Study QuestionsTurning Points by Mark Noll (3rd Edition)

Robert H. Lackie

In the introduction to Turning Points, the author establishes four critical reasons why the study of church history benefits the contemporary Christian:

1. The study of the history of Christianity provides an ongoing reminder that the God of the church is not removed from life, but works out his will in the history of the world.

2. The study of church history provides perspective on the interpretation of Scripture.3. The study of the church gives us fascinating glimpses into the ways Christians have

interacted with their culture.4. The study of the church reveals again and again how God has mercifully protected and

increased his church despite the sometimes horrendous abuses of those who call themselves Christians.

These benefits are magnified when individual students of church history meet together and share this book. As an adult education director in my church of some five hundred members, I can testify to the rich treasure Turning Points has been to me and to the participants in my class. As we began using the book shortly after its publication, I sent back glowing reports to the author (via email) and urged him to release a study guide to the book. One must be careful what one asks for, as the author responded by asking me to do it. We discussed the prospect of my writing study questions for the book, and so here they are.

I am privileged to have an opportunity to “piggyback” on Turning Points with these study aids. The intent of the questions is to provide classes or discussion groups with thought-provoking questions that can help the group take full advantage of what Turning Points has to offer.

The questions are presented in two ways. Following this introduction are Overview Questions that cover the entire scope of the book and the history of Christianity in general. The reader might want to think of these as “bird’s-eye view” questions. The author has presented the basis for some of these in his introduction, where he establishes God’s purposes for the church in the final verses of Matthew’s Gospel.

These overarching questions can and should be addressed as an individual reader or discussion group reads through the book. It might be cumbersome to review them after every chapter, but readers will get a reminder before chapter 6 and chapter 13 in the question section below to revisit them. The answers readers give to these questions may change as they dig deeper into the book. The intent of these questions is to challenge the reader to sit back and ponder the broader implications of what is being read in a given chapter and to synthesize the succeeding chapters. With these questions I hope to remind

the reader that each chapter of the book is a part of the same story: the story of the body of Christ on earth.

The second kind of study questions, Application for Today’s Church, can help readers probe deeper into the issues raised in those pages. The questions challenge readers to specifically relate the chapter’s content to the contemporary world.

My hope is that these study questions will give the readers impetus to dig deeper into the study of the church, to seek a fuller understanding of God as he has revealed his purposes in history, and, as a result, to come to love him more deeply.

Robert H. Lackie

Overview Questions1. What is the church? Develop a working definition as you begin reading the book.

Revisit the question as you progress through the chapters.2. How do you see God working within the context of various cultures throughout the

history of Christianity? How is this different from how he works in our culture and in individual people’s lives today?

3. The author presents four guiding principles to help us see God working in the history of Christianity. They are:

– “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me.” God is sovereign in all, including all experiences and events that affect his church.

– “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations.” The church continually experiences movement outward to spread the gospel and movement inward to learn more fully of Christ.

– “Surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.” Despite sins and failings, the church is sustained by Christ’s promised presence.

– “You will be my witnesses . . .to the ends of the earth.” The Christian faith enters into and impacts many cultures and the people who inhabit them; the gospel belongs to all cultures.

Reflect on how any or all of the “turning points” in the book demonstrate these principles.

4. What limitations hamper our study of the history of Christianity in terms of our sources of information?

5. What are the primary sources historians rely on for the various episodes presented in Turning Points? What is missing from our view of the episodes as a result of only having the documents we currently possess?

6. Discuss the role of reformers throughout the history of Christianity. How far should they go to achieve needed reform when it threatens the unity of the church? At what point must reformers move outside the established church? What dangers have resulted from reform movements that break with the church?

7. What perspective does the author bring to the material in Turning Points? What factors might play a role in coloring his view?

8. What perspectives of our own play a role in the way we study the history of Christianity? If we think of our individual biases and perspectives as filters through which we view history, what are these filters? How do they help or hinder our study?

Chapter 11. How did the early church at the time of the fall of Jerusalem perceive its relationship to

Judaism?2. What problems faced the Christian church after Jerusalem’s fall and the break with

Judaism that resulted?3. What would the church eventually develop to define itself after the break with

Judaism?4. What problems do historians face when they try to study the subapostolic period?

How do the historians’ perspectives of the Christian faith complicate these problems?5. How do non-Christian historians differ from Christian historians in their

interpretations of this period and the critical documents that developed?6. How do the denominational perspectives and backgrounds of Christian historians tend

to color their perceptions of this period and the critical documents that developed?7. What forces were at work in the development of the canon of Scripture?8. Discuss the criteria that were considered authoritative for the New Testament

writings, thus assuring those writings a place in the canon.9. Describe the progression of church order (episcopacy) from the more fluid leadership

structure found in the New Testament to the time of Cyprian of Carthage. What accounts for this gradual transition?

10. Compare the original purpose of the early creeds with the role they played later in the history of the church.

Application for Today’s Church1. Given the seemingly chaotic events that occurred within the Christian church as a

result of the fall of Jerusalem, and the way God used those events to strengthen the church, are there modern-day examples of disruption in your local church or the church at large that God has used for great gain?

2. What are some tangible reminders of the church’s Jewish heritage in your local church today?

3. How do our roots in Judaism, in terms of values, perspectives, and practices, still impact our faith as Christians?

4. Which of the three contributions from this early period—the canon, the creeds, or church order—has the biggest impact on your local church? What about the church at large today?

Chapter 21. What did the Roman emperor Constantine hope to accomplish by convening the

council, both politically and for the church?2. Describe the central theological issue at stake at the Council of Nicaea. Why was it so

important for the church at that time?3. Discuss the theological position Arius held and promoted. What role did the high value

placed on reason play in Arius’s position, and how did that impact the popularity of Arianism?

4. How did Arius support his views from Scripture?5. What became Athanasius’s key theological argument in support of the orthodox view?

How did his argument help explain the nature and person of Jesus Christ?6. How did the worship of the church tend to support the orthodox view?7. Discuss how the Nicene Creed specifically addressed and opposed the theological

position of Arius.8. What were the key implications for the church-state relationship of Arius’s and the

orthodox views?

Application for Today’s Church1. Discuss how your church would receive Arius. What kinds of people would be

attracted to his perspective?2. What influences in your culture impact the fundamental theology concerning the

nature of God and Jesus Christ? Which do you consider the most dangerous to orthodoxy?

3. Discuss why the Nicene Creed has stood the test of time as such a pivotal expression of faith. What is it about this expression that has remained so close to the center of Christian faith and worship?

4. Discuss whether a standard for orthodoxy exists in the church today. If so, what is its basis of authority? How does our definition of the church affect our answer to this?

Chapter 31. As the title of this chapter suggests, the opposing sides of the critical issues leading up

to the 451 council had more at odds than just theology. What other forces were at work polarizing the different points of view?

2. What does the earlier Council of Ephesus in 431 tell us about the temperaments of the opposing sides at that point in time?

3. We begin to see in this chapter some growing cultural differences between the churches of East and West. What kinds of differences marked the two regions in their approach to theology?

4. Discuss the central theological issue at stake at the Council of Chalcedon.5. Discuss how Word-flesh Christology explained the nature and person of Christ, as this

perspective was developed by Apollinaris, Cyril, Eutyches, and others.6. Discuss how Word-man Christology explained the nature and person of Christ, as this

perspective was developed by Nestorius, Flavian, and others.7. Discuss how Pope Leo’s Tome addressed the opposing perspectives. What role would

the Tome play at the Council of Chalcedon?8. How did current political changes impact the calling of the Council at Chalcedon?9. How does the christological controversy demonstrate Christianity’s ability to make a

successful “translation” from its Semitic roots to the Hellenistic language and culture?

Application for Today’s Church1. Discuss how the contemporary church—and individual believers—benefit today from

the outcome of the Council of Chalcedon.2. As the author explained, both the Antiochene and Alexandrian points of view provoke

their own misrepresentations of Christ when taken to their extremes. Discuss these extremes and how Christians today sometimes can still encounter them when trying to explain the person of Jesus.

3. Reflect on whether you tend to lean toward one perspective more than another. If so, is that leaning a reflection of your church’s teaching, your background, personal understanding, or other factors?

Chapter 41. Discuss how the church’s political success in the fourth century became its greatest

weakness, from the perspective of monasticism.2. What potential dangers could arise from the division between monastics and other

Christians?3. What were Benedict’s motives—as far as we know—for entering a life of monasticism?

For writing the Rule?4. What did the monastic life offer that was lacking elsewhere?5. How did Benedict establish controls against the potential abuses of monasticism?6. Discuss the impact that monasticism’s “inner motivations” had on the church at large.7. What were some of the philosophical influences on the development of monasticism?8. What could monastic life offer women that was not generally available to them

elsewhere?

Application for Today’s Church1. What is the legacy that monasticism has left to the church today? Try to name all of the

fruits of monasticism that have benefited the church down through the centuries up until today.

2. Having read this chapter, discuss the ways you have been most significantly blessed by the legacy of monasticism.

3. Discuss the cycle of monastic renewal to decay to renewal. What tended to cause these alternating phases? How is the same cycle apparent in the church at large, at the local level, and in the life of the believer?

4. The monastic movement was one expression of Christ’s directive to be “in the world but not of it.” Discuss other movements throughout the history of Christianity that took different approaches to this challenge.

5. The author states that monasticism was the most important institution established by the church since Christ’s commissioning of his disciples. Determine whether you agree with this statement.

Chapter 51. Discuss the significant events that had a key role in strengthening the role of the

papacy.2. Was it the historical events of their day or the personalities of the early popes that

most increased their influence and power?3. What caused the bishop of Rome, as opposed to the ones in Constantinople, Antioch,

Alexandria, or other key cities, to gain such influence? What events might have ended differently if the seat of ecclesiastical power had been in the East?

4. What characteristics of the influential popes like Leo and Gregory brought the most positive good to the life of the church?

5. Discuss the ways the spread of Islam changed the growth and character of the church in the seventh and eighth centuries. How might Christianity have looked different by the year 800 if Islam had never spread into the Mediterranean?

6. Define “Christendom.” Discuss how it shaped medieval Europe’s outlook on everyday life, including politics, social conduct, and economic conduct, and how they related to the church.

7. Sacramental theology evolved throughout the Middle Ages. What was at the core of this way of thinking?

8. Christendom created a delicate balance of power between the church and the state. Discuss ways in which it could be abused by either side.

9. What sources do we have for discerning the life of the church in the Middle Ages? How do our sources limit what we know? What gaps are there?

Application for Today’s Church1. Are remnants of Christendom still apparent in our culture today? If so, what are they?

If not, what has taken its place?2. How does a sacramental perspective on the Christian faith help a believer follow God

better? What possible pitfalls are there?

Chapter 6Note to Readers: In addition to the questions listed below, readers are encouraged after finishing chapter 6 to give consideration to the Overview Questions listed on pages 330-31.

1. What role did church corruption play in provoking the final split between East and West?

2. How did the complex interplay of church and state, which was typical within that period’s understanding of Christendom, encourage the Great Schism?

3. Discuss the characteristics of the church in the West. Why is Tertullian a worthwhile representative?

4. Discuss the characteristics of the church in the East. What are some of the distinctive theological concepts that differed from the West’s?

5. What theological issues played a role in the schism? Was it the theological issue or the political/cultural issues behind it that escalated this issue?

6. Describe what forces outside the church encouraged the rift between East and West.7. How did the Crusades contribute to dooming the future of reunification between East

and West?8. Describe the distinctives of the Christian faith as it developed in Orthodox Russia.9. How is modern Orthodoxy similar to the Eastern church of the eleventh century? How

is it different?

Application for Today’s Church1. How is the contemporary American church similar to the Roman church? How is it

more similar to the Eastern church?2. What theological impact would there be in the reunification of the Roman Catholic and

Eastern Orthodox churches? To what extent should Christians consider this a priority?3. Compare the 1054 schism to modern divisions that occur within the body of Christ.

Discuss the interplay of personalities, cultures, and theology in these modern schisms. What is God’s role in these schisms?

4. What can contemporary Christians take as the warning signs of schism from the episode of 1054, and how might awareness of those signs prevent more divisions between Christians and churches?

Chapter 71. Bases of authority have been a key concern for the Christian church from its

beginnings to the present. Up until the time of Luther, what had served as the authoritative bases of the Christian church? What new element does Luther add to this list?

2. In what ways were Emperor Charles V’s warnings to Luther at the Diet of Worms prophetic, as we look at the history of Christianity in Europe and North America after 1521?

3. What were the key Christian influences on Luther?4. How were civil/political bases of authority affected by Luther’s break with Rome?5. How did Luther impact the medieval concept of Christendom by his ideas and

theology?6. How does the author’s perspective color his impression of Luther and Luther’s

opponents? Discuss how a Roman Catholic author would have treated Luther and the Diet of Worms.

7. Discuss how the theology of the cross, in Luther’s scheme of thinking, was being contradicted by the established church of his day. In other words, what made the “theology of the cross” stand apart from the “theology of glory”?

8. Discuss how the theology of the cross reintroduced, in the author’s opinion, the biblical concept of grace to the sixteenth-century church.

Application for Today’s Church1. The paradoxes found in Luther’s theology of the cross are a timeless truth of our

Christian heritage. Discuss the various paradoxes that Luther presented and discuss why they still remain powerful truths today.

2. The personality problems seen in Luther, when viewed in light of his tremendous contribution to the church, can be troubling to some people today. How should we weigh Luther’s problems and his work, and how can that help us as we look at modern-day Christian leaders whose failings have been exposed to the world? Is there a model in Luther of how to balance the two sides?

Chapter 81. Why does the author consider the Act of Supremacy—a motion of the state—a turning

point in the history of Christianity?2. What new basis of authority within European Christianity was established with the

Act of Supremacy?3. Why might a person conclude that the Reformation was simply a result of political,

social, and intellectual causes? Why does the author warn against this approach?4. How was the breakup of European Christianity into different Protestantisms a natural

outcome of the trends within Europe leading up to the sixteenth century? What outside cultural and social forces fanned the flames that led to the breaks that occurred in the formerly united church?

5. Is this new role of the king of England as head of the church the same role that kings played in medieval Christendom? If not, how is it different from medieval Christendom?

6. Why would it be incorrect to place the blame for the Reformation on the medieval papacy alone?

7. In the author’s assessment, what were the key results of the Reformation? How did development of local/regional Protestantisms actually encourage and strengthen the church?

Application for Today’s Church1. In what ways and in what places does the state still act as a base of authority in

contemporary Christianity?2. What were the primary issues that tended to differentiate one brand of Protestantism

from another? Do these issues still divide denominations today, or have they been replaced by other points of distinction?

Chapter 91. Reformers Martin Luther and Ignatius Loyola took two widely different paths in their

attempts to reform Christ’s church. Discuss the similarities and differences between these men, including their backgrounds, their stand on the church and authority, and their accomplishments.

2. According to the author, what were the principal contributions of the Jesuit movement, begun in 1540?

3. Reform within the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century had two opposing approaches toward Protestantism before the Council of Trent. What were those approaches, and which one prevailed after the council?

4. The Regensburg Colloquium brought some agreement between Catholics and Lutheran Protestants. On which points did they agree, and on which ones did they disagree?

5. In what sense was the outcome of the Council of Trent a result of the rise of Protestantism, and therefore a “Counter-Reformation”? In what sense did it illustrate the Roman Catholic Church’s attempts at internal reformation?

6. What does the author believe to be the greatest contribution of the Catholic Reformation?

7. Discuss the struggle that occurred among mission-minded Roman Catholics as they strove to reach foreign lands and cultures with the gospel.

8. Discuss the possible reasons why the Roman Catholic tradition was far ahead of the Protestants in terms of missions outside Europe.

9. The author notes that the Council of Trent provides Protestants with more confirmation that Roman Catholicism “laid far too much stress on the forms or structures of the faith at the expense of genuine piety of the heart.” Do you think, based on Noll’s presentation of this chapter, that he agrees with this assessment? How do his background and perspectives shape his writing of the chapter?

10. Discuss what you believe made the Jesuit movement so committed and driven for the church.

Application for Today’s Church1. Discuss the effects of the Catholic Reformation on the Roman Catholic Church today.

How are contemporary relations between Catholic and certain Protestant groups different from the sixteenth century?

2. Discuss ways that the Jesuits are still making an impact on their society today. How do Roman Catholics and Protestants perceive them?

3. The distinctive vigor and discipline of Ignatius Loyola’s commitment to Christ no doubt appealed to thousands during the sixteenth century. Discuss individuals within the contemporary church who inspire others with an aggressive, energetic approach to the cause of Christ (either Catholic, Protestant, or Orthodox).

Chapter 101. What inspired John and Charles Wesley to work outside the religious conventions of

the eighteenth century?2. John Wesley experienced conversion after reading Luther’s preface to his Epistle to the

Romans. Compare John Wesley’s theology with that of Luther and the other Reformers. How are the differences a reflection of Wesley’s personality? Of his era?

3. What aspects of eighteenth-century Protestantism did John Wesley help organize and institutionalize as key elements of modern evangelical Protestantism?

4. Pietism is often considered the European Continent’s equivalent to the revivalism experienced in England and North America. Discuss the roots of pietism especially as a reaction to the trends occurring within European Protestantism. What was it a reaction against?

5. What were Philipp Jakob Spener’s proposals for reform? What were the two problems that resulted from Spener’s proposals? How are these problems representative of other reform movements in church history?

6. Pietism on the European continent had several manifestations in the eighteenth century, but what were the common threads seen in the various movements?

7. Discuss what aspects of European society and thought had changed between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. How were the pietist, Wesleyan, and revivalist movements better equipped to meet the environment of the eighteenth century than the Protestantism of the sixteenth century?

8. The evangelicals and pietists of the eighteenth century spark the first significant push toward cross-cultural missions among Protestants. What characteristics of their faith and their time made this era the beginning of Protestant missions?

Application for Today’s Church1. What are the key characteristics shared by eighteenth-century evangelicals and

pietists that are still true of evangelical Protestants today? What characteristics of that era have changed?

2. What characteristics of the eighteenth century have remained in the contemporary period? Which aspects have changed? How has that impacted the different ways that the gospel is now presented?

3. The author asserts that the Wesleys were “the most effective proponents of the Reformation’s basic message. . . since Protestantism began with the work of Martin Luther, John Calvin, Menno Simons, and Thomas Cranmer.” The Wesleys took the central message of the Reformation and adapted those core truths of the gospel to the eighteenth century. Who are the modern John Wesleys who are taking and effectively presenting the truths of the gospel to the contemporary world?

Chapter 111. For the first time in this book, a purely secular event is named one of the Turning

Points in the history of Christianity. Why?2. Discuss the progression that Christendom has taken since the reign of Charlemagne,

through the Reformation and rise of national states, to the climax of the French Revolution.

3. What, in the words of Conor Cruise O’Brien, had come to take the place of traditional religion in the late eighteenth century ? What secular bases of authority were replacing Scripture, revelation, and tradition in Western thought?

4. What factors worked together to bring about the demise of European Christendom?5. How did new trends in science and the elevation of reason impact biblical studies in

the nineteenth century?6. What changed in the economic, cultural, social, intellectual, and national life of Europe

as a result of Christianity being “marginalized”?7. What are some of the ways that the church responded to the increasing secularization

of the West? Discuss some of the ways evangelical Christian leaders defended the faith in the midst of mounting opposition or indifference.

Application for Today’s Church1. What long-term impact does it have on churches today that Christianity was

“marginalized” in the nineteenth century?2. Does Christendom, as defined in chapter 5, still exist today in any form?3. Discuss whether and how Christianity (not Christendom) benefited from the

secularization of the West in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.4. In terms of defining standards of right and wrong, what bases of authority came to be

valued most in nineteenth-century Western thought? What was left over from the early church’s bases of authority? What do we consider our bases of authority today?

5. How are contemporary Christians directly impacted by the demise of Christendom that occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?

Chapter 121. In what respects was the Edinburgh Conference the “end of an epoch”? Why does the

author consider it a turning point?2. What were some of the theological topics addressed during the conference? How were

these issues related to the topic of missions?3. What, in the author’s assessment, is a critical step that needs to occur in successful

missions? Why was this less likely to result in missions activities prior to the Edinburgh Conference than after?

4. Given the reasons for the slowdown in missions activity in the eighteenth century, what seem to be the critical ingredients that need to exist within the church for missions to flourish?

5. Discuss the key players in the missions efforts of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. What common characteristics did these individuals share?

6. Drawing on the examples of various missions pioneers, what seemed to be the critical ingredients necessary to the success of local indigenization?

Application for Today’s Church1. How are congregations today in the West affected by the existence of a thriving and

growing global church? How should they be affected?2. What does the existence of a growing global church say to us in the West about the

images and words we use to express our faith in Christ?3. Where do you think Christian missions will be concentrating their efforts fifty years

from now?

Note to Readers: Readers are encouraged to now revisit the Overview Questions found on pages 330-31.

Chapter 131. Why is it easier to define Turning Points for Catholicism in the twentieth century than

for evangelical and independent Protestants?2. How did the Second Vatican Council change the direction of Catholicism for the laity?3. How did the Second Vatican Council redefine the relationship between Scripture and

tradition, particularly the role of the pope?4. How did Vatican II make more evident the various theological positions within the

Catholic Church?5. Describe how Billy Graham’s worldwide preaching ministry affected the scope and

goals of the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization. What contributions did John Stott make?

6. Identify the contributions of the non-Western delegates.7. Compare and contrast modern Roman Catholicism as represented by Vatican II with

modern evangelical and independent Protestantism as represented by Lausanne. What do they have in common? Where do they differ?

Application for Today’s Church1. How might you justify putting the Lausanne Congress on a par with the Second Vatican

Council in terms of its significance for the history of Christianity?2. Describe any changes you have seen in the relationship between Catholics and

Protestants over the course of your lifetime.3. Try to identify ways in which the particular form of Christianity that you practice has

benefited from the Second Vatican Council and/or the Lausanne Congress, perhaps in ways that you had not previously thought about?

4. Do you think the future health of the Christian church lies more in the direction of formal institutions like the Catholic Church or the more informal networks that characterize evangelical and independent Protestants?

Afterword1. Why does the author conclude that events and social changes in the twentieth century

will have a greater degree of influence than individuals, especially when compared with Christian leaders of the past?

2. What key element of Pentecostalism explains its appeal and growth in the modern era, especially in the Majority World?

3. How did women missionaries and writers/theologians of the past pave the way to a greater awareness of the role of women in the present and the contributions they make to an understanding of the Christian faith?

4. What are the implications of the massive effort in the twentieth century to translate the Bible into a multitude of local languages? Do you see any parallels to the replacement of Latin in the mass with the vernacular?

5. To what do you ascribe the survival and renewal of Christianity under totalitarian regimes?

Application for Today’s Church1. Ascribing an event as a turning point requires the historian’s hindsight, because only

with that hindsight can one see how the course of events was affected by the turning point. Discuss Turning Points as a way of organizing the history of Christianity. Do you think this format is a viable way of “doing history” ? What are its advantages ? Its disadvantages ?

2. Do you think that the author’s bent toward evangelical Protestantism has colored the flow of his narrative from Jerusalem to the twenty-first century? Are there other significant Turning Points that he has missed? If so, what are they and why are they important?

3. Historians are notoriously reluctant to predict the future. But if you pushed him, what might the author speculate lies ahead for the Christian church in the twenty-first century?

4. Where do you see the Christian church worldwide going? What will be your place in it?