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Transcript of P0001_File_Varieties of Modern English
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Varieties of Modern English: The Truth Behind the Myth
By Julie C. Pelto and Juan C. Boyadji
INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this paper is to raise awareness of the differences
between the two major varieties of English.
Are these differences important? If so, where do they lie? This paper will
explore what we know about this issue and what our tenets are. In order to
achieve this aim we will group these differences into distinct areas of linguistics,
namely: grammatical, orthographical, lexical and phonological, briefly clarifying
their origin and reason.
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Language is constantly changing. Yet, there are historical reasons that triggered
the unequal development of the English language on either sides of the Atlantic.
Settlement and colonial times
The common beginning dates back to Shakespearean language, when English
was under the process of standardization, i.e. spelling conventions as we know
them today were starting to arise. It is by this time the first settlers arrived at
Jamestown(1607) and Plymouth(1620).
The separation of the English-speaking people in two distant and radically
different geographical contexts, added to the fact that communication was
scant, played a crucial part in the separate development of the language.
In the New World items which did not exist in the Old World had to be named.
These basically referred to geography and agriculture. Most of these terms
were borrowed from the Native American peoples.
The different ways in which pronunciation developed:
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Variation in pronunciation occurred in different directions on both sides of
the Atlantic.
Some original pronunciation patterns were kept in North American
English while change occurred in British English.
Patterns which were under transformation continued to do so in the same
way.
At this point in time changes in the language were minimal due to several
reasons:
stable political/economic bonds
the worldwide prestige of British English
an increase in literacy during the XVIII C.
common reading material (both educational and recreational)
Indolence and thereafter
At the beginning, contrary to what one would expect, the new nation needed to
keep a strong standard for the sake of unity. Thus, language underwent no
major change. Yet, some years later (ca.1800), having achieved this goal,
linguistic differences were to be stated pursuing individuality. Noah Webster
suggested these changes through what he called spelling pronunciation, where
an attempt was made to bring pronunciation and spelling together.
Industrial Revolution also contributed to these variations since inventions
occurred in parallel in Britain and America and were named at the same time
independently.
Furthermore, differences in the political systems created new vocabulary
specific to each.
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The XX C requires Britain and the US to reinstall long-lost ties, mainly due to
political affairs, particularly the great world wars. In addition to this, the mass
media as a multi-cultural source of linguistic influence have played an integral
part in the levelling of the two varieties. As a result, lexical and grammatical
borrowings occur in both now.
2. ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATION
Orthographical differences between the two varieties are well known to
teachers, but sometimes these differences are oversimplified.
The major areas of differences in spelling are:
-our vs. -or
In general, where -our is found in BritEng, -or is used in USEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
behaviour behaviorcolour color
Some exceptions are glamour, saviour and savour, where the -our is stillusual in USEng
-re vs. -er
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
calibre calibercentre center
fibre fiber
goitre goiterlitre literlustre lustermeagre meager
metre(length) metermitre miter
nitre niterphiltre philterreconnoitre reconnoiter
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sabre sabersaltpetre saltpetersceptre scepter
sombre somberspectre spectertheatre theater
-ence vs. -ense
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
defence defenselicence(n.) license(n.)license(v.)offence offensepretence pretense
-ogue vs. -og
The spelling -ogue can be found in both BritEng and USEng, whereas -ogis only found in USEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
catalogue catalogdialogue dialog
-amme vs. -am
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
aerogramme aerogramgramme gramkilogramme kilogramprogramme program
program(computer)
-ise/-yse vs. -ize/-yze (suffixes)
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
-yse -yze-ise -ize
E.g.
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analyse analyzeparalyse paralyze
criticise critisizerealise realize
-ll- vs. -l- (word medial)
Both USEng and BritEng accept the ll spelling, l being being found only inUSEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
counsellor counselortraveller traveler
An exception worth noting isjewellery(BritEng)/jewelry(USEng only)
-l vs. -ll (word final)
The opposite case is also found, where l is a possible spelling in bothvarieties, ll being acceptable only in USEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
enrol enrollfulfil fulfill
An exception here is skilful(BritEng only).
-pp- vs. -p- (plus suffix)
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
kidnapper kidnaperworshipping worshiping
-ae-/-oe- vs. -e-
In general, USEng favours the spelling pronunciation. At times, the morecomplex spelling is also acceptable in USEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
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archaeology archeologyfoetus fetusgynaecologist gynecologist
-e + suffix vs. elision of e
Verbs which finish in e, when adding a suffix, keep the e in both varieties,although a non-e spelling is the more common case in USEng.
E.g.
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
acknowledgement acknowledgment judgement judgmentageing aging
likeable likable
-xion vs. -ction
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
connexion connectiondeflexion deflectioninflexion inflectionreflexion reflectionretroflexion retroflection
en-/em- vs. in-/im-
BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng
embed imbedencase incaseenclose incloseendorse indorseenquire inquireensure insure
3. LEXICAL VARIATION
To begin with, we must consider that there are several areas of difference
between British and American English as well as reasons for them.
We will divide the vocabulary lists in groups attempting at some
systematisation.
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The first and most important group of words comprises those that differ radically
in meaning. These are the ones we prefer to highlight due to the fact that, being
the same word, and bearing semantic differences, leads to sometimes rather
touchy misunderstandings. Fortunately, this is a limited list, yet a very importantone to know when teaching.
WORD BritEng meaning USEng meaning
Homelydown to earth, domestic
(= US homey)ugly (of people)
Nervy nervous bold, full of nerve, cheeky
Pants underpants trousersMuffler scarf exhaust pipe of car
to tick off to scold to make angry
Secondly there are those words that carry an additional meaning in one of thetwo varieties due to a particular sense or usage. These words are also veryimportant because they can likewise cause communication problems betweenspeakers of the two varieties. Often, the additional meaning responds to ametaphorical extension of the common meaning. Not surprisingly, these wordsare also relatively few, yet useful to bear in mind.
WORD Meaning in common Additional meaning in USEng.
bathrooma room with a bathtub or
shower and sinkroom with toilet only
cute endearing (kittens, puppies)attractive, charming ( e.g. of adult
people)
dumb mute stupid
good fine, nice, etc. valid (as of tickets, special offers)
regular consistent, habitual average (as in size), normal
school institution of education atelementary level
all institutions of education, includinguniversities
to ship to transport by shipto transport by ship, train, plane or
truck
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WORD Meaning in common Additional meaning in BritEng
frontier a wild open space border between two countries
leader
one who commands, guides,
directs, is in front an editorial
to mind to heed, obeyto look after as in e.g. mind the gap,
mind the children
rug a thick carpet, usually wool a thick wrap or coverlet
smart intelligent well-groomed
surgerya medical operation or
operating rooman office of any doctor
Thirdly, there is a group of words which, having shared meanings, either conveya different style, connotation, or are used with a dissimilar frequency. Luckily,this list is also quite short. Misunderstandings are not as frequent as in thecategories analysed previously, yet one can detect by these words whichvariety of the English language one uses.This is valuable for teachers to become consistent models of whichever varietyof English they choose to teach.
WORD BritEng usage USEng usage
autumn common; all stylesuncommon; poetic or formal (fall
used instead)
clever(meaning smart,
dexterous)common; positive
less common; usually negative(i.e. sly)
to fancy(meaning tolike or
want)common; informal Uncommon
fortnight common; all styles uncommon (archaic); poetic
perhaps all stylessomewhat formal (maybe used
instead)
quite(as in quite
good)
negative or neutral Positive
row(meaningquarrelor
disturbance)Common Uncommon
Finally, the last group comprises different words altogether for the sameconcept or item. This group in contrast, accounts for the majority of thedifferences between British English and American English.
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The following is just a sample list. Some of these terms are not normallyunderstood in the other variety, others are known, yet are used to a lesserextent. They are presented here according to the semantic fields they belong to.
Food and Cooking
USEng BritEng
alligator pear avocado
appetizer starter, hors d'oeuvre
baked potato jacket potato
beer lager/ale
Bell pepper (red, green, etc.) pepper
biscuit scone
Blood sausage black puddingbowl (e.g. for pudding) basin
bun bap, roll
can tin
chips crisps
cookie biscuit
cracker biscuit (savoury)
crepe pancake
custard egg custard
dessert pudding
eggplant aubergine
hamburger meat mince
jello jelly
jelly jam
molasses treacle
pitcher jug
pudding custard
roast (noun) joint
stove cooker
To broil to grillzucchini courgette
Household items
USEng BritEng
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antenna Aerial
apartment flat
apartment house/building block of flats
attached home semi-detached house
bathtub bath
buffet sideboard
couch/davenport sofa
faucet tap
flashlight torch
floor lamp standard lamp
garbage can dustbin
garden vegetable or flower garden
living room sitting room
outlet/socket power point
sheers net curtains
to call (by telephone) to ring
washcloth face flannel
yard garden
Clothing and Accessories
USEng BritEng
(womens) underpants knickers
backpack/backbag rucksack
baking soda bicarbonate of soda
barrette hairslide
bathrobe dressing gown
billfold wallet
braid plait
changepurse purse
diaper nappy
garter suspender
jumper dress worn over blouse
knickers knickerbockers
overalls dungarees
pantyhose tights
purse handbag
smock overall
suspenders braces
sweater (pullover) jumper
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tuxedo dinner jacket
undershirt vest
vest waistcoat
Commerce
USEng BritEng
attorney lawyer
automated teller machine(atm)
cashpoint
bill note
desk clerk (hotel) receptionist
drug store/pharmacy chemists shop
hardware store ironmongersinstallment buying hire purchase
liquor store off-license store
mortician undertaker
realtor estate agent
to make a reservation to book
trade (noun) custom
traveling statesman commercial traveller
Transportation
USEng BritEng
asphalt/blacktop Tarmac
baby buggy pram (perambulator)
flatcar (railway) truck
gas (gasoline) petrol
muffler (on a car) silencer
pedestrian underpass subway
pullman car (railway) sleeping carsidewalk (paved street side) path
station wagon estate car
subway underground railway/tube
trailer/camper/mobile home caravan
truck lorry
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Miscellaneous
USEng BritEng
AM medium wave
area code dialing codebar pub, public house
Brit Briton
cart trolley
emcee compere
game (sports) match
generator dynamo
line queue
monkey wrench spanner
rookie first year member (e.g. on a team)
sophomore second year studentto check to tick
zero nought
4. GRAMMATICAL VARIATION
There are important differences between the two varieties concerning the use ofauxiliaries and modal verbs.
At the level of educated speech and writing, which to our understanding is whatshould be present in classroom education, there are relatively few differences ingrammar between BritEng and USEng. Those, which do exist, tend to be fairlytrivial when considered from the point of view of understanding. Non the less, asteachers one must be aware of these differences in order to be prepared whenworking with sources of each variety.
For practical reasons, we will divide these into their different grammaticalcategories.
4.1 Verb Formation
Irregular Verbs
In USEng, a number of irregular verbs have become regular, while remainingirregular in BritEng.
Derivation
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New verbs are constantly created from adjectives and nouns in both varieties:e.g. symbol symbolize, ripe ripen, frost defrost. USEng tends to be moreproductive than BritEng. Two verb-forming affixes which are somewhat moreproductive in USEng than in BritEng are:
-ify: citify, humidify, uglify-ize: burglarize, decimalize, hospitalize, rubberize, slenderize
Conversion
Another way of forming new words is by simply changing a words grammaticalclass. Although this process is common to both varieties, again, it is morecommon in USEng.
Noun Verb E.g.
an author to author She has authored three books.a host to host We hosted a meeting last week.a sky-rocket to sky-rocket Prices are sky-rocketing this
week.pressure to pressure (BritEng to pressurise)a room to room I room at that house.
4.2 Auxiliaries
4.2.1 Modal Auxiliaries
Shall
This modal verb is rarely found in USEng except in legal documents or in veryformal styles, being replaced by will (or should in questions with first personsubjects). Shantis even less common in USEng.
BritEng USEngI shall tell you later I will tell you laterShall I drink this now? Should I drink this now?I shant be able to come. I wont be able to come.
Should
In its hypothetical sense, when it occurs in a main clause with a first personsubject followed by a conditional clause, should is used mainly by older
speakers and writers of BritEng. Otherwise, the most common way ofexpressing this idea is by using wouldboth in BritEng and USEng.
Older BritEng BritEng/USEngI should enjoy living here if I could afford to. I would enjoy living here if
Would
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In USEng wouldcan be used to express a characteristic or habitual activity inthe past. In BritEng either the simple past or the verb with the modal used to areused. Note that this is also possible in USEng.
BritEng USEngI went there every day when I was young. I would go there every day
whenI used to go there every day when... I used to go there every day
when...
Use(d) to
In USEng is only treated as a lexical verb in constructions such as questionsand negative sentences. BritEng can use this verb either as a modal auxiliary ora lexical verb.
BritEng USEng/BritEngUsed he to go there? (modal aux.) Did he use to go there?
He used not to go there. (modal aux.) He didnt use to go there.
Ought to
This modal verb is rarely used to form questions and negatives in USEng.Should is used instead. In BritEng its use in questions is restricted to the oldergenerations.
BritEng USEngYou ought not/oughtnt to have said that.(aux.) You shouldnt have said that.
Dare and Need
Both these auxiliaries are rare in USEng and only occur in set phrases, e.g.Need I say more?, Persons under 18 need not apply, I dare say .
BritEng USEng/BritEngNeed you be so rude? (modal aux.) Do you need to be so rude.You neednt be so rude. (modal aux.) You dont need to be so rude.Dare I tell the truth? (modal aux.) Do I dare (to) tell the truth?I darent tell the truth. (modal aux.) I dont dare (to) tell the truth.
4.2.2 Auxiliary Do
Do can be used in BritEng for polite commands or requests, implyingencouragement, as in: Do sit down, Do go on. This use is much less common inUSEng whereplease is used instead.
4.2.3 Have and Have Got
A commonly accepted grammatical difference between BritEng and USEng liesin the disparate use of these forms to indicate possession. This situation has
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changed over the last few decades, so that what once was exclusively used ineach variety is no longer so.
Have you got coffee? can be heard on both sides of the Atlantic in moreinformal styles.
The only noticeable difference in the usage of these forms at present is whenhave is used to express usual possession. This use is restricted to BritEng.
BritEng USEngDo you have fresh cod? Do you usually/ever have fresh cod?
4.2.4 Verb Phrases
In structures with a direct object and indirect object where both arepronominal, BritEng allows the direct object to precede the indirect object.
BritEng USEng/BritEng
John gave me it. John gave it to me.
Copulative verbs seem, act, lookand soundcan be followed directly by anindefinite noun phrase in BritEng.
BritEng USEng/BritEngIt seemed a long time. It seemed like a long time.He acted a real fool. He acted like a real fool.That sounds a bad idea. That sounds like a bad idea.
The verb wantcan be followed directly by the adverbs in and outin USEng.In BrtiEng wantmust be followed by an infinitive.
BritEng/USEng USEngI wanted to come in. I wanted in.
This very verb can be used in the sense of need with an inanimate object inBritEng. This would not be the case in USEng. E.g. The house wantspainting.
There are a few verbs, which collocate with different prepositions orprepositional adverbs in USEng and BritEng.
BritEng USEngto battle with/against (the enemy) to battleto check up on to check outto fill in (a form) to fill outto meet to meet withto prevent to prevent fromto protest at/against/over (a decision) to protestto stop to stop fromto talk to to talk with/to
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to visit to visit with
4.3 Articles
There are a number of count nouns in both varieties which do not require anarticle when used in an abstract-generic sense, usually with certain verbs or
prepositions: e.g. in spring, to go by car, to be at church. However, there are afew such nouns which have this property in one variety but not in the other:
BritEng USEng
to be in hospital to be in the hospitalto be at/go to university to be at/go to a university
4.4 Order of attributes
Usually, in the written form, especially in newspapers, BritEng places personalattributes after the person named whereas in USEng they tend to precede the
name, often without a definite article:
BritEng USEng
John Smith, the lanky Californiantennis star, won another majortournament today.
Lanky Californian teenage tennis starJohn Smith won another majortournament today.
Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister,arrived in Washington today.
British Prime Minister Tony Blairarrived in Washington today.
Something similar can be found in the naming of rivers.
BritEng USEng
The River Thames the Mississippi RiverThe River Avon the Hudson River
4.5 Subordinators
The complex subordinators asas and so.as areused with different frequencies in the two varieties. Soas is fairly
infrequent in USEng, mainly used at the beginning of a clause, while inBritEng it is more frequent than asas.
BritEng USEng
It is not so far as I thought it was It is not as far as I thought it wasSo long as youre happy, well stay As long as youre happy, well stayNow we dont go there so much(as we used to)
Now we dont go there as much(as we used to)
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That one isnt so nice (as the other) That one isnt as nice (as the other)
In cases where asas may be preferred in BritEng and used at thebeginning of a clause, the first as may be dropped:
BritEng USEng
Strange as it may seem, As strange as it may seem,Much as I would like to go,.. As much as I would like to go,..
In BritEng, the adverbs immediately and directly can function assubordinators, the use of after would be appropriate in these cases inUSEng.
BritEng USEng
Immediately we went, it began to rain Immediate after we went. It began torain
Go to his office directly you arrive Go to his office directly after you arrive
4.6 Prepositions
Knowing that these are one of the last and most difficult features of thelanguage to master, one must be aware of the variations in their usage.
4.6.1
Some differ in form maintaining the same meaning and context.
BritEng USEng
behind in back of as in: I put it behind the shed.in back of
out of out as in: He threw it out of the window.Out
round around as in: She lives just round the corridor.Around
4.6.2
Others are used identically in most contexts both in BritEng and USEng, yetvary in specific ones. The majority of such cases occur in expressions of time.
a- duration of time.
BritEng/USEng USEng
I havent seen him for weeks in weeks
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for ages in ages
b- BritEng speakers use the preposition at, meaning time when withholiday seasons, as in at the weekend, at Christmas (the season, notthe day), whereas USEng speakers generally use overin such cases as
well as on the weekend.
c- In expressing clock time, BritEng uses the preposition to and past thehour while USEng also can use of, tilland after.
BritEng/USEng USEng only
twenty to three twenty of threetwenty till three
five past eight five after eight
4.6.3 Other differences which are not related to time also should be taken intoaccount.
a- In non-temporal contexts, the use ofin and on, also differs.
BritEng USEng
to be in a team to be on a teamto live in a street to live on a streetto be in a sale to be on a sale(to be on sale means simplyfor sale)
b- The presence or not of a specific preposition.
on is usually omitted before a specific date or day of the week thatindicates a time removed from the present in USEng.
BritEng USEng
The seminar started on Aug 23rd. The seminar started Aug 23rd.Ill do it on Sunday. Ill do it Sunday.
at is generally absent before temporal nouns indicating repetition orhabitual action. In these cases, the noun must be in the plural.
BritEng USEng
He works by day and studies at night. He works days and studiesnights.
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On Saturdays we go to church. Saturdays we go to church.
In BritEng temporal prepositional phrases, inversion of the noun and thewords this, that, next or last, can occur in formal styles: on Sundaynext, during January last. These do not appear in USEng, and thepreposition is deleted in the uninverted forms: next Sunday, last January.
Yet in phrases denoting a period of time from or after a given one, thepreposition from is often deleted in BritEng, not being the case inUSEng.
BritEng USEng
a week this Tuesday a week from this Tuesday
5. PHONOLOGICAL VARIATION
Differences at the phonological level are both systemic in phonemes andallophones-.and non-systematic in the choice of phonemes for particularwords-.
5.1 Differences in the phonemic inventory & phonetic realizations
No // in GA.
/EUEUEUEU/ vs. /oUUUU/
/aUUUU/ more front in GA
/eIIII/ more close in GA
flapped /t/
/l/ always dark in American English
5.2 Differences in the use of phonemes in words
5.2.1 Vowels
RP // vs. GA /8888/. E.g.: Hot, top, lot.
RP // vs. GA /8888/
In GA, /8/ is likely to occur when orthographic o and au are followed by
fricatives, the velar nasal or /r/. E.g. dog, long.
RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /8888/ for spelling -ory. E.g. acclamatory, auditory,
category, laboratory.
GA stands for General American. RP stands for Received Pronunciation
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RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /e/ for spellings -ary and -ery or -erry. E.g.antiquary, arbitrary, February; cemetery, monastery, presbytery,stationery; blackberry, strawberry.
RP /8888/ vs. GA // (orthographic "a" generally followed by two consonantletters). E.g. brass, class, example, command
RP /aIIII/ vs. GA /EEEE/. E.g. mobile, reptile, versatile.
RP /antIIII-/, /semIIII-/ vs. GA /antaIIII-/, /semaIIII-/. E.g. anticommunist,
semicircle.
RP /EEEE/ vs. GA /oUUUU/. E.g. ceremony, testimony.
RP /IIII/ vs. GA /aIIII/.E.g. simultaneous, privacy, vitamin.
RP /EUEUEUEU/ vs. GA /8888/. E.g. progress, process, docile.
RP // vs. GA /eIIII/.E.g. patronize.
RP /i8888/vs. GA /e/.E.g. evolution, centenary.
RP /8888/vs. GA /~8~8~8~8r/. E.g. Clerk, Derby, Berkshire.
5.2.2 Consonants
RP r pronounced only before a vowel, GA r pronounced in all contexts.E.g. card, board, mirth, tour, mere.
RP/dj/vs. GA /dZZZZ/. E.g. education, module.
/j/-dropping in GA. E.g. stew, new, enthusiastic.
5.2.3Differences in stress.
In some words of foreign (esp. French) origin, GA keeps the original(final) stress while RP has fronted stress.
RP GA
ballet balletdebris debrisgarage garage
Some words have first-syllable stress in GA but stress elsewhere in RP.
RP GA
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address addressadult adultmagazine magazine
Many words ending in ary, -ory and ery have reduced or compressedpronunciations in RP. In GA, apart from not being reduced, there is
secondary stress on such syllables (see Differences in the use ofphonemes in words above).
A few of these words have different stress patterns.
RP GA
laboratory laboratorycapillary capillary
Some eponyms (place names) bear a secondary stress in GA.
Birmingham Birming,hamPortsmouth Ports,mouth
6. FINAL REFLECTION
All what we have seen so far leads us to a simple question that we should allask ourselves:
How should we as teachers deal with varieties of the English language in theclassroom?
Although it is preferable to adopt one variety and be consistent with it, we needto be aware of others and acknowledge them all as having equal status. Beingaware of the major areas where differences lie is essential to fulfil this goal. Wehope this scant guide will help you work along these lines.
Bibliography
BARBER, Charles, The English Language: A Historical Introduction, CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993.
HUGHES, Arthur, TRUDGILL, Peter, English Accents and Dialects, Arnold,
1996.
MARKWARDT, A. H., QUIRK, R.,A Common Language British and AmericanEnglish, BBC, 1964.
MOTT, Brian, English Phonetics and Phonology for Spanish Speakers, EdicionsUniversitat de Barcelona, 2000.
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PROCTER, Paul(ed.), Cambridge International Dictionary of English,Cambridge University Press, 1995.
SWAN, Michael, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1980.
TRUDGILL, Peter, HANNAH, Jean, International English, Edward Arnold, 1994.
WELLS, J. C.,Accents of English, Cambridge University Press, 1982.
WELLS, J. C., Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, Longman, 1990.
English Teaching Forum, July 1989.
The Economist Style Guide, Hamish Hamilton/The Economist Books, 1996.
Online Resources
http://www.effingpot.com/index.html
Julie Pelto and Juan Carlos Boyadji
Both are IPA graduates and teacher trainers in Phonetics and Phonology as well as teachers inprivate and public education. Julie is American and holds a certificate in Linguistics (Cornell)and is an MA Ed. candidate (UCUDAL). Juan Carlos has studied in England and holds a TCLCert.