Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester

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PA4440 ADVANCED STUDY PROJECT Module Description ................................................................................................................................................ 4

Assessment ............................................................................................................................................................. 7

Alternative Gravity Theories : Walter Dehnen ....................................................................................................... 9

Ancient Planetary Systems : Matt Burleigh ............................................................................................................ 9

Baryons, Dark matter and Dark Energy : Gordon Stewart ...................................................................................... 9

Bose-Einstein Condensates - the Fifth State of Matter : Richard Willingale .......................................................... 9

Bright Black Holes : Graham Wynn ....................................................................................................................... 10

The Brightest Black Holes : Andrew King .............................................................................................................. 10

Collision of a Gas Cloud with the Galactic Centre Black Hole : Rhaana Starling ................................................... 11

Dark Matter in Galaxies : Mark Wilkinson ............................................................................................................ 11

Did Panspermia Occur? : John Bridges ................................................................................................................. 11

Evidence of Black Holes : Simon Vaughan ............................................................................................................ 12

Fluorescent Silicon : Klaus von Haeften ................................................................................................................ 12

The Formation of Cosmic Dust : Andrew Blain ..................................................................................................... 13

Free Nano-cluster Beams : Klaus von Haeften ..................................................................................................... 13

Galactic Influences on Climate : Neil Arnold ........................................................................................................ 13

Geoengineering the Earth's Climate : Hartmut Boesch ........................................................................................ 14

Graphene : Peter Maksym .................................................................................................................................... 14

Gravitational Microlensing : Gordon Stewart ....................................................................................................... 14

Gravitational Wave Astronomy : Mike Watson .................................................................................................... 15

Habitable Life Zones in the Galaxy : Tom Stallard ................................................................................................ 15

How Black Holes Shape Galaxies : Andrew King ................................................................................................... 15

How Do You Observe Neutrinos? : Paul O'Brien .................................................................................................. 16

Is our Planet Experiencing an Acceleration of the Water Cycle? : Alessandro Battaglia ...................................... 16

Life in the Sand-pit: Physics-based Models of Social Phenomena : Steve Milan .................................................. 17

Magnetometry and the Magnetic Fields of Solar System Planets : Darren Wright .............................................. 17

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Mars Sample Return: What Are the Challenges? : John Bridges .......................................................................... 18

Nanotechnology : Mervyn Roy ............................................................................................................................. 18

Near-field Cosmology with Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies : Mark Wilkinson ............................................................ 18

New Developments in the Extragalactic Distance Scale : Nial Tanvir ................................................................... 19

Observing Biosphere-atmosphere Interactions from Space : Michael Barkley .................................................... 19

Observing in the Freezer : Paul O'Brien ................................................................................................................ 20

Our Galaxy's Super Massive Black Hole : Sergei Nayakshin .................................................................................. 20

A Perspective on Nanotechnology : Steve Baker .................................................................................................. 20

Physical Constraints on UK Energy Policy : Andrew Blain ..................................................................................... 21

Planet Building : Graham Wynn ............................................................................................................................ 21

Planetary Formation : Tom Stallard ...................................................................................................................... 21

Plasma Influences on the Earth's Upper Atmosphere : Neil Arnold ..................................................................... 22

Quantum Cryptography : Peter Maksym .............................................................................................................. 22

Rare Earth : Matt Burleigh .................................................................................................................................... 22

Remote-sensing of Air-quality from Space : Michael Barkley .............................................................................. 23

Saturn's Variable Rotation Rate : Tom Stallard .................................................................................................... 23

Searching for Hidden Patterns : Richard Willingale .............................................................................................. 24

Size Matters! : Steve Milan ................................................................................................................................... 24

Solotronics : Mervyn Roy ...................................................................................................................................... 24

Space-based Lidar Concepts and Technologies : Hartmut Boesch ....................................................................... 25

Sprites, Elves and Blue Jets - Lightning in the Upper Atmosphere : Neil Arnold .................................................. 25

Stellar Dynamics Near Supermassive Black Holes : Walter Dehnen ..................................................................... 25

Sundials and Foucault's Pendulum: The Measurement of Time using the Rotation of the Earth : Steve Milan .. 26

Super-Earths and Sub-Neptunes : Tom Stallard ................................................................................................... 26

Tidal Forces Imposed by Orbiting Moons : Darren Wright ................................................................................... 26

The Usefulness and Safety of X-ray Security Screening : Andrew Blain ............................................................... 27

The Variability of the Climate Record over Geological Timescales : Simon Vaughan .......................................... 27

Waves in Space Plasmas : Tim Yeoman ................................................................................................................ 28

What is the size of the BLR in AGN? : Mike Goad ................................................................................................. 28

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What Makes Up the Cosmic X-ray Background? : Mike Watson .......................................................................... 28

What Reionized the Universe? : Nial Tanvir ......................................................................................................... 28

Where is the Missing Class of Intermediate Mass Black Holes? : Mike Goad ...................................................... 29

X-rays as a Nanoscale Probe of Material Structure and Properties : Steve Baker ................................................ 29

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MODULE DESCRIPTION

Students are required (individually) to follow a course of supervised study of an agreed topic in an area of physics, space science, astrophysics, planetary science or nanotechnology, prepare a review report and give a 40 minute lecture.

A list of suggested topics and supervisors will be circulated to students. The offer of a particular topic does not imply it will be available to all students who choose it.

Students will also be able to suggest their own topics for which we shall endeavour to provide supervisors. Please note, there is no guarantee of supervisors for self-proposed projects.

TOPICS

1. should be such that it cannot be covered by one single text; 2. should involve an extension of physics knowledge, not just an application of MPhys core; 3. can be thought of as similar to the first few weeks of work of a beginning research student,

with less emphasis on getting to the research frontiers and more on fully understanding the material.

SELECTING TOPICS

A list of topics is available at : https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/physics/extranet/student_area/ug_projects/advanced-study-projects/advanced-study-projects-pa4440-2014

Students are able to choose up to five projects from the list. Once they have chosen their preferred projects, they register their selection using the Project Selection Form at : https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/physics/extranet/student_area/ug_projects/advanced-study-projects/advanced-study-project-selection

During the Summer Vacation, students will be allocated a project and notified by email.

If a student wishes to propose their own topic, please contact Prof Nayakshin directly at sn85@le.ac.uk

REVIEW REPORT

The Review Report should contain:

1. an abstract; 2. a review-style summary of the topic; this may take the form of a study report, a review

article, or a review chapter depending on the nature of the topic; 3. an extended bibliography which must include a précis/summary of the key texts/articles on

which your project is based, indicating the main information drawn from them and how this was used in the preparation of your review report and/or your lecture.

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REPORT LENGTH

As a guide, your complete review report should be 5,000-10,000 words. Students are strongly encouraged not to submit excessively long reports, eg. exceeding ~20 pages, depending on formatting and the number of figures/diagrams included.

SUBMISSION

Submission of both electronic and paper versions of the reports is required. Your progress on the project, and your review report will be assessed by your supervisor and another member of staff with some familiarity of the project area; these elements contribute 50% to the overall module mark.

LECTURE

1. should be at third year option level/beginning graduate level and last 40 minutes with 5 minutes for questions;

1. should provide a self-contained presentation of the topic which will be accessible to non-experts;

2. will include questions and answers akin to those expected after a research seminar; 3. will be given to the peer group and at least 2 staff members, and be assessed by two

members of staff (not the supervisor)

The assessment of your lecture contributes 50% to the overall module mark.

Student workload: the module occupies 150 hours of student time spread over semester 1.

TIMETABLE

When Event At end of Third Year Selection of topics by students Summer Vacation Allocation of projects will be announced 29th September – 28th November 2014

The Advanced Study Project starts and continues until Week 9

1st – 5th December 2014 Student lectures

8th December 2014 Deadline for submission of Review Reports (first Monday following lectures)

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SKILLS TO BE TESTED

This section defines the programme in terms of the skills that will be tested.

SELF-PACED STUDY

Students demonstrate an ability to master a limited amount of material working essentially on their own. You will need to work at a realistic pace and to report regularly on progress.

RESEARCH

Students should be able to locate relevant reference material, decide on its relevance (possibly with the help of the supervisor) and study it to the appropriate depth. You will also have to learn to focus on the most relevant material.

NOTE TAKING

Students should keep a record of their reading of the source material, including notes on the main text(s), lists of references and brief notes thereon.

PREPARATION OF LECTURE

Students should prepare a lecture at the level of a third year option or just beyond (depending on the nature of the subject i.e. beginning graduate level). This should be accessible to MPhys students not specialising in the area (and staff!).

PRESENTATION

The presentation should be regarded as preparation for delivering a seminar. Thus communication skills to be tested will include enthusiasm and interest level as well as the more basic skills such as audibility.

SUPERVISOR’S ROLE

Supervisors

1. will define the topic and provide a basic reading list, or at least pointers towards one; 2. will be available for consultation if problems arise; 3. will meet with their students for up to an hour each week during the project to monitor

progress; 4. will advise on relevant reading and lecture content, and provide some opportunity for

practice presentation if asked (not the whole 40 minutes!).

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RESOURCES

LIBRARY

Most reference material is available electronically or within the library.

More obscure material may require the use of the inter-library loan service, which requires a supervisor’s signature on the appropriate form (ask in the library). This takes time; so does the service itself, so plan ahead.

A limited budget for photocopying and printing within the Department is available.

PRESENTATIONS

It is expected that most students will wish to prepare an electronic presentation (eg. using Powerpoint or other presentation software).

Some use of whiteboards combined with an electronic presentation is encouraged where appropriate to the style or content of the presentation.

ASSESSMENT

Marks are allocated according to the following scheme.

A) THE PRESENTATION (TOTAL 50 MARKS)

Presentation is assessed against the following 13 elements.

Presentation score (max marks 52) is rescaled to a mark out of 50.

Element Max Marks Execution Opening : Attention gain & establishment of rapport 4

Summary, presentation structure 4 Clarity : Audibility 4

Clarity of purpose & accuracy of material 4 Structure : Visuals 4

Themes and links 4 Interest : Examples, analogies 4

Enthusiasm 4 Ending : Conclusions, summary 4

Timing 4 Questioning : Ability to respond 4 Outcome Were the aims achieved? 4 Impression of intellectual content 4

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B) THE REPORT (TOTAL 50 MARKS)

Element Max Marks Progress (Research Skills)

Diligence and self motivation 5 Organisation 5

Report (Written Skills)

Presentation of material including - selection, organisation and accuracy of information - relevance, scope and format for references/bibliography

10

Physics Content (Knowledge Skills)

Physical insight (depth and breadth of relevant physics) 10 Intellectual achievement (coherence, level, completeness)

10

Grasp of subject and originality 10

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ALTERNATIVE GRAVITY THEORIES : WALTER DEHNEN

Dark matter (DM) is the currently favoured paradigm to understand the discrepancies between the dynamically inferred masses (assuming Newton's/Einstein's theory of gravity) and the actually observed baryonic (stellar and gaseous) masses of astronomical objects on various scales. While DM is a successful theory, the failure to directly detect its particles and the lack of natural such candidates have led to the suggestion of various alternatives to dark matter and our standard theory for gravity (general relativity). In this project, you will generate an overview over these various alternatives and their viability in view of current observational constraints.

ANCIENT PLANETARY SYSTEMS : MATT BURLEIGH

What will be the ultimate fate of the Earth and our solar system? What will happen to the planets when our Sun ends its life and becomes first a red giant and finally a white dwarf? Could life exist on a planet around a faint, dying, white dwarf star? We can try and find out some of these answers by looking for planets and evidence for solar systems around the many white dwarfs in the Sun's neighbourhood. For example, a growing number of white dwarfs have dust disks around them which might be the remains of large asteroids and even small rocky planets. In this project, you will study the theories for the future evolution of the solar system, examine the growing observational evidence for planets and planetary systems around ancient white dwarf stars, and investigate potential future techniques for finding planets and even life at white dwarfs.

SUGGESTED READING

• The Life and Death of Planet Earth, Ward and Brownlee White Dwarf Atmospheres and Circumstellar Environments, Donald Hoard, ISBN: 978-3-527-41031-6

BARYONS, DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY : GORDON STEWART

While it could be said that we are now in the era of `precision cosmology' it could also be said that our understanding of the contents of the Universe has diminished significantly in the last 75 years or so to the extent that we now understand the nature of ~5% of the contents. In this topic the student will review the evidence for the existence and the importance of the contributions of dark matter and dark energy in the Universe and and explore potential candidates for these.

SUGGESTED READING

• Allen, SW, Evrard AE and Mantz AB Ann Rev Ast and Astrophys, 2011, 49,409.

BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATES - THE FIFTH STATE OF MATTER : RICHARD WILLINGALE

If a bunch of atoms are trapped and cooled to a sufficiently low temperature all the atoms (Bosons) fall into the same identical ground state - a Bose-Einstein Condensate. The atoms no longer behave as individual particles but as a single coherent entity. Condensates consisting of 10s of thousands of atoms can now be made producing mesoscopic or even macroscopic systems which exhibit weird

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quantum mechanical behaviour -a fifth state of matter. Such a state was first achieved in the lab in 1995 by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado. They and Wolfgang Ketterle from MIT received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics for their efforts.

This directed reading project will look at how Bose-Einstein Condensates are made, the properties they are expected to show and what they are used for. New experiments with Bose-Einstein Condensates are reported all the time. In some experiments the atoms behave more like a laser beam than a bunch of atoms.

See for example : "Four-wave mixing with matter waves", Deng L. et al, Nature vol. 398, 218,18 March 1999

The size and shape of Bose-Einstein condensates can be altered by manipulating the magnetic-photon trap used to confine them. If they are kicked they behave in a strange way.

See for example : Donley et al, Nature vol. 412, 295, 2001 Einstein Condensate

BRIGHT BLACK HOLES : GRAHAM WYNN

Black holes which are formed in binary systems often feed on their companion star. This is achieved by the strong gravity of the black hole, which causes gas to be stripped away from the companion star to be consumed by the hole. The gas does not disappear into the black hole directly however, first it joins a supersonic disc of hot plasma which orbits between the stars. This disc glows brightly allowing us to observe the region around the black hole in detail.

The aim of this directed reading project is to review and assess the observations and theories relating to accreting black holes, and associated physics.

A brief introduction to the topic can be found in “An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, Carroll and Ostlie”, see the section on Close Binary Star Systems.

THE BRIGHTEST BLACK HOLES : ANDREW KING

Astronomers can detect black holes because matter accreting on to them makes them highly luminous X-ray sources. The luminosity is self-limiting because the associated radiation pressure blows away the matter and prevents the luminosity rising above a formal value called the Eddington limit. This limit is directly proportional to the black hole mass, and the brightest X-ray binaries in the Milky Way seem to correspond to the largest black hole masses expected from normal stellar evolution, i.e. about ten times that of the Sun. However many external galaxies have much brighter point X-ray sources (called ultraluminous, or ULXs). These cannot be supermassive black holes as they are not in the nuclei of their host galaxies. One obvious idea is that they reveal a new type of intermediate-mass black hole (IMBH), typically several thousand times the mass of the Sun. However several lines of evidence suggest that they may instead represent a short-lived but spectacular stage of the evolution of normal stellar-mass black hole binaries. In particular they are strongly correlated with recent star formation, just like high-mass X-ray binaries.

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SUGGESTED READING

• King, A., et al., ApJ 552, L109, 2001 • King, A, MNRAS 347, L18 • Begelman et al., MNRAS 370, 399, 2006

COLLISION OF A GAS CLOUD WITH THE GALACTIC CENTRE BLACK HOLE : RHAANA STARLING

A gas cloud on a collision course with the supermassive black hole at the centre of our Galaxy has been discovered. The X-ray emission from the Galactic Centre is expected to brighten dramatically during summer 2013 on its closest approach. How was this discovery made, what evidence is it based upon and what are the predictions for the future of these two systems? In this project you can investigate these and related questions.

SUGGESTED READING

• Gillessen S. et al., 2012, Nature, 481, 51: http://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso1151/eso1151.pdf

DARK MATTER IN GALAXIES : MARK WILKINSON

Our current picture of galaxy formation requires the presence of significant quantities of dark matter in galaxies to provide the potential wells in which star formation can take place. You will critically review the various lines of evidence for dark matter in different classes of galaxies, including rotation curves, gravitational lensing, stellar kinematics. You may also compare the performance of alternative gravity models, which attempt to explain the observations without the need for dark matter.

SUGGESTED READING

• Binney J., IAU Symp. 220, arXiv:astro-ph/0310219 • Bosma A., IAU Symp. 220, 39, ArXiv:astro-ph/0312154

DID PANSPERMIA OCCUR? : JOHN BRIDGES

The Mars Science Laboratory mission has identified a habitable environment on Mars. From comparison of this site in Gale Crater to other areas now imaged at high resolution by the HiRISE camera, there is a good case to be made that Mars had many habitable environments around 4 Ga. It has frequently been suggested that microbial life might have been transported from Earth to Mars through panspermia. This project assesses how frequently such delivery from Earth to Mars occurred, due to impacts on the Earth’s surface ejecting material into a Mars-crossing orbit, and what is the likelihood that any life-bearing meteorites were delivered to an environment on Mars within which life could have flourished. Irradiation by cosmic rays, solar wind particles and uv radiation could also have affected the chances of delivering life to Mars.

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SUGGESTED READING

• Burchell M.J. and Mann J. 2001 Survivability of bacteria in a hypervelocity impact. Icarus, 154, p545-547.

• Gladman B. et al. 1996 The exchange of impact eject between terrestrial planets. Science, 271, p1387-1392.

EVIDENCE OF BLACK HOLES : SIMON VAUGHAN

Black holes are among the most intriguing objects in modern physics. They power quasars and other active galactic nuclei and also provide key insights into quantum gravity. The aim of this assignment is to review the observational evidence for black holes, discuss some of their astrophysical properties, and possibilities for and value of future observations of black holes.

SUGGESTED READING

• Evidence for Black Holes - M. C. Begelman, 2003, Science, v300, pp1898-1903 • A star in a 15.2 year orbit around the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way

- Schodel et al. 2002, Nature, v419, pp694-696 (see also News and Views by Karl Gebhardt article in same issue)

• Supermassive black holes in galactic nuclei - J. Kormendy, K. Gebhardt, 2001, in The 20th Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0105230)

FLUORESCENT SILICON : KLAUS VON HAEFTEN

Since the discovery of luminescent porous silicon by Cullis and Canham twenty years ago fluorescent silicon has remained a hot topic in physics and nanoscience, up to the present day. Crystalline silicon has an indirect band gap and therefore it is not able to emit light efficiently. However, in nanoparticle-form the band gap of silicon becomes direct, and under specific conditions light can be emitted.

Being the work-horse in microelectronic industries the prospect of transmitting logic signals by light on a silicon chip has triggered much research on fluorescence of silicon. Applications beyond silicon-electronics are also possible, for instance in bio-medical labelling because silicon is considered harmless to the human body, in contrast to many presently available marker agents which are highly toxic.

This directed reading project will be concerned with the physical foundations of light emission in condensed matter, in nanoparticles and in silicon in particular. The process of optical transitions in quantum mechanical systems will be reviewed and more complicated processes such as non-radiative decay in condensed matter will be developed. This directed reading project is related to current research in the CMP group at the Department of Physics and Astronomy. It can be followed-up by an experimental fourth-year project and ultimately, it may be continued as a PhD project.

Interested students are advised to discuss further details with the supervisor of this project, Dr Klaus von Haeften, before they make their choice.

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SUGGESTED READING

• "Silicon quantum wire array fabrication by electrochemical and chemical dissolution of wafers" L. T. Canham, Appl. Phys. Lett., 57, 1046-1048 (1990)

• "Visible light emission due to quantum size effects in highly porous crystalline silicon" A. G. Cullis, L. T. Canham, Nature, 353, 335-338 (1991)

• "The structural and luminescence properties of porous silicon" A. G. Cullis, L. T. Canham, P. D. J. Calcott, J. Appl. Phys. 82, 909--965 (1997)

THE FORMATION OF COSMIC DUST : ANDREW BLAIN

Much of the metals (elements heavier than hydrogen and in some definitions non-primordial helium) in the interstellar medium are found in dust particles, a solid phase of the ISM. Much like soot, dust absorbs optical and ultraviolet light efficiently, and heats up, reradiating the power at long infrared wavelengths. The advanced study project will investigate the production and nature of this dust, with special attention to its earliest appearance and whether its production has consequences for our ability to find the earliest generations of stars that form in the Universe.

FREE NANO-CLUSTER BEAMS : KLAUS VON HAEFTEN

Nanomaterials comprise of nanoscale building blocks, so called 'nanoclusters' whose specific properties result directly from their small size. To elucidate this effect of size and to disentangle size effects from interaction with environment within nanomaterials experiments are carried out on isolated nanoclusters in beams.

In this project the generation of nanocluster beams will be discussed. Depending on the focus of applications a variety of experimental techniques is currently available to probe free nanoclusters in beams using interaction with light, static electric or magnetic fields, scattering from charged or neutral particles, or off space-fixed nanostructures. Examples of these techniques are laser spectroscopy, ion depletion spectroscopy , fluorescence spectroscopy , mass spectrometry , Stern-Gerlach deflection, static electric field deflection , electron beam scattering and diffraction from space-fixed periodic nanostructures. Very recently, time-resolved, single cluster diffraction using soft X-rays and hard X-rays have been employed.

In this Advanced Study Project focus will be placed on the principles or molecular beams and one or two probing techniques/applications. Depending on the specific technique of choice a variety of research literature is available.

SUGGESTED READING

• W. A. de Heer, Rev. Mod. Phys. 65, 611--676 (1993)

GALACTIC INFLUENCES ON CLIMATE : NEIL ARNOLD

Recent research has suggested that periodic changes in the position of the solar system with respect to the spiral arms of the galaxy, exposing the Earth to variations in cosmic radiation, appears to be

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responsible for observed variations in climate over timescales of hundreds of millions of years. Naturally, there has been some debate about the physical mechanisms that may be responsible.

SUGGESTED READING

• 'Sun, Earth and Sky' K.R. Lang - an introduction to extra-terrestrial influences on the climate system

• 'High energy astrophysics' MS. Longair - the standard text on such matters • 'Celestial driver of Phanerozoic climate' a paper by N.J. Shaviv and J. Veizer suggesting the

above hypothesis and providing data to support it

GEOENGINEERING THE EARTH'S CLIMATE : HARTMUT BOESCH

It is well established that the rising concentration of greenhouse gases due to anthropogenic emissions is the main driver for the observed increase in atmospheric temperate. The global average surface temperature is projected to rise by as much as 6.4 deg.C by the end of the twenty-first century if emissions are not curbed. Unless future efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are much more successful then they have been so far, additional action may be required should it become necessary to cool the Earth this century. Such action might involve geoengineering, defined as the deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth's climate system, in order to moderate global warming. Two classes of geoengineering methods are proposed: 1) Carbon dioxide removal techniques which remove CO2 from the atmosphere; and 2) Solar Radiation Management techniques that reflect a certain percentage of the sun's light and heat back into space.

Many of the proposed geoengineering methods are technically feasible, however geoengineering is highly controversial and there are major uncertainties regarding its effectiveness, costs, and environmental impacts. In this project we will look into the scientific and technical principles of the geoengineering methods and how they affect the Earth's climate system in order to counteract climate change.

GRAPHENE : PETER MAKSYM

Graphene is the scientific discovery of the century. It consists of a layer of carbon atoms arranged in a 2D hexagonal lattice and is the first 2D crystal to be discovered. Astonishingly, the electrons in single layer graphene behave like relativistic, massless particles. This makes the electronic properties of graphene radically different from those of conventional materials and could make graphene suitable for exotic applications such as room temperature resistance standards, sensors, quantum computers and perfect electron lenses.

The aim of this project is to study a few of the ideas in this rapidly developing field and assess the prospects for applications. A good starting point is the review article by Geim and Novoselov in Nature Materials 6, 183 (2007).

GRAVITATIONAL MICROLENSING : GORDON STEWART

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Gravitational microlensing is a tool which has been used to limit the contribution of massive compact halo objects (MACHOS) to dark matter in our and local galaxies. It has also been used to search for extra-solar planets. The project will involve a review of the technique, major projects and their results.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://wwwmacho.anu.edu.au

GRAVITATIONAL WAVE ASTRONOMY : MIKE WATSON

Gravitational-wave astronomy promises to provide a new window on the Universe in order to observe some of the most exotic objects in nature, particularly black holes, as well as testing Einstein's theory of general relativity. So far, gravitational waves have not been detected directly, but a number of gravitational-wave detectors are in operation or under development with the aim of making gravitational-wave astronomy a reality.

This project will focus on both the technological and astrophysical aspects of gravitational-wave astronomy, looking at the challenging technological advances required and the kinds of astrophysical measurements and diagnostics that might become possible.

SUGGESTED READING

Physics, Astrophysics and Cosmology with Gravitational Waves, B.S. Sathyaprakash, B.F. Schutz, http://arxiv.org/pdf/0903.0338v1.pdf

HABITABLE LIFE ZONES IN THE GALAXY : TOM STALLARD

There is only one currently known example of a habited planet in the galaxy. It is, however, possible to extrapolate from this one example out into the surrounding galaxy. Using what we understand about the conditions needed to both form and sustain life on Earth, we can define in what environments life can survive. Combining this with our understanding of the conditions found both within our solar system (both icy moons and other planets), within other star systems (looking for the best location for planets), and within the galaxy as a whole, it is possible to define regions where life is most likely to be able to occur.

This project will define the galactic and stellar regions that limit the existence of life, and the planetary regions in which life could form and survive.

SUGGESTED READING

• A good astrobiology textbook (e.g. Lunine) • Habitable zones around stars: Kasting et al., 1993 (and follow up papers) • Galactic habitable zones: Lineweaver et al., 2004

HOW BLACK HOLES SHAPE GALAXIES : ANDREW KING

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There is strong evidence that the nucleus of almost every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. Remarkably, we now know that the mass of this black hole correlates very tightly with the large-scale structure of the galaxy. Specifically, the black hole mass is about one thousandth of the mass of the galaxy's central bulge, and proportional to the fourth power of the velocity dispersion of this bulge. This means that the galaxy bulge, with a scale of kiloparsecs, somehow `knows' about the central black hole, whose event horizon is a billion times smaller. Clearly these facts offer vital clues to how galaxies and their central black holes form together and grow together.

SUGGESTED READING

• Ferrarese, L. & Merritt, D., ApJ 539, L9, 2000 • Gebhardt, K et al., ApJ 539, L13, 2000 • King, A., ApJ 596, L27, 2003 • King, A, ApJ 635, L121, 2006

HOW DO YOU OBSERVE NEUTRINOS? : PAUL O'BRIEN

Neutrinos are produced in vast quantities via many physical processes but are hard to observe due to their reluctance to interact with anything. Recent experiments are beginning to reveal the detailed properties of neutrinos and turn them into a probe of extreme physics. This project is to understand how neutrinos can be detected using facilities ranging from a tank of dry cleaning fluid up to the Antarctic ice cap.

SUGGESTED READING

• Physics textbooks • http://icecube.wisc.edu/ • http://operaweb.lngs.infn.it/ • http://jnusrv01.kek.jp/public/t2k/

IS OUR PLANET EXPERIENCING AN ACCELERATION OF THE WATER CYCLE? : ALESSANDRO BATTAGLIA

Long-term ground-based precipitation records and recent space-borne measurements seem to suggest that our planet is experiencing an increase in precipitation as a result of greenhouse effects. The measured increase in precipitation rate is estimated to be close to 7% per each K increase in temperature, which exactly mirrors the increase of water vapour in our atmosphere in correspondence to the same forcing. On the other hand climate models predict a muted response to global warming with an increase rate 2-3 times smaller. The goal of this study topic is to (a) review the current knowledge about modelling and observations of precipitation and (b) potentially identify the key pitfalls in models/observations which can be responsible for the above-mentioned striking difference.

SUGGESTED READING

• The changing character of precipitation, K. E. Trenberth et al., 2003.

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• Controls of Global-Mean Precipitation Increases in Global Warming GCM Experiments, G. L. Stephens and T. Ellis, 2008.

LIFE IN THE SAND-PIT: PHYSICS-BASED MODELS OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA : STEVE MILAN

Chaos theory shows us that very simple systems can behave in complex and unpredictable ways. Conversely, sand-pile theory, self-organized criticality and the principle of Universality help us to understand how extremely complex systems incorporating very many interacting parts can display surprisingly simple behaviour. We all like to think we possess Free Will, but often human behaviour en masse can be straightforward to predict. This directed-reading will investigate how simple physics-based models can be used to investigate the behaviour of a disparate range of social and natural phenomena including football crowds, the stock market, and traffic jams, for example:

• Why is a traffic jam an example of a phase transition? • How does a pile of sand help us make sense of boom-and-bust in the stock market? • How many gates do you need to empty a football ground quickly after the final whistle? • And what is the link between the behaviour of magnetic domains, earthquakes, forest fires

and the extinction of the dinosaurs?

SUGGESTED READING

• Ubiquity, Mark Buchanan, Weidenfeld & Nicolson • Critical Mass, Philip Ball, Arrow Books

MAGNETOMETRY AND THE MAGNETIC FIELDS OF SOLAR SYSTEM PLANETS : DARREN WRIGHT

Modern magnetometry provides an important passive method for studying the origins and changes in planetary magnetic fields. There are large numbers of magnetometers on the surface of the Earth designed to provide a continuous monitor of geophysical effects such as the solar-terrestrial interaction, space plasma waves, induced ground currents and the rotation of the Earth's core. Observations of the Earth's field were valuable historically as an aid to navigation and more detailed scientific observations started in the early 19th century. More recently, magnetometers onboard spacecraft have provided a great deal of important information on the fields observed at the Earth and other solar system planets. Jupiter, for example, produces by far the largest magnetic field of all the planets. Following a thorough literature search, the student will present lecture notes on all aspects of the historical evolution of magnetometry and the key findings relating to the fields of the Earth and other solar system planets.

SUGGESTED READING

• Basic space physics texts, including Introduction to Space Physics, Kivelson and Russell, C.U.P., 1995

• Texts covering planetary magnetic fields and magnetohydrodynamics and the uses of magnetometry for their study

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• Journals of solar-planetary physics

MARS SAMPLE RETURN: WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES? : JOHN BRIDGES

Mars Sample Return is a key UK space science priority. It probably offers the best potential for identifying, in an unambiguous way, life from another planet. However, there are major challenges with achieving such a mission. It requires a new multi-agency and multi-mission approach including a Mars Ascent Vehicle. Planetary Protection laws, with a United Nations Mandate, strictly control how material from a potentially life-bearing planet can be brought back to Earth. The controls for Mars are Category IV, which is equivalent to dealing with biological warfare material. As a result a new Sample Receiving Facility would be needed, and the UK Space Agency has indicated that it would like the UK to provide this.

This reading project will assess the technical and other challenges, and potential scientific rewards, of the UK participating in a Mars Sample Return mission.

SUGGESTED READING

• MEPAG ND-SAG (2008). Science Priorities for Mars Sample Return, Unpublished white paper, 70 pp, posted March 2008 by the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) at http://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/reports/index.html

NANOTECHNOLOGY : MERVYN ROY

Advances in nanotechnology are leading to transformative new technologies in areas of medicine, electronics, materials science and many more. In this advanced study topic you will investigate an area of nanotechnology of your choice.

NEAR-FIELD COSMOLOGY WITH DWARF SPHEROIDAL GALAXIES : MARK WILKINSON

The Milky Way is surrounded by a population of about 20 dwarf satellite galaxies with typical luminosities of less than a few million solar luminosities and half-light radii of a few hundred parsecs. Despite their meagre stellar content, observations suggest that these are both the smallest galaxies known and the most dark matter dominated stellar systems yet discovered. It is widely believed that they are the observable counterparts of the numerous dark matter sub-haloes which surround massive galaxies in cosmological simulations of galaxy formation. Additionally, high resolution spectra of stars in these galaxies have shown that their star formation histories were much more complicated than previously thought. Dwarf spheroidal galaxies thus provide valuable windows on the physical properties of dark matter and the process of galaxy formation on the smallest scales. You will review the current state of our knowledge of dwarf galaxies, and the implications of this for our understanding of galaxy formation more generally.

SUGGESTED READING

• Koch A., 2009, RMA, 21, 9, arXiv0905.0557

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• Mateo M., 1998, ARA&A, 36, 435 • Tolstoy E., Hill V., & Tosi M., 2009, ARA&A, 47, 371 • McConnachie A., 2012, AJ, 144, 4

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EXTRAGALACTIC DISTANCE SCALE : NIAL TANVIR

Determining distances to other galaxies has long been a difficult but important problem, and provides a route to establishing the cosmological parameters. Only in the late 1990s was the Hubble constant, for example, found to a precision of ~10%, and now researchers are working to improve that to 1 to 2%, using a variety of new approaches in the coming years.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://arxiv.org/abs/1405.5218 • http://arxiv.org/abs/1105.3470 • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)

OBSERVING BIOSPHERE-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS FROM SPACE : MICHAEL BARKLEY

Terrestrial vegetation emit a wide range of highly reactive biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) into the atmosphere. These BVOCs play a critical role in global atmospheric chemistry and climate as their photochemical reactions influence the distributions and lifetimes of key trace gases, such as ozone and methane. However, our knowledge about the where, when and how much BVOC is being emitted is highly uncertain. Satellite observations of atmospheric composition can provide additional information on BVOC emissions using what is known as a top-down approach. The goal of this study topic is to (a) review the techniques and inversion methods used to estimate BVOC emissions from space and (b) potentially identify new ways in which these compounds can be measured by satellite.

SUGGESTED READING

• Fu, T-M., D. J. Jacob, P. I. Palmer, K. Chance, Y. X. Wang, B. Barletta, D. R. Blake, J. C. Stanton, and M. J. Pilling: Space-based formaldehyde measurements as constraints on volatile organic compound emissions in East and South Asia, J. Geophys. Res., 112, doi:10.1029/2006JD007853, 2007

• Guenther, A., T. Karl, P. Harley, C. Wiedinmyer, P. I. Palmer, and C. Geron: Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3181-3210, 2006.

• Palmer, P. I., D. J. Jacob, A. M. Fiore, R. V. Martin, K. Chance, and T. P. Kurosu: Mapping isoprene emissions over North America using formaldehyde column observations from space, J. Geophys. Res., doi: 10.1029/2002JD002153, 2003.

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OBSERVING IN THE FREEZER : PAUL O'BRIEN

Ground-based observatories are usually located on remote mountains. However, new locations are being suggested to take advantage of the particular characteristics of some of the most hostile environments on Earth. One such location is Antarctica.

This project is to determine whether an observing facility in Antarctica is worthwhile, what the main science drivers are and in what waveband it should observe.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://mcba11.phys.unsw.edu.au/~plato/plato.html • http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~mcba/pubs/yuan08a.pdf • http://icecube.wisc.edu/

OUR GALAXY'S SUPER MASSIVE BLACK HOLE : SERGEI NAYAKSHIN

Most galaxies host a super massive black hole in their centres. The black holes are believed to be very important in formation and evolution of galaxies through the release of enormous amounts of energy and radiation. However, how BHs grow is far from clear theoretically; observationally, the difficulty is to resolve extremely small regions where BHs lurk (less than a parsec in size, compared with galaxy scales of many kpc). Due to exquisitely accurate observations, it became clear in the last 10 years or so that the Milky Way galaxy also hosts a BH with the mass of about 4 Million Solar masses. This project will rely on observations of our Galactic Centre to learn about phenomena occurring inside galactic nuclei of galaxies, such as gas accretion discs, star and possibly planet formation in these discs, and feedback from the BH to its immediate surroundings.

SUGGESTED READING

• "The Galactic Center massive black hole and nuclear star cluster", Genzel, R., et al, 2010, Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 82, Issue 4, pp. 3121-3195

A PERSPECTIVE ON NANOTECHNOLOGY : STEVE BAKER

The properties of matter at the nanoscale (broadly speaking at length scales between 1 and 100 nm) are distinct from those of the corresponding macroscopic materials and also from those of the corresponding single atoms. There is much interesting science associated with understanding and trying to predict the novel properties observed and/or expected in nanoscale materials. Exploiting these properties in the development of new materials and devices is a central theme of nanotechnology. The potential applications are wide-ranging, including "IT"-related areas (such as magnetic recording and ultra-high density storage media), optoelectronics, biomedical applications and materials science. Arguably more speculatively, molecular nanotechnology envisages engineered nanosystems (nanomachines) operating at the molecular scale. The student will be

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expected to focus on one aspect of nanotechnology, carry out the necessary background research and to discuss its potential impact.

Good sources with which to start include "Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology" by C.Binns, various articles on nanomaterials, nanocomposites, etc. published in Nature, and books by K. Eric Drexler such as "Engines of Creation 2.0: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology – Updated and Expanded".

PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS ON UK ENERGY POLICY : ANDREW BLAIN

The UK has recently been building gas-fired power stations and installing an increasing amount of wind power. Much of the energy generated in the UK is still being produced by aging coal and nuclear power stations, that will require replacement in the next decade or so.

This advanced study project is to assess the possible paths to replace these facilities, and the relative practicality and costs of doing so. It is expected that issues including more energy conservation, a smart grid, small-scale renewable projects and a range of large-scale generation issues will be included.

SUGGESTED READING

• David Mackay. Sustainable energy without hot air http://www.withouthotair.com/

PLANET BUILDING : GRAHAM WYNN

We now know that many of the stars in our galaxy have planetary systems. How these planets form is still a mystery. Most theories agree that planets are likely to form from the huge disc of dust and gas observed around young stars. That is the point where the agreement ends.

The aim of this directed reading project is to review and assess current theories of planet formation, and to consider positive directions for future research.

SUGGESTED READING

• Planet Formation, J J Lissauer, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1993, Vol.

PLANETARY FORMATION : TOM STALLARD

The formation of our Solar System is one of the leading questions that drives our investigation of both the planets and the stars. However, it is a field of study that is undergoing great changes in understanding following the recent detection of a whole variety of planets around other stars. Starting with the formation of the star itself, the process of producing a complex planetary system depends on a wide set of varying conditions, from the attributes of star and its formation, through the formation of different types of Gas Giants, including the migration of planets like Hot Jupiters and Uranus and Neptune, through to the slow development of the terrestrial planets.

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This project will describe the formation processes that are currently argued to exist, and the types of planetary system that these processes would form.

SUGGESTED READING

• A good solar system textbook that includes information about the different theories for Gas Giant and Terrestrial planet formation

• Papers in Protostars and Planets V • Thommes et al., 2008

PLASMA INFLUENCES ON THE EARTH'S UPPER ATMOSPHERE : NEIL ARNOLD

High energy electro-magnetic radiation and ionized plasma from the solar wind exert a powerful influence on the Earth's atmosphere above 100 km, affecting satellites' ability to remain in orbit and communications systems. Most attention has focused on slowly varying, global scale driving of the neutral winds, but it is becoming increasingly apparent that smaller scale, transient, processes play a significant role. The student will be guided by seminal works on the subject by Rees, Rishbeth and Garriot and Schunk and Nagy and if time permits, examine some of the recent papers on the subject.

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY : PETER MAKSYM

Quantum cryptography is secure way of transmitting information that is completely immune to eavesdropping. It is a radically new approach to encoding information that is based on quantum information theory. This topic covers both the quantum information aspects of quantum cryptography and the physics of the new single photon manipulation techniques that are being developed to realise quantum cryptographic systems.

The Physics World article by Shields and Yuan (March 2007) is an excellent intruction to the current state of quantum cryptography. Earlier Physics World articles by Zeilinger (March 1998), Tittel (March 1998) and Hughes (May 1999) cover quantum information and quantum cryptography at the introductory level. The principles of quantum cryptography are detailed in "The physics of quantum information", eds Bouwmeester, Ekert and Zeilinger, Springer (2000). Reports by Michlev (Physics World, March 2002) and Petroff (Physics Today, May 2001) summarise progress on single photon manipulation and an article by Shields gives more details (in Nano-Physics and Bio-Electronics: a New Odyssey, eds Chakraborty, Peeters and Sivan, Elsevier (2002)).

RARE EARTH : MATT BURLEIGH

Astronomers and biologists ("astrobiologists") are beginning to suspect that microbial life might be common in the Universe. We have discovered life in extreme and unusual environments on Earth (e.g. undersea hydrothermal vents, lakes under the Antarctic ice, in rocks in deep mineshafts) and have realised that bacteria can survive for lengthy periods in the hazardous radiation environment of space. If the conditions exist for life to start somewhere, then it probably will. But how common is intelligent life? The Fermi paradox suggests communicating civilisations might be rare. But how rare?

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Some scientists argue that we are alone, but a close inspection of their case reveals that the available data may be being over-interpreted, with suggestions of the influence of distinctly un-scientific agendas.

You will investigate both sides of this argument, including

• the latest ideas on the origins of life, • the history of life on Earth and the factors influencing the evolution of intelligent life, • the idea of "convergence" within evolution (ie that nature tends to find the same solutions

to the same problems, thus alien life might not be so dissimilar to life on Earth) • the results of the SETI programmes, • the discovery of extra-solar planets and what they can tell us about the rarity or otherwise

of solar systems like our own, • and future searchs for extra-solar Earths

SUGGESTED READING

• Rare Earth, by Peter D. Ward and Donlad Brownlee, Copernicus Books, ISBN 0-387-95289-6 • Life Everywhere, by David Darling, Basic Books, ISBN: 0465015646 • Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe, Simon Conway Morris, Cambridge

University Press, ISBN: 0521603250 • Life in the Universe, Bennett, Shostak & Jakosky (Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-8053-8577-0)

Astrobiology.com: http://www.astrobiology.com/ • NASA Astrobiology Institute: http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/

REMOTE-SENSING OF AIR-QUALITY FROM SPACE : MICHAEL BARKLEY

The air we breathe is rarely free from some form of air-pollution. Common air-pollutants include aerosols, tropospheric ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). It is important to know the levels and distribution of these compounds in the atmosphere, in order to limit our exposure to them and to also help implement regulatory policy. The goal of this study topic is to review the current capabilities for satellite remote sensing of these species in the boundary layer, along with physical processes affecting their accuracy and precision.

SUGGESTED READING

• Martin, R.V., Satellite remote sensing of surface air quality, Atmos. Environ., 42, 7823-7843, 2008

• Lamsal, L.N., R.V. Martin, A. van Donkelaar, M. Steinbacher, E.A. Celarier, E. Bucsela, E.J. Dunlea, and J. Pinto, Ground-level nitrogen dioxide concentrations inferred from the satellite-borne Ozone Monitoring Instrument, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D16308, doi:10.1029/2007JD009235, 2008

SATURN'S VARIABLE ROTATION RATE : TOM STALLARD

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The rotation rate of gaseous bodies like stars and planets, where no solid surface exists, has been calculated using the repeated pulse of radio emissions from these bodies. For bodies as widely diverse as Jupiter and pulsars, this provides a highly accurate measure of the rotation inside the object. However, at Saturn, we have found that this rotation rate appears to change with time, and is varying independently in each hemisphere. This recent discovery suggests, at first look, that the interior of Saturn is dynamic in ways that just don't make sense. Something, unique to Saturn, is changing the regular rotation inside the planet before it can be broadcast as a radio signal.

This project will investigate the current evidence for this variable rotation rate and discuss the divergent current theories used to explain how this bizarre feature of Saturn is produced.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/media/cassini-062804.html • http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/photos/imagedetails/index.cfm?imageId=4268

SEARCHING FOR HIDDEN PATTERNS : RICHARD WILLINGALE

Data collected from astronomical or biological systems often appear random but on closer inspection are found to contain hidden patterns. Such patterns demonstrate that the systems are not random but complex and they give us clues to the physical nature of the systems and can lead to a deeper understanding of the complexity involved.

This project aims to study the analysis techniques which are used to search for and find such hidden patterns in statistical data and how such methods are used in the natural sciences and medicine.

Suggested starting points:

Google: Principal Components Analysis, Support Vector Machines, Kernel based learning methods, Neural networks for pattern recognition

SIZE MATTERS! : STEVE MILAN

In 1928 J. B. S. Haldane wrote that when dropped from height "a mouse gets a slight shock ... a rat is killed, a man is broken, a horse splashes." Size dictates that an insect can walk on water but that a person would need shoes 2 km in radius to achieve the same feat. Very small rodents must eat their own body weight every day, while a human can survive on just a Kendal Mint Cake for several days. Why is a bigger balloon easier to inflate than a small one, and how does this relate to the longest span of arch that can be constructed? This directed reading will investigate how size matters in nature and what influences the engineering solutions to similar problems at dissimilar scales.

SUGGESTED READING

• J. B. S. Haldane, On being the right size, in Possible Worlds. New York: Harper. • S. Vogel, Cats' Paws and Catapults. London: Penguin.

SOLOTRONICS : MERVYN ROY

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We are now approaching the end of the road for device miniaturisation: where the essential element of a device is a single atom. This is the exciting new field of solotronics. In the last few years there have been tremendous advances in our understanding and ability to control single atom impurities. In this advanced study topic you will investigate an area of solotronics, focusing on the creation, manipulation and/or exploitation of single dopant atoms in semiconductors.

SUGGESTED READING

Single dopants in semiconductors, P. M. Koenraad and M. E. Flatte, Nature Materials 10, p 90 (2011), doi:10.1038/nmat2940

SPACE-BASED LIDAR CONCEPTS AND TECHNOLOGIES : HARTMUT BOESCH

The main idea for LIDAR (light detection and ranging) to uses short pulses of laser light to detect and range objects has already been developed 50 years ago and a wealth of important remote-sensing applications have emerged using LIDAR such as measurements of atmospheric aerosols and trace gases, wind speed, canopy height etc. The use of LIDAR technology for space-based applications has significantly matured recently and the CALIPSO LIDAR is still in operation after ~10 years in orbit around Earth. We are now seeing the development of a range of new space-based LIDAR mission concepts which can fundamentally improve our ability to observe the Earth atmosphere and surface from space.

SPRITES, ELVES AND BLUE JETS - LIGHTNING IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE : NEIL ARNOLD

Since their discovery just over a decade ago, these mysterious phenomena have attracted a lot of scientific curiosity. Why did it take so long to notice their presence and do they tell us anything important about the world we live in?

SUGGESTED READING

• 'Phenomena in atmospheric and environmental electricity' R. Reiter - a solid introduction to the general field

• 'On sprites and their exotic kin' A paper by T. Neubert is a good starting off point on discovering more about these phenomena.

STELLAR DYNAMICS NEAR SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES : WALTER DEHNEN

Almost every large galaxy is believed to host a super-massive black hole (SMBH) at its very centre. The SMBH dominates the dynamics of stars in its immediate neighbourhood, resulting in very interesting dynamical effects, unique to galactic centres. In this directed reading project you will collate the latest research in these effects and their interplay, as well as their observational consequences.

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SUNDIALS AND FOUCAULT'S PENDULUM: THE MEASUREMENT OF TIME USING THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH : STEVE MILAN

For millennia the rotation of the Earth, its orbit around the Sun, and the phases of the Moon were used mark the passage of time, to predict the seasons, and to tell the time of day. Recently, such methods have been superceded by modern technology, but the heavens can still provide an accurate clock and calendar. This project will fall into two parts:

1. The rotation of the Earth and the length of the day: solar time/mean time/sidereal time, orbit around the sun, seasons, the equation of time, precession of the equinoxes (and repercussions of entering the Age of Aquarius), nutations, tidal effects, orbital decay, etc.

2. Using the rotation of the Earth, and the positions of the sun and the moon to measure time: the construction of sundials, moon dials, etc.

SUGGESTED READING

• R. R. J. Rohr - Sundials: History, Theory, and Practice

SUPER-EARTHS AND SUB-NEPTUNES : TOM STALLARD

Recent improvements in planetary detection methods have started to reveal a new class of previously unknown planets that range in size between the mass of Earth and Neptune. This has lead to an explosion in scientific investigation into these previously unknown worlds, attempting to understand the nature of these planets, how they were formed and what the conditions upon them might be like. What is needed here is someone to cast a broad net over papers written on the topic, in order to gather a report on these fascinating new worlds.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-Earth • http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/basic_connect?qsearch=super-Earth • http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/basic_connect?qsearch=sub-Neptune

TIDAL FORCES IMPOSED BY ORBITING MOONS : DARREN WRIGHT

Planetary satellites impose tidal forces on the host as a result of the change of the gravitational attraction at either side of the planet. Since most planets are not rigid, they become deformed by these forces. The most obvious example of which is apparent in the ocean tides. However, where bodies are rigid or not very cohesive, tidal forces can lead to them being torn apart, as was the case with comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. Tidal heating also produces dramatic volcanic effects on Jupiter's moon Io and is considered to influence the climate at Earth.

During the course of this project, a review of tidal effects in solar system bodies and their consequences will be undertaken. The research will examine not only the Earth-Moon interaction but will also consider the gravitational effects at other solar system planets.

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SUGGESTED READING

• Basic space physics texts, including Introduction to Space Physics, Kivelson and Russell, C.U.P., 1995

• Texts covering planetary satellites, celestial mechanics and the Moon-Earth interaction • Journals of planetary physics

THE USEFULNESS AND SAFETY OF X-RAY SECURITY SCREENING : ANDREW BLAIN

Passengers at airports have recently been screened using X-ray backscatter devices, but they have been banned from use in Europe, and recently sidelined in the USA.

In this advanced study project, you will investigate using literature - not experiment - the effectiveness, and potential hazards of these devices, along with reviewing the effectiveness of the competing technology of millimetre-wave scanners.

THE VARIABILITY OF THE CLIMATE RECORD OVER GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALES : SIMON VAUGHAN

Data extracted from various sources - including cores of sedimentary material obtained from the ocean floor, ice cores obtained from Greenland and Antarctica, and stalactites - reveal information about the climate of the distant past. Different records provide different climate proxies, and cover different time spans. By piecing several of these together we may be able to obtain detailed quantitative information about how the most basic climate parameters (e.g. average ocean temperature) vary on different timescales. This in turn reveals on which timescales the climate shows strongest variations and provide some clues about physical processes that might operate of different timescales.

SUGGESTED READING

• "Brief introduction the history of climate" by R. Muller available at: http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/iceagebook/history_of_climate.html

• R. Muller and G. MacDonald "Ice Ages and Astronomical Causes: Data, Spectral Analysis, and Mechanisms" Springer-Praxis, London, 318 pp. (2000).

• Winograd et al. 1992, Science, v258, p255 • "Continuous 500,000-Year Climate Record from Vein Calcite in Devils Hole, Nevada" • "Paleoclimatology : reconstructing climates of the Quaternary" by R. S. Bradley (1999)

Zachos et al. 2001, Science, v292, p686 • "Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present " • Graham P. Weedon "Time-Series Analysis And Cyclostratigraphy: Examining Stratigraphic

Records of Environmental Cycles" Cambridge University Press, 2005

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WAVES IN SPACE PLASMAS : TIM YEOMAN

A wide variety of electromagnetic waves can propagate in magnetised space plasmas. A form of such electromagnetic waves, known as Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) waves, have typical periods of 100s of seconds and wavelengths of 1000s of km and are a common feature in solar system plasmas. Reading will cover the different types, modes and sources of these waves in the solar system. The subject may be approached from an observational perspective, a theoretical perspective, or both.

SUGGESTED READING

• Introduction to Space Physics, Kivelson and Russell, C.U.P., 1995 • Magnetohydrodynamics, Cowling Adam Hilger, 1980 • Geophysical Space plasma journals

WHAT IS THE SIZE OF THE BLR IN AGN? : MIKE GOAD

Correlated continuum--broad emission-line variations have revealed a wealth of information about the physical properties, spatial distribution and kinematics of the broad line region (BLR) in Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). The recent development of new improved (dynamical) methods for inverting the continuum--emission-line light-curves combined with high quality ground-based monitoring data is now beginning to shed light on the flow of material near the central supermassive black hole.

However, the size of the variable BLR determined using these techniques appears at odds with the BLR spatial extent predicted by photoionisation calculations. Since the new recovery methods for the most part ignore the BLR gas physics, how much should we trust them?

WHAT MAKES UP THE COSMIC X-RAY BACKGROUND? : MIKE WATSON

Deep extragalactic surveys at X-ray wavelengths provide the means to explore the nature and properties of the faint X-ray source population which contributes a large fraction of the whole X-ray background signal. Recent results have demonstrated that the faint source population is in fact dominated by active galaxies (AGN) extending to redshifts z>3 together with smaller, but significant, contributions from cluster of galaxies and normal (no-active) galaxies. This project will focus on what we have learnt to date from such surveys, examine some of the outstanding unsolved questions and look at the future observational prospects for extending and enhancing such surveys in the future.

SUGGESTED READING

• W.N. Brandt, G. Hasinger, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol. 43: 827-859, (Volume publication date September 2005)

WHAT REIONIZED THE UNIVERSE? : NIAL TANVIR

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Within a few hundred million years of the Big Bang, the hydrogen gas permeating the universe went from a state of being entirely neutral to being almost completely ionized, a state in which it has remained to the present day. Various mechanisms have been considered which may have produced the ionizing radiation which must have been responsible: these include early stars, quasars or decaying particles.

SUGGESTED READING

• http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhRvD..78h3005S • http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JCAP...03..022L • http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ARA%26A..39...19L

WHERE IS THE MISSING CLASS OF INTERMEDIATE MASS BLACK HOLES? : MIKE GOAD

There are approximately 16 known binary systems in our galaxy for which the orbital dynamics imply a compact object with masses in the range a few - 16 solar masses. Stellar velocity dispersion measurements of bulge stars in external galaxies suggest that supermassive black holes with masses in the range a million to 1 billion solar masses lurk in their centres. However the firm detection of black holes with masses in the range 100-1000 Msun have remained elusive. Possible candidates are the Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) - point like sources with X-ray luminosities far in excess of the Eddington limit for a stellar mass black hole.

Students should review evidence for and against ULXs being intermediate mass black holes and investigate the implications of the absence of any notable IMBHs on the growth of galaxy cores.

SUGGESTED READING

• Science 28 January 2005:Vol. 307. no. 5709, pp. 533 - 534 DOI: 10.1126/science.1107110

X-RAYS AS A NANOSCALE PROBE OF MATERIAL STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES : STEVE BAKER

The atomic structure in materials plays a key role in determining their properties. Electronic, magnetic and mechanical properties in particular can be highly dependent on material structure at the nanoscale. If the atomic structure in materials can be changed controllably, this affords the possibility of fine scale control over their properties. This is especially promising in the case of "new" materials comprised from nanoparticles, where affecting a change in atomic structure is more feasible than in the corresponding bulk material. It is also potentially important for a number of applications. Hence it is important to have accurate experimental probes of atomic structure in materials. X-ray techniques provide valuable means for looking at atomic structure in materials, as well as other properties such as their magnetism. There are a number of dedicated powerful x-ray sources where such experiments can be carried out, including the UK Diamond Light Source. The student will be expected to carry out the necessary background research so that he/she can discuss the role of x-rays in determining material structure and properties, some of the experimental techniques, x-ray facilities used in such work, etc.

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Good sources with which to start include "Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology" by C.Binns, various articles on nanomaterials, nanocomposites, etc. published in Nature and elsewhere, the Diamond website - http://www.diamond.ac.uk