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1
Overexploitation of Groundwater Resources and their Environmental and Socio-economic Implications
-the case of Jordan-
Prof. Elias Salameh.Marwan Al-Raggad.
2
This article will illustrate the over-exploited, non-equilibrium state of the groundwater resources of Jordan as an
example on the groundwater situation in most MENA countries.
3
Population:6,198,677 (July 2008 est.)
Area91,971 SQ KM
4
JORDAN…story of the place
• 4th Water scarcest country globally.
• 148 m3 Annual per capita supply.
• Groundwater deficit is about 315MCM (if all water withdrawn fromsprings is included).
• 62.4% of water consumed is in agriculture, generating 2.8% of total income and employing only 6% of workforce.
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Abstract
Jordan like many other countries, especially those of the MENA region is overusing its groundwater resources stocks.
The present impacts on the groundwater itself are manifested in:
•Drop in groundwater levels.•Reduction in spring discharges.•Saltwater intrusions.•Deteriorating water quality.
The resulted socio-economic impacts are :•Human health.•Declining agricultural productivity due to higher water salinity.•Larger investments in the purification of increasingly deteriorating water.•Operational coast of wells increased.
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Development of the groundwater resources in Jordan
The major development of the groundwater resources in Jordan started during the seventies of the last century.
During the early seventies, the major aquifers in the surroundings of development centers were first tapped.
During the second half of the 70ies, groundwater development extended to other aquifers and areas.
In the eighties, all major groundwater basins were developed for municipal, industrial and irrigation supplies.
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160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007Year
Domestic use of groundwater
84
5
6
7
8
9
10
1998 2005 2010 2015 2020
Mill
ion
Cap
ita
DOS 2003 MWI & World Bank 2001
POPULATION GROWTH SCENARIOS
9
Irrigation water use
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Year
Wat
er u
se M
CM
10
Industrial use of groundwater
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Year
Wat
er u
se M
CM
11
Groundwater Basins in Jordan.
12
Groundwater wells / Jordan
Model by: Marwan AlraggadMWI / WAJ / DVD
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Declining water levels
All major aquifers in Jordan witnessed declines in their water levels.
Only in small areas surrounding wastewater effluent discharges and leaky dams, have water levels risen slightly (MAR dams).
As a result of non-equilibrated extractions, already during the eighties vital groundwater basins started giving sings of overexploitation such as steadily dropping water levels and quality degradation. Examples on that are Jafr, Dhuleil and Azraq.
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!(
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Azraq
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Amman Zarqa
Araba North
Dea
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ea g
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dwat
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Arab
a S
outh
YarmoukJordan Side Valleys
Jordan Valley
G 1346
F 1043
ED1328
DF1003
CD1132
AL1430
AE1003
AD1148
200000.000000
200000.000000
300000.000000
300000.000000
400000.000000
400000.000000
500000.000000
500000.000000
600000.000000
600000.000000
700000.000000
700000.000000
3000
00.0
0000
0
3000
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0000
0
4000
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0000
0
4000
00.0
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0
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0
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6000
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!( Observation well
´
0 50 100 15025Kilometers
Water level sample
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AD1148
460
465
470
475
480
485
490N
ov-7
4
Nov
-76
Nov
-78
Nov
-80
Nov
-82
Nov
-84
Nov
-86
Nov
-88
Nov
-90
Nov
-92
Nov
-94
Nov
-96
Nov
-98
Nov
-00
Nov
-02
Nov
-04
Nov
-06
Nov
-08
YEAR
W. L
EVE
L (m
asl
)AE1003
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Sep
-82
Sep
-84
Sep
-86
Sep
-88
Sep
-90
Sep
-92
Sep
-94
Sep
-96
Sep
-98
Sep
-00
Sep
-02
Sep
-04
Sep
-06
Sep
-08
YEAR
W. L
EVE
L (m
asl
)
AL1430
450
455
460
465
470
475
480
485
490
Mar
-85
Mar
-86
Mar
-87
Mar
-88
Mar
-89
Mar
-90
Mar
-91
Mar
-92
Mar
-93
Mar
-94
Mar
-95
Mar
-96
Mar
-97
Mar
-98
Mar
-99
Mar
-00
Mar
-01
Mar
-02
Mar
-03
Mar
-04
Mar
-05
Mar
-06
Mar
-07
Mar
-08
YEAR
W. L
EVEL
(m a
sl)
CD1132
615
620
625
630
635
640
645
650
655
660
665
Nov
-85
Nov
-86
Nov
-87
Nov
-88
Nov
-89
Nov
-90
Nov
-91
Nov
-92
Nov
-93
Nov
-94
Nov
-95
Nov
-96
Nov
-97
Nov
-98
Nov
-99
Nov
-00
Nov
-01
Nov
-02
Nov
-03
Nov
-04
Nov
-05
Nov
-06
Nov
-07
Nov
-08
YEAR
W. L
EV
EL
(m a
sl)
16
ED1328
730
732
734
736
738
740
742
744
746Fe
b-85
Feb-
86
Feb-
87
Feb-
88
Feb-
89
Feb-
90
Feb-
91
Feb-
92
Feb-
93
Feb-
94
Feb-
95
Feb-
96
Feb-
97
Feb-
98
Feb-
99
Feb-
00
Feb-
01
Feb-
02
Feb-
03
Feb-
04
Feb-
05
Feb-
06
Feb-
07
Feb-
08
YEAR
W. L
EVE
L (m
asl
)DF1003
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
May
-84
May
-85
May
-86
May
-87
May
-88
May
-89
May
-90
May
-91
May
-92
May
-93
May
-94
May
-95
May
-96
May
-97
May
-98
May
-99
May
-00
May
-01
May
-02
May
-03
May
-04
May
-05
May
-06
May
-07
May
-08
YEAR
WAT
ER L
EVEL
(m a
sl)
F 1043
480
485
490
495
500
505
510
515
Feb-
86
Feb-
87
Feb-
88
Feb-
89
Feb-
90
Feb-
91
Feb-
92
Feb-
93
Feb-
94
Feb-
95
Feb-
96
Feb-
97
Feb-
98
Feb-
99
Feb-
00
Feb-
01
Feb-
02
Feb-
03
Feb-
04
Feb-
05
Feb-
06
Feb-
07
Feb-
08
YEAR
W. L
EVEL
(m a
sl)
G 1346
1210
1220
1230
1240
1250
1260
1270
1280
Jan-
88
Jan-
89
Jan-
90
Jan-
91
Jan-
92
Jan-
93
Jan-
94
Jan-
95
Jan-
96
Jan-
97
Jan-
98
Jan-
99
Jan-
00
Jan-
01
Jan-
02
Jan-
03
Jan-
04
Jan-
05
Jan-
06
Jan-
07
Jan-
08
Jan-
09
YEAR
W. L
EVEL
(m a
sl)
17
18
• During the nineties, all groundwater basins in Jordan were suffering of overexploitation expressed in depletion and quality deterioration.
• By now some of the major groundwater basins has become beyond repair andare considered as lost, such as Dhuleil, Jafr and partly Azraq
• Water level dropping rates ranging from 30 to 120cm/yr (WAJ files).
• The saturated thickness of aquifers go up to a maximum of around 150m (WAJ files). Continuing with the present extraction rates, the major aquifers are expected to irreversibly deplete within 10-30 years (Except Disi)
19
Spring discharge
Springs in almost all parts of Jordan were negatively affected. Springs discharges declined or stopped and in some of them salinity increases and quality deterioration were registered.
The Jordanian Justice witnessed, during the 80s and 90s of the last century, filings of many processes of spring water users against well owners who, due to water pumping from wells negatively affected spring discharges or caused, discharges to stop.
20
Yearly Spring Discharge Volume (m3)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1972
/1973
1973
/1974
1977
/1978
1978
/1979
1979
/1980
1980
/1981
1981
/1982
1982
/1983
1983
/1984
1984
/1985
1985
/1986
1986
/1987
1987
/1988
1988
/1989
1989
/1990
1990
/1991
1991
/1992
1992
/1993
1993
/1994
1994
/1995
1995
/1996
1996
/1997
1997
/1998
1998
/1999
1999
/2000
2000
/2001
2001
/2002
2002
/2003
2003
/2004
2005
/2006
2006
/2007
water_year
Year
ly S
prin
g D
isch
arge
Vol
ume
(MC
M)
DOQA(AB0504)
Yearly Spring Discharge Volume (m3)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1972/1973 1973/1974 1979/1980 1980/1981 1981/1982 1982/1983 1983/1984 1984/1985 1985/1986 1986/1987 1987/1988 1988/1989 1989/1990
water_year
Year
ly S
prin
g D
isch
arge
Vol
ume
(MC
M)
SODA POOL (AZRAQ SOUTH)(F 0523)
21
Yearly Spring Discharge Volume (m3)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1984
/1985
1985
/1986
1986
/1987
1987
/1988
1988
/1989
1989
/1990
1990
/1991
1991
/1992
1992
/1993
1993
/1994
1994
/1995
1995
/1996
1996
/1997
1997
/1998
1998
/1999
1999
/2000
2000
/2001
2001
/2002
2002
/2003
2003
/2004
2004
/2005
2005
/2006
2006
/2007
2007
/2008
water_year
Year
ly S
prin
g D
isch
arge
Vol
ume
(MC
M)
22
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
smaple_yearYe
arly
Ave
rage
Qua
lity
REFINERY 7(AL1180)
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 2004 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2006 2003
smaple_year
Yea
rly A
vera
ge Q
ualit
y
SAFI NO 14(CA1097)
Groundwater Salinity
23
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
smaple_yearYe
arly
Ave
rage
Qua
lity
JAFER NO 19 (PP 470)(G 1038)
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
smaple_year
Year
ly A
vera
ge Q
ualit
y
MNEISHEER S-2(ED1302)
Groundwater Salinity
24
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
smaple_year
Year
ly A
vera
ge Q
ualit
y
GHANNAM(AB0540)
Yearly Average Quality for Electrical Conductivity (Us/cm)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
smaple_year
Year
ly A
vera
ge Q
ualit
y
SUKHNEH(AL0522)
Springs Salinity
25
Socio-economic impacts
The strong drops in groundwater levels, in most basins, forced well owners in many areas to deepen their wells.
Salinity effect on in the agricultural activities. (Jafr, Dhuleil, Azraq etc)
26
Water Authority resorted to the very limited surface water resources as a source of municipal water such as, King Abdullah Canal water.
The mal-functioning of the treatment of surface water for municipal use led to two catastrophes during the last two decades.
The situation of water resources depletion and deterioration is not restricted to Jordan, but it is also the case in Saudi-Arabia the Gulf States, and North Africa (Lloyd 1998, Margat 1993, WB 1994. Foster 1992, Margat and Saad 1982 Mangat 1992).
27
Case Study…. AZRAQ area
AZRAQ = Blue
28
30 years ago
29
Now…
30
• Socioeconomic Aspect:Hand made products
31
Fishing
Carp fish
32
• Socioeconomic Aspect:
Salt mining.
33
• Socioeconomic Aspect:Trading center
34
Water as a resource for local community
70%
8%
22%
high
medlow
35
Socioeconomic values of Azraq basin
16%
18%5%
12%
15%
4%7% 2%
21%
fresh water dates, herbals wild life & fishhistory tourism salt miningtrading center agriculture diversity (socio)
36
Solid waste, 10%
Waste water, 15%Losing biodiversity, 18%
Other, 15%
Salt water intrusion, 5%Pesticides, 5%
Desertification, 13%
Dust pollution (health), 13%
Drinking water deterioration, 6%
Main environmental problems in Azraq
37
•Discussion
• Water depletion and pollution management efficiency can be measured by its performance.
• Misuse of water resources, water pollution, over-utilization or not respecting sustainability principles and intergeneration equity indicate unsound water resources management.
• It should never be accepted that the cause of development is used as a reason to sacrifice the water resources whether quantitatively or qualitatively.
• Development should be compatible with the water resources issues,.
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Any project generating depletion and degradation of water resources without the mechanisms and economic instruments to repair that degradation can be regarded as a misallocation and misuse of water resources.
Any water development plan whether for urban, industrial or agricultural use should include an economic feasibility aiming at objectives beneficial to the society.
39
The history of humans in the area of MENA throughout the last three to four millennia has been determined and shaped largely by this major infrastructural element, water. Agriculture developed when the amount of rain was sufficient to support plant life.
Irrigated agriculture was practiced along water courses such as the Nile,Euphrates, Tigris and Jordan Rivers and springs as well as around oases.
40
• MENA countries development has been concentrated in agriculture, mainly irrigated agriculture.
• Sharp increase in population.
• New challenge to development.
41
The present shortage in water resources and the expected sharpening of demand should give rise to water policies.
The challenge facing us is to develop and introduce the necessary technologies for water and waste water systems.
42
Leakage detection and maintenance is a more economical way to increase the efficiency of water supply (more than 30% in Jordan) Waste water treatment and reuse should become an integral part of water supply.
In the coming decade high-cost projects, environmental hazards and tightened budgets will make large water projects unattractive and difficult to implement (Dead Red Canal).
43
•Competition for the water resources.
•New resources require new thinking and new management procedures.
•MENA countries should develop water strategies with adequate dynamic instruments in it to enable comprehensive planning.
44
•The change to an efficient water economy will not be an easy task.
•Groundwater abstraction should be limited to aquifer safe yields; it should have no adverse effects on the groundwater quality or quantity.
•Future generations rights.
45
Rainfall - Recharge relation
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Recharge MCM/yr
Perc
enta
ge o
f lon
g te
rm ra
in a
vera
geClimatic change effect
13525
46
Temp-Recharge relation
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
Normal Plus 1c Plus 2cTem. scenario
Rec
harg
e M
CM
/yr
47
“Problems cannot be solved by the same level of thinking that created them.”
Albert Einstein
48
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