica.*(Read slide to students)

What to look for:Total length of footNumber of toes making up the footThe size of the hoof covering the foot*(Read the slide to the students)

BACKGROUND FOR THE TEACHER: The bones became longer and more streamlined, enabling horses to run faster to avoid predators.

The central toe of horses became increasingly stronger while the "side toes" became less important and are virtually lost in the modern horse.

Reduction and loss of side toes minimizes the weight at the extreme end of the foot. The horse's limb may move faster.

Changes:Middle bone (toe) becomes more dominantSide toes become virtually lost*(Read slide to students)

**Track trail tube burrow nest eggs, life activities******No change in fossil quality thru timeThey took 1000 trees from the lit and sorted to when lineage arose.*1. Each of the internal nodes excluding the root node of a tree is visited.2. The oldest age of first occurrence for the taxa above the node is compared to the oldest age of first occurrence for the sister node.3. If the age above the node is the same age or younger than the age below the node, then the node is stratigraphically consistent.hold the tree topology constant and randomly reasign the stratigraphic ranks to taxa. Repeat 1000x*