Page 1. Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Attention: Focusing awareness Attention: Focusing awareness Selective...

• Attention: Attention: Focusing awarenessFocusing awareness• Selective Attention:Selective Attention: selection of input selection of input

– FilteringFiltering: screens out most potential stimuli while : screens out most potential stimuli while allowing selected info to pass through into conscious allowing selected info to pass through into conscious awarenessawareness

– Cocktail Party PhenomenonCocktail Party Phenomenon: suggests that filters : suggests that filters occur lateroccur later

– Stroop Effect:Stroop Effect: automatic processes can interfere w/ automatic processes can interfere w/ other tasks other tasks GreenGreen//RedRed

– Next in Line EffectNext in Line Effect: when taking turns speaking : when taking turns speaking you forget what is said right before your turn.you forget what is said right before your turn.

– Serial Position Effect-Serial Position Effect- When you remember info at When you remember info at the beginning & end but nothing in betweenthe beginning & end but nothing in between

• Incoming info processed at different levelsIncoming info processed at different levelsDeeper processing = longer lasting memory codesDeeper processing = longer lasting memory codes

• Encoding levelsEncoding levels::1) Structural 1) Structural = shallow (physical structure)= shallow (physical structure)

2) Phonemic2) Phonemic = intermediate (sounds like) = intermediate (sounds like)

3) Semantic 3) Semantic = deep (meaning)= deep (meaning)

• ElaborationElaboration = linking a stimulus to other info at = linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encodingthe time of encoding– Thinking of examplesThinking of examples

• Visual ImageryVisual Imagery = creation of visual images to = creation of visual images to represent words to be rememberedrepresent words to be remembered

• Dual-coding theory Dual-coding theory = semantic + visual codes = semantic + visual codes (2 >1)(2 >1)

– Easier to visualize concrete objects Easier to visualize concrete objects

• Self-Referent EncodingSelf-Referent Encoding = making info = making info personally meaningfulpersonally meaningful

• Information-processing theoriesInformation-processing theories– Subdivide memory into Subdivide memory into 3 different stores3 different stores

• Sensory, Short-term, Long-termSensory, Short-term, Long-term

– Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory StorageStorage = incoming info passes through 2 = incoming info passes through 2 temporary storage buffers 1) Sensory 2) Short temporary storage buffers 1) Sensory 2) Short Term then 3) Long TermTerm then 3) Long Term

• Brief preservation of information in Brief preservation of information in original sensory form approximately ¼ original sensory form approximately ¼ secondsecond

• George Sperling (1960): George Sperling (1960): Classic Classic experiment on visual sensory storeexperiment on visual sensory store– Echoic Memory: Echoic Memory: AuditoryAuditory– Iconic Memory: Iconic Memory: VisualVisual

• Limited capacityLimited capacity – magical number – magical number 7 7 +/- 2 +/- 2 (George Miller)(George Miller)– ChunkingChunking – grouping familiar stimuli for – grouping familiar stimuli for

storage as a single unitstorage as a single unit

• Limited durationLimited duration – about – about 20 seconds20 seconds without rehearsalwithout rehearsal– Rehearsal Rehearsal – the process of repetitively – the process of repetitively

verbalizing or thinking about the informationverbalizing or thinking about the information

• Working MemoryWorking Memory – (Baddeley) allows temporary – (Baddeley) allows temporary storage & manipulation of the info necessary for complex storage & manipulation of the info necessary for complex cognitive tasks (cognitive tasks (language comprehension, learning, reasoninglanguage comprehension, learning, reasoning) It ) It require the simultaneous storage& processing of info. require the simultaneous storage& processing of info. – Executive control system: Executive control system: attentional-controlling attentional-controlling

systemsystem– Phonological rehearsal loop: Phonological rehearsal loop: stores & rehearses stores & rehearses

speech-based info & is necessary for the acquisition of speech-based info & is necessary for the acquisition of both native & second-language vocabulary. both native & second-language vocabulary.

– Visuospatial sketchpad: Visuospatial sketchpad: manipulates visual imagesmanipulates visual images– Episodic Buffer: Episodic Buffer: integrates info before LTM integrates info before LTM

• Long Term Memory: Long Term Memory: unlimited store unlimited store holds memory over long periods of time, holds memory over long periods of time, relatively permanentrelatively permanent

• Flashbulb memories:Flashbulb memories: vivid detailed vivid detailed memory of moments or eventsmemory of moments or events– Recall through hypnosisRecall through hypnosis

• Clustering:Clustering: remember similar items in groupremember similar items in group

• Conceptual Hierarchy: Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel multilevel classification system based on commonalities to classification system based on commonalities to remember remember

• Schemas: Schemas: organized cluster of knowledge organized cluster of knowledge based on previous experiencesbased on previous experiences

• Semantic Networks: Semantic Networks: nodes (concepts) nodes (concepts) linked to related conceptslinked to related concepts

• Connectionist Networks and PDP Connectionist Networks and PDP ModelsModels

Conceptual HierarchyClustering

Semantic Networks Connectionist/PDP

Schemas

• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:: a failure in a failure in retrieval of something you knowretrieval of something you know

• Recalling an eventRecalling an event– Retrieval cues:Retrieval cues: Hints Hints– Context cues:Context cues: remember when in the location remember when in the location

• Reconstructing memoriesReconstructing memories– Misinformation effect: Misinformation effect: Elizabeth LoftusElizabeth Loftus

• Reconstructing memoriesReconstructing memories– Source monitoring:Source monitoring: make attributions about make attributions about

where memories come from (Marcia Johnson)where memories come from (Marcia Johnson)– Source monitoring error: Source monitoring error: mistake in the mistake in the

sourcesource– Reality Monitoring:Reality Monitoring: deciding whether deciding whether

memories are based on external (actual events) memories are based on external (actual events) or internal (thoughts or imagination)or internal (thoughts or imagination)

• Retention – the proportion of material retainedRetention – the proportion of material retained– Recall:Recall: remember without cues remember without cues – Recognition:Recognition: remember with cues remember with cues – Relearning:Relearning: memorize again to measure how memorize again to measure how

much time/practice before learning occurs much time/practice before learning occurs

• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve:Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: retention retention reduces after learning something compared to reduces after learning something compared to retention after learning something meaningfulretention after learning something meaningful

• Ineffective Encoding: Ineffective Encoding: – Pseudo forgetting you can’t forget something you never Pseudo forgetting you can’t forget something you never

learnedlearned

• Decay theory:Decay theory: memories fade with time (storage)memories fade with time (storage)• Primacy effect:Primacy effect: higher likelihood of remembering higher likelihood of remembering

earlier info. (due to rehearsal)earlier info. (due to rehearsal)• Recency effect:Recency effect: higher likelihood of remembering last higher likelihood of remembering last

info. (b/c STM)info. (b/c STM)• Interference theory:Interference theory: forget b/c of competition from forget b/c of competition from

other materialsother materials– Proactive: Proactive: can’t remember new info b/c of old info can’t remember new info b/c of old info – Retroactive:Retroactive: can’t remember old info b/c of new infocan’t remember old info b/c of new info

• Encoding Specificity:Encoding Specificity: memories are linked memories are linked to the context where they are created to the context where they are created (learning (learning a word by the way it sounds then sound would be a word by the way it sounds then sound would be the retrieval cue to help remember)the retrieval cue to help remember)

• Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Transfer-Appropriate Processing: memory will be best when the processes memory will be best when the processes engaged in during encoding match those engaged in during encoding match those engaged in during retrievalengaged in during retrieval

• Repression: Repression: motivated forgettingmotivated forgetting

• BiochemistryBiochemistry– Alteration in synaptic transmissionAlteration in synaptic transmission

• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systemsHormones modulating neurotransmitter systems• Protein synthesisProtein synthesis

• Neural circuitryNeural circuitry– Localized neural circuitsLocalized neural circuits

• Reusable pathways in the brainReusable pathways in the brain• Long-term potentiation: Long-term potentiation: when forming when forming

memories synapses strengthen pathways the memories synapses strengthen pathways the more you remember more you remember

• AnatomyAnatomy– Anterograde: Anterograde: cannot remember anything cannot remember anything

since the accidentsince the accident

– Retrograde Amnesia: Retrograde Amnesia: cannot remember cannot remember anything before the accidentanything before the accident

– Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): hippocampus bind individual elements of specific hippocampus bind individual elements of specific memories.memories.• Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, CerebellumDentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

• Implicit vs. ExplicitImplicit vs. Explicit– Implicit: unintentionalImplicit: unintentional -Explicit: intentional-Explicit: intentional

• Declarative vs. ProceduralDeclarative vs. Procedural– Declarative: Facts Declarative: Facts -Procedural: Actions-Procedural: Actions

• Semantic vs. EpisodicSemantic vs. Episodic– Semantic: general infoSemantic: general info –Episodic: Dated –Episodic: Dated

infoinfo

• Prospective vs. RetrospectiveProspective vs. Retrospective– Prospective: future actions Prospective: future actions – Retrospective: previously learned infoRetrospective: previously learned info

• Engage in adequate rehearsalEngage in adequate rehearsal• Distribute practice and minimize Distribute practice and minimize

interferenceinterference• Emphasize deep processing and Emphasize deep processing and

transfer-appropriate processingtransfer-appropriate processing• Organize informationOrganize information• Use verbal mnemonicsUse verbal mnemonics• Use visual mnemonicsUse visual mnemonics

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