OUTDOOR RECREATION: A PSYCHOLOGICAL

NEED SATISFIER

by

JOHN EDWARD JULSONNET, B.S.

A THESIS

IN·

PARK ADMINISTRATION

Submitted to the Graduate School of Texas Tech University 1n

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Approved

Accepted

December, 19'17

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Dr. James W. Kitchen; Dr.

Ernest B. Fish; and Col. Fred D. Barnes, USAF; for their

support, direction, and helpful criticism during the

preparation of this thesis.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

I. INTRODUCTION

Justification

Review of Literature

II. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGIES

Objectives

Methodology

III. MAN'S BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

Introduction

Definition of Terms

Psychological Needs

Critique of Psychological Needs

IV. OUTDOOR RECREATION SATISFIES PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

Introduction

Psychological Need Satisfiers

Critique of the Findings

V. OUTDOOR RECREATION SERVICES

Introduction

Problems

Solution of Substitution

Dissemination of Information

iii

ii

v

vi

1

2

2

8

8

8

9

9

9

10

16

19

19

20

25

28

28

28

32

36

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

LITERATURE CITED

iv

40

42

LIST OF TABLES

1. Psychological Needs Satisfied by Participation in OUtdoor Recreation

2. Managerial Solutions Used to Control Use

v \ \

27

30

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Morgan's Motivational Cycle

2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

3. Interrelationship of Psychological Clusters

vi

10

14

35

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The hypothesis of this thesis is: Outdoor recreation

satisfies specific psychological needs which are basic to

man. Two terms used in this hypothesis which require spe­

cific definition are outdoor recreation and psychological

need.

According to various dictionary definitions, recre­

ation is derived from the Latin word "receare" which.means

to create, to restore, and to become refreshed. Recreation

strengthens and exhilarates the individual not only physi­

cally, but also mentally. This paper deals specifically

with outdoor types of recreation. According to Jensen

(1970), outdoor recreation can be defined as recreational

activities which occur in an outdoor (natural) environment

and which relate directly to the environment. Some examples

of outdoor recreation would be fishing, hunting, golfing,

water-skiing, and snow skiing.

Webster defines need as a lack of something useful,

requ_ired, or desired (Guralnik and Friend, 1966). Accord­

ing to Morgan (1956), a psychological need is an element

essential to the mental or psychic well being of an

individual.

1

---

Justification

In, The Leisure Age, It's Challenges to Recreation,

Miller and Robinson (1963) state,

The modern recreation field has produced few philos­ophers to speak for it. There is a need for philo­sophical writings that will continue to integrate the scientific knowledge bearing on the recreation field, .•• and the faQts concerning modern recre­ation in relation to individuals, their needs, and their potentials.

This statement is a major justification for the relevance

of this thesis.

Review of Literature

As the world moved from an agrarian based society to

an industrial based society, the population started to

shift from rural living to urban living. With the popula-

tion shift, came an apparent increase in the need for out-

door recreation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century

philosophers began to pay more attention to the theories of

play and recreation. Philosophers such as Rabelais and

Montaigne in France, Mulcaster and Ascham in England, and

Comenius in Germany pleaded for the necessity of play in

life.

Prior to the 1900's, America was essentially an agrar-

ian nation. After 1900, America turned to industrialism

2

and Americans started to get involved in outdoor recreation.

Early American recreationists wrote their personal

philosophies as to why people engaged in recreation (Miller

and Robinson, 1963).

In 1945, Ott Romney divided an individual's life into

three classes. These classes are:

{1) time for existence--biological requirements, such as sleeping, eating, sanitation, and the like (10 hours daily),

{2) time for subsistence--economic requirements such as working on one's job {9 hours daily),

(3) leisure time--the time remaining after a minimum level of existence and subsistence have been accomplished (5 hours daily).

Romney believed these "leisure hours" are not preoccupied

with the necessity for existence or subsistence (Miller and

Robinson, 1963). The question arises as to what activities

does man engage in during his leisure time and does the

activity participation fulfill any specific requirement for

man or does it simply serve to occupy the hours not devoted

to the so-called essential requirements for existence and

subsistence~-

These questions must be answered to determine whether

the field of outdoor recreation is vital to the productiv-

ity and health of man or whether outdoor recreation can be

replaced by something else.

Finally, outdoor recreation leaders should know how

outdoor recreation satisfies man's n~eds. With this knowl­

edge, they can specifically orient programs to help satisfy

particular needs of m~n.

3

Most authors, before attempting to analyze why people

participate in recreation, have shown the existence of play

in society (Miller and Robinson, 1963). Anthropologists

have found in their study of ancient peoples that community

recreation did exist. The fact that original organized

sports are found in present-day primitive tribes indicates

that the anthropologist finding~ are valid (Seidell, 1938).

4

A significant number of games in ancient societies were

not played for sheer fun. Most games were devised by the

tribes to train youths for battle, thus there was a definite

connection between games and physical combat (Seidell, 1938).

These games included ballgames, races, contests of strength

and skill, swimming, riding, running, and archery. Many of

these games were closely related to the survival activities

of food gathering and self defense while others were related

to religious worship, which also seemed universal among

early people (Miller and Robinson, 1963).

The games of the ancient societies continued through to

17th century England. Leonard and Affleck in A Guide to the

History of Physical Education noted that England had a wide

range of spo~ts and recreation "much in use, as bowling,

archery .•. , pitching bars, hurling, wrestling, leaping,

running, fencing, swimming, rugby, ~nd many such events

which were common recreation of the country folks" (Miller

and Robinson, 1963).

By opening a newspaper to the sports page, it can be

observed that many of the games of the ancient societies

have continued to the present.

Recreation Philosophies

Various scholars in the area of recreation have stated

their philosophies on why people participate in recreation.

Alexander Reid Martin (195S, 1962) (Leisure Time as a

Basic Health Resource and "A Philosophy of Recreation")

• • . that leisure and recreation process are natural biological, and innate, and an essential phase of the growth cycle, that leisure .•. comes to us as a natural blessing by the 'Grace of God,' that there­creative process complements the work process . . . that leisure is essential to all creativity: that man's great imperishable initiations have only come to him during his moments of true leisure.

The 'on your toes and get ahead' philosophy results in an increased anxiety and of compulsiveness and tragic frustration over the inability to relax.

5

Max K~plan (1960) (Leisure in America: ASocial Inquiry)

Kaplan's essential elements to leisure were: a. an antithesis to 'work' as an economic function, b. a pleasant expectation and recollection, c. a minimum of involuntary social-role obligations, d. a psychological perception of freedom, e. a close relation to values of the culture, f. the inclusion of an entire range from .inconsequence

and insignificance to weightlessness and importance, g. often, but not necessarily, an activity character­

ized by the element of play. (Neulinger, 1965)

Melvin Radar (1950) (Ethics and Society)

••• the fundamental biological values, such as good nutritious food, rest, decent shelter, warm clothing, exercise and physical play, sex-expression, pain avoidance and he~lth care, must be considered basic

to the personality and therefore to the good life. (Miller and Robinson, 1963).

Norman Miller and Duane Robinson (1963) (The Leisure

Age, Its Challenges to Recreation)

Factors such as food, fresh air, and rest are vital to the organism, but activity is the means of stimulating bodily functioning.

Dr. Austin Fox Riggs (1935) (Play)

6

The function of play is to balance life in relation to work, to afford a refreshing contrast to responsibil­ity and routine, to keep alive that spirit of adventure and that sense of proportion which prevents taking one­self and one's job too seriously, and thus to avert the premature death of youth, and not i'nfrequently the pre­mature death of the man himself. (Kennedy, 1956)

Jay Nash (1965) (Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure)

Recreation is any form of experience or activity which an individual engages from choice because of the per­sonal enjoyment and satisfaction which it brings directly to him.

Ott Romney (1945) (Off the Job Living)

Recreation is not a matter of motions--but rather emo­tions. It is a personal response, a psychological reaction, an attitude, an approach.

H. G. Danford (1953) ("My Philosophy of Recreation")

Among the basic needs of human beings are the need for activity or movement; the need for recognition, status, and self-direction; the need for group acceptance; the need £or new and interesting experience or adventure; and the need for expression. In the satisfaction of these needs • • • recreation has an important part to play.

These philosophies on recreation reveal divergent as

well as common opinions. However, few of the authors have

produced extensive philosophical writings which integrate

7

the present scientific knowledge of man into the recreational

field. Therefore, this thesis has attempted to use the pres­

ent scientific knowledge and understanding of man and apply

it to the question of whether or not outdoor recreation ful­

fills a particular need for man or mainly serves to occupy

those hours of·the day which are not devoted to existence

and subsistence requirements.

are:

CHAPTER II

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGIES

Objectives

The objectives of this thesis are:

1. To review literature and determine the basic psy­

chological needs of man;

2. To review literature and ascertain if outdoor rec­

reation satisfies these basic psychological needs;

3. To provide relevant information for outdoor recre­

ation leaders so they can develop satisfying out­

door recreation services for the public.

Methodology

The methods utilized for completion of the objectives

1. An extensive review.of literature pertaining to the

psychological needs of man in order to determine

the most basic needs;

2. An extensive review of literature to determine

what psychological needs can be satisfied by par­

ticipating in outdoor recreation;

3. Combine the results of the first two objectives in

order to provide outdoor recreation leaders with

information which will help them develop satisfy­

ing outdoor recreational services for the public.

8

CHAPTER II

MAN'S BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

Introduction

The literature concerning man's needs generally encom­

passes both the so-called physiological needs and the psy­

chological needs. In this thesis special emphasis has been

placed on the psychological needs. A discussion of the

physiological requirements of man has been avoided as far

as possible. Over the centuries, psychologists have

attempted to ascertain the 11 basic 11 psychological needs of

man. This research has attempted to determine which psy­

chological needs man inevitably attempts to satisfy. In

this chapter, a re~iew of the psychologists' results and a

list of man's most basic psychological needs are presented

to lay the foundation for determining which needs can be

satisfied by outdoor recreation participation.

Definition of Terms

The words need and motive appear to be used inter­

changeably throughout psychological literature. In the

introductory portion of this paper, need is defined by

Webster as; 11 a lack of something useful, required, or

desired. 11 Clifford Morgan (1956} defines psychological

needs as an element essential to the mental or psychic well

being of an individual. Morgan defines motive as a behavior

9

which is instigated by needs within an individual and is

directed toward goals which could be satisfied. A three­

stage motivation cycle has been designed to show how the

needs and motives are satisfied. The three stages are:

1. Need, drive, motive 2. Instrumental behavior--behavior to satisfy the

first stage 3. Goal or incentive--after achieving the goal, the

need is satisfied.

10

Figure 1 illustrates Morgan's conception of the motivational

cycle.

~Need~ Relief Striving Go~trurnental Behavior

Figure 1. Morgan's Motivational Cycle (Morgan, 1956)

The diagram shows that a need has to be first established

before satisfaction can be achieved.

Psychological Needs

~he needs of man have been divided into two separate

categories which are: (1) physiological (viscerogenic)

needs such as drives for hunger, clothing, and shelter, and

(2) social (psychogenic) needs such as drives for achieve­

ment, affiliation, and power (Isaacson et al., 1956).

The .social (psychogenic) needs of man have been contem­

plated since the beginning of time. When Moses wrote the

11

Pentateuch, he stated that man is given a mandate by the God

of Israel to subdue the earth in the physical and social

realms. This mandate can be found in Genesis 1:20-26 of the

Old Testament (Scofield, 1945). Robert White, realizing man

has a psychological need to subdue, states that the main-

spring of man's action is the- desire for competence. Com-

petence implies control over environmental factors--both

physical and social (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972).

Sigmund Freud (1924), a founder of modern psychology,

believed that human life is guided by the psychological need

to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Karen Horney adds to the

Freudian hypothesis when she states in her book New Ways,

Man is ruled not by the pleasure principle alone, but by two guiding principles: safety and satisfaction. People can renounce food, money, attention, and affec­tion so long as they are only renouncing satisfaction, but they cannot renounce these things if without them they would be or feel in danger of destitution or starvation or of being helplessly exposed to hostil­ity, in other words, if they lose their feeling of safety. (Wolman, 1960)

Besides Freud's work on the psychological needs of man,

new and unique ideas were being developed by other psychol­

ogists. Robert Isaacson, Max Hutt, arid Milton Blum (1956)

believed humans have at least two other psychological needs.

These needs are superiority and achievement.

The superiority need is a desire to obtain power over

things, people, and ideas. This power provides recognition

and approval from people of high social status. Alfred

Adler also believed that the superiority need is innate in

man (Wolman, 1960).

12

Secondly, the achievement need is satisfied by over­

coming obstacles, exercising power, and striving diligently

to perform a task at a level of excellence (Isaacson et al.,

1956). A composite portrait of an individual with high

achievement motivation would be: someone who wants to do

well at what he undertakes, who is energetic, nonconforming,

tends to be predisposed towards innovations, and works at

tasks which are traditionally unsafe (McClelland, 1958).

Thomas. Ringness, Herbert Klausmeier, and Arthur Singer

Jr. (1959) observed two more psychological needs of man.

These needs include sensory gratification and exploration.

The need for sensory gratification is demonstrated by

a child's desire to touch, taste, smell, see, and listen to

objects in his immediate surroundings. Among adults, the

forms of gratification are highly varied. Such terms as

tastes, preference, desires, urges, and drives are some­

times used to designate motives related to sensory gratifi­

cations. Attendance at movies, athletic contests, concerts,

recitals, and other recreational activities are typically

initiated by and directed toward sensory gratification.

Exploration of an individual's surroundings is desig­

nated as a psychological need. As children, we demonstrate

our inquisitive nature. about our environment. This

inquisitiveness can be seen by how children smell, touch,

taste, observe, and hear what goes on around them. This

exploratory need is not as prevalent in adults because it

13

is usually thwarded by society as an individual grows older.

Besides the psychological needs of exploration and

sensory gratification, Marvin· Sussman (1956) believed that

man needs freedom from routine and conformity. Man needs

time to develop latent talents and to express inner crav­

ings for artistic and aesthetic experience. Psychological

experiments with factory workers show that relieving one

activity with another results in a greater output in a

given period than is possible by constant concentration on

one line of work (Ruch, 1937).

Of all the psychologists who have written on psycholog­

ical needs of man, the one most quoted is Abraham Maslow.

Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs for man (Figure 2).

Maslow believed that a man will not progresst0the next

step on the diagram until he has satisfactorily fulfilled

his need on the previous level. The term satisfactorily is

used· in the sense that an individual does not have to com­

pletely fulfill a specific need before he can move to the

next step or level. Man progresses on the hierarchy chart

at his own pace. The steps or levels in the hierarchy are

extensively defined by Hersey and Blanchard (1972).

Self actualization Requirements

Esteem Requirements

Affiliation Requirements

Security Requirements

!Physiological Requirements

Figure 2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972).

14

Physiological needs are the first and most basic needs

of man. Therefore, the physiological needs have been placed

at the beginning of the hierarchy chart. These needs include

the viscerogenic needs of hunger, clothing, and shelter.

The second level of the hierarchy chart is security.

The security level represents freedom from fearing physical

danger and deprivation of the basic physiological needs.

~his need is concerned with the present and future self-

preservation of man and is the guiding principle in human

behavior (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972) . Man cannot progress

in t~e hierarchy of needs unless he believes he is safe.

Fear· is the greatest enemy to man's health and happiness

(Wolman, 1960).

~he third level of Maslow's hierarchy chart is the need

for affiliation. This need emphasizes that man must share

some kind of close, emotional, satisfying relationship with

another person or group of persons. The sense of acceptance

15

or belonging helps maintain the feeling of adequacy and

security- During the early years of development, emphasis

is placed on receiving rather than giving affection; how­

ever, during the adult years, an individual provides rather

than receives affection (Lindgren and Byrne, 1961).

The next step on Maslow's hierarchy chart is esteem.

Esteem provides a man with a sense of worthiness and com­

petence. This need is of basic importance to most people.

A feeling of inferiority may come from a lack of self-esteem.

If inferiority affects an individual's self-esteem, then

the individual may:

1. strive harder to achieve his goal,

2. change direction to more suitable goals,

3. lower levels of aspiration and/or work effort,

4. paralyze his ambitions (Swartz, 1963).

The final level in Maslow's chart is self actualization.

For people to achieve this level, they must be self-directed.

The term self-directed means thinking for oneself and making

decisions on one's own. A self-directed person overcomes

obstacles, exercises personal power, and strives for perfec­

tion. Man's adult life offers opportunities for self actual­

ization in a great variety of ways. These opportunities

include: community service, vocational careers, parenthood,

religious activities, and leisure-time activities (Lindgren

and Byrne, 1961).

16

Critique of Psychological Needs

Behavioral scientists will recognize an absence of in­

dustrial behaviorists in the previous section. such authors

~s: Elto Mayo (Hawthorne studies) , Douglas McGregor

(Theory X and Theory Y), George C. Homans (Human Group

Theory}, Chris Argyris (Immaturity-Maturity Theory),

Frederick Herzberg (Motivation-Hygiene Theory), and Rensis

Likert (Management Systems Theory) , although experts in the

field of industrial behavior, deal specifically with

Maslow's hierarchy and their own findings to increase the

productivity of men in their jobs.* Their writings did not

deal with leisure time activities which is the main subject

of this thesis.

Most of the psychological needs of man mentioned in

the literature by various authors can be placed within

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Sigmund Freud and Karen Horney's needs of p 1.easure,

safety, and satisfaction can be classified under Maslow's

security needs. Sigmund Freud (1924) believed that man

can be happy if he seeks pleasure and ·avoids pain. In

Maslow's security need, man desires to be safe and secure

and avoid hazards and death. Karen Horney's safety and

*rf one is interested in these theories, a book written by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchar~ ~1~72) entitled Manage­ment of Organizational Behavior, Ut1l1z1ng Human Resources, is very informative.

satisfaction needs are similar to Maslow's definition for

the security need (Wolman, 1960).

17

The superiority need observed by Isaacson, Hutt, and

Blum can be classified under the esteem needs of Maslow.

The feeling of superiority usually is obtained by a person

who has power. Power can be obtained by positional or per­

sonal influence. As a person acquires more power, his

superiority and esteem needs are satisfied proportionally.

Finally, Moses• and White's competence need and

McClelland, Isaacson, Hutt, and Blum's achievement need are

examples of Maslow's self actualization need. Both of these

needs demonstrate how man tries to control his environmental

factors in the social and physical realms (Hersey and

Blanchard, 1972).

The identified psychological needs which are not simi­

lar to Maslow's hierarchy are the needs for exploration,

sensory gratification, and freedom from routine and conform­

ity. A review of psychological literature implies that man

has at least seven basic psychological needs. These needs

are:

1. Security

2. Affiliation

3. Esteem

4. Self Actualization

5. Exploration

18

6. Sensory gratification

1. Freedom from routine and conformity

Evaluationsotneed fulfillment by outdoor recreation activ­

ities which follow compare activity achievements and bene­

fits against these seven basic psychological needs.

CHAPTER IV

OUTDOOR RECREATION SATISFIES

PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

Introduction

In this chapter, the basic psychological needs of man

have been compared with various outdoor recreation activ-

ities in an effort to determine which needs can be fulfilled

by specific outdoor recreation activity participation.

Outdoor recreation was earlier defined as: "Recre-

ational activities which occur in an outdoor (natural) envi-

ronment and which relate directly to the environment." The

following list of outdoor recreation activities has been

compiled in the 1974 nationwide outdoor recreation plan to

demonstrate the rank order of participation preferences for

various outdoor recreation activities (Jackson, 1974).

1. __ . Picnicking 2. Driving for pleasure 3. Swimming 4. Sightseeing 5. Pleasure walking 6. Attending Sporting

Events 7. Playing outdoor games

or sports 8. Fishing 9. General boating

10. Bicycling 11. Sledding 12. Attending concerts

and plays

19

13. Nature walks 14. Camping 15. Hunting 16. Ice Skating 17. Horseback riding 18. Hiking with pack 19. Water Skiing 20. Bird watching 21. Canoeing 22. Snow skiing 23. Sailing 24. Wildlife and bird

photography 25. Hountain climbing

20

These twenty-five activities, in terms of the number of par-

ticipants, account for well over 90 percent of all outdoor

recreation in America and demonstrate which activities Amer­

icans engage in during their leisure time. These activities

have been tested against the basic psychological needs of

man to determine whether they. fulfill a particular psycholog­

ical need or simply serve to occupy those hours of the day

which are not devoted t~ existence and subsistence

requirements.

Psychological Need Satisfiers

Before beginning the comparison of psychological needs

and outdoor recreation activities, it should be reemphasized

that in order for man to devote his efforts in the area of

psychological need fulfillment he must have first attained

reasonable satisfaction of his viscerogenic or physiological

requirements for food, clothing, and shelter (Hersey and

Blanchard, 1972).

The seven basic psychological needs of man presented in

chapter three are: (1) security, (2) affiliation, (3) self-

esteem, (4) self actualization, (5) sensory gratification,

(6) exploration, and (7) freedom from routine and conformity.

Man'ssecurityneed has been previously defined as a

freedom from fearing physical danger and deprivation of the

physiological needs (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972). This need

is not satisfied by most outdoor recreation activities. For

21

example, falling off a cliff while mountain climbing, derail-

ing while riding a roller coaster, and drowning while white

water canoeing are outdoor activities which physically

endanger an individual. Instead of freeing the individual

from the fear of physical danger, this fear is forced upon

the participant. The "thrill" of danger in certain circum­

stances is sought for its own sa~e. Many individuals are

attracted to dangerous sports. These individuals may act

very cautiously at first, but often become increasingly ven­

turesome as familiarity and skills are increased (Hebb, 1958).

Outdoor recreation activities contain some element of danger

for participants.

Affiliation, the second psychological need, can be sat­

isfied by outdoor recreation activities. This need has been

defined as man sharing a close, emotional satisfying rela­

tionship with people or groups of people (Lingren and Byrne,

1961). Outdoor recreation organizations which can help

satisfy this need include Explorer's clubs, Girl Scouts, Boy

Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Brownies, and Cub Scouts. Outdoor

recreation activities which are accomplished as a family

unit also satisfy this need. For example, camping (espe­

cially wilderness camping) places a family unit in an out­

door environment where the family must rely on each other

to provide the things needed (Hughes and Dudley, 1973}.

Clark, Hendee, and Campbell (1971) studied a well developed

22

national forest campground in Washington state to determine

the reasons for participation in camping as a leisure time

activity. Their survey concluded that campground users

believed that "teaching my children about the out-of-doors"

was the most important reason for camping. This survey also

showed that the statement "getting completely away from

people other than my camping party" vias not highly endorsed

by the people sampled (Hollender, 1977). Camping as a out­

door recreation activity apparently served to fulfill the

affiliation need for many of the participants.

Self-esteem the third psychological need identified,

has been defined as a individual's sense of worthiness and

competence (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972). An individual with

self-esteem has maturity, character, confidence, responsibil­

ity, trust, and synergy. An outdoor recreation program

which is currently using the outdoors to teach individuals

self-esteem is called Outward Bound. Outward·Bound's goal

consists of pitting man against nature to teach him self­

esteem ("Pitting Managers Against Nature, n 1968) . Some pro­

grams used to accomplish this goal include: a 26-day

wilderness orientation/survival course; a 10-day wilderness

orientation course; and a three-day raft trip. Many U.S.

business executives have participated in the Outward Bound

programs to increase their self-esteem. The U.S. Outward

Bound schools are located in Colorado, North Carolina,

23

Minnesota, Oregon, and Maine ("How One Company Trains in the

Great Outdoors," 1971).

Besides being a catalyst in developing self-esteem, out­

door recreation activities offer an opportunity to demon­

strate socioeconomic status. A review of the 1974 nation-

wide outdoor recreation plan has indicated that the higher

the participation in recreation activities, the higher the

socioeconomic status of the individual (Jackson, 1974).

This participation is a result of the increase in disposable

personal income. With the removal of constraints on the

satisfaction of lower level needs, sales on outdoor recre-

ation equipment have been increasing (Kitchen and James,

1969).

The fourth psychological need identified was self

actualization. For people to achieve this requirement, they

must be self-directed. A self-directed person overcomes

obstacles, exercises personal power, and strives for perfec­

tion (Lindgren and Byrne, 1961). Outdoor recreation allows

the person as an individual to achieve this goal. G. D.

Butler (1959) states that recreation,

• . • may be considered as an activity which is not consciously performed for the sake of an~ rewa7d beyond itself, which is usually engaged ~~ dur~n~ leisure which offers man an outlet for h~s phys~­cal mental and creative powers, and in which he eng~ges be~ause of inner desire and not because of outer compulsion.

24

For example, snow skiing is an outdoor recreation activity

which provides an individual with the opportunity to be self­

directed. Snow skiers first overcome the obstacle of learn­

ing to ski. After overcoming this obstacle, the skier

mentally sets goals and physically attempts to achieve these

goals at a level of excellence.

The fifth psychological need of man is exploration.

Camping satisfies this need as it is a unique experience

with qualities of surprise and adventure. The ex~loration

need drives children to participate in new experiences and

welcomes adventures (Hughes and Dudley, 1973). Two outdoor

recreation activities which satisfy the exploration need

are driving for pleasure and sightseeing. These two activ­

ities are rated second and fourth on the 1974 nationwide

outdoor recreation plan activity list (Jackson, 1974). This

rating indicates that Americans have a desire to explore

in order to satisfy this need.

The sixth psychological need of man is sensory gratifi­

cation. This need. involves the five sensory perceptions of

man: taste, touch, smell, sight, and hearing (Ringness et

al., 1959). Outdoor recreation areas provide a great

variety of different sensory stimulants. For example, a

drive through Yosemite National Park provides the individ­

ual with the tingling smells of pines, the change in land­

scape vista from meadows to barren rock outcroppings, the

sounds of trickling mountain streams and thundering

waterfalls. Outdoor recreation may indeed tantalize the

outdoor recreationist.

Finally, outdoor recreation can provide an individual

with a deviation from routine and conformity. Kaplan

observes recreationists' main purpose as one of recreating

or revitalizing people so that they may efficiently return

to activities which are not recreational but are econom-

ically gainful (Seeley, 1973). Driver and Tocher (197~}

state that,

. • • our recreational engagements are underlaid in .a large part (and others to a lesser degree) by our desires to escape temporarily, to disengage, to leave the structured and non-random . . • into an environ­ment which is less demanding into one that is in many ways more predictable and less threatening_

25

Clark, Hendee and Campbell's (1974) camping survey indicates

that 65 percent of the campers experience an emotional sat­

isfaction from the solitude and tranquility of camping.

Outdoor recreation remains an excellent way of deviating

from a standard routine.

Critique of the Findings

Participation in various outdoor recreation activities

apparently fulfills six of the seven basic psychological

needs of man and does not simply serve to occupy the hours

not devoted to the so-called essential requirements for

existence and subsistence. The psychological need of

security is apparently not satisfactorily fulfilled by most

26

outdoor recreation activities and many such activities in

fact may detract from satisfying this need. For example,

mountain climbing does provide physical danger. Instead of

freeing the mountain climber from fear of physical danger,

this fear is enhanced. Therefore, the security need is

attacked instead of being satisfied.

The remaining six basic psyGhological needs are satis­

fied by participating in specific outdoor recreation activ­

ities. However, it should not be interpreted that the

psychological needs cannot be fulfilled in other ways. For

example, the affiliation need could be fulfilled through

participation in Greek organizations, church groups, and

political organizations.

Table 1 illustrates which psychological needs are

satisfied by participating in the twenty-five outdoor recre­

ation activities established by the 1974 nationwide outdoor

recreation plan.

TABLE 1

PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS SATISFIED BY PARTICIPATION IN OUTDOOR RECREATION

Attending concerts and plays Camping Fishing Driving for pleasure Sightseeing Swimming Water. skiing Bicycling Pleasure walking Playing outdoor games/sports Sailing Canoeing Hunting l-1ountain climbing Hiking with a pack Horseback riding Bird watching Wildlife and bird photography Ice skating Attending sporting events General boating Sledding Snow skiing Nature walks Picnicking

0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 +

0

0

0 0 0 0

+ + + + +

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 d 0 + 0 +

+ 0

0

0 + 0 +

s Q) Q) +l til ~ I

4-4 ...-! Q) til

+ + + 0

0

+ + 0

0

+ + + + + + + + + + 0

0

+ + + 0

0

0 0

0

0

+ + 0

0

+ + + + + + + 0

0

+ 0

+ + + 0

0

+ + + + + 0

0

+ + 0

0

+ + + + + + + 0

0

+ 0

+ + 0

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0

+ + 0

+ + +

+ + + 0

0

+ + 0

0

+ + + + + + + + + + 0

+ + + 0

+

+: indicates that the outdoor recreation activity does satisfy the basic psychological need.

a: indic~tes that the outdoor recreation activity does not benefit or detract from satisfying the basic psychological need.

-: indicates that the outdoor recreation activity tends to detract from satisfying the psychological need.

27

CHAPTER V

OUTDOOR RECREATION SERVICES

Introduction

In this chapter, the results obtained from the previous

portions of this thesis will be used in order to provide out­

door recreation leaders with information which will help

them develop satisfying outdoor recreational services for

the public.

Problems

Participation in outdoor recreation has been substan­

tially increasing since 1960. The major reasons for Amer­

ica's continued increase in outdoor recreation participation

have been increases in leisure time, personal income, trans­

portation mobility, and man's urbanization. America's out­

door recreation participation increased by 53 percent

between 1960 and 1965. At the present rate of increase, the

participation by the year 2000 may be 142 percent greater

than in 1965. With more and more Americans turning to out­

door recreation, pressures on public and private recreation

resources and £acilities have been substantially increased

(Jackson, 1974).

Outdoor recreation leaders who are involved in provid-

ing recreation resources and programs for the general public

have used many divergent means to resolve problems of

28

29

inadequate outdoor resources and facilities. Table 2 illus-

trates some managerial solutions used to control the use of

outdoor recreation areas (Stankey, Lucas, and Lime, 1974).

-~hemanagerial solutions for the most part are not a

panacea for overuse problems. Participation by recreation­

ists is still increasing. Much of the pressure on partic­

ular outdoor recreation resources is derived from people

attempting to satisfy their psychological needs by partici­

pating in familiar outdoor recreation activities. The over­

use problems in outdoor recreation areas may be due in part

to the presence of people seeking leisure satisfactions

which might be, but are not, met elsewhere. According to

Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958), the choice of individuals in

outdoor recreation is influenced by access or means and

knowledge of alternatives. The inadequate resource problem

probably can be solved by providing the general public with

accessible alternative c~oices and information about the

alternative choices.

:Inthepast, pragmatic recreation leaders believed that

providing a maximum range of choices for recreationists

would be the key to satisfying needs and desires. Because

of rising cost due to inflation and the diminishing recre­

ational land areas, it is becoming difficult to follow the

pragmatic recreation leader's solution. However, all is not

Typ

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hopeless. The substitution of some outdoor recreational

activities for others may be the answer to the American pub­

lic's dilenuna.

Solution of Substitution

Hendee and Burdge (1974) state that activities with

common characteristics may be "substitutable" for each other

with little loss in psychological satisfaction. They

conclude,

Since participation in activities within . . • clusters is highly intercorrelated, it may be that, at least at a highly generalized level, activities in the same cluster provide similar satisfaction. Thus, for many people, some of these activities may be substitutable with little loss in satisfaction.

Hendee and Burdge divide 69 recreation activities obtained

from personal interviews in metropolitan Pittsburgh into

five."activity types" based on the similarity of participa-

tion pattern and activity of the participants. These

"activity types" include "cultural hobbies," "organized

competition," "domestic maintenance," "social leisure," and

"outdoor activities" and are defined as follows:

Cultural hobbi~s--talent is required; rewards are depend~nt on internal satisfaction and situational power ~here the activities are of an organized nature.

Organized competition--activities char~c~erized by skillful physical action, group compet~t:on, and structured social organization with publ~c and peer recognition as an apparent goal.

Domestic maintenance--includes passive activities with low energy requirements derived from present or former

domestic necessities and involvement related to ser­vices or traditions rather than status.

Social leisure--heavily dependent on peer group and family interaction.

33

Outdoor activities--predominantly male-oriented outdoor recreation and related facilitating activities.

Hendee and Burdge cluster "activity types" according to the

homogeneous nature of the activities. Theoretically, in-

stead of clustering activities in this manner, activities

could be clustered according to the psychological needs

which are satisfied by participating in the activity.

By clustering the activities in Table 1 according to

the psychological needs satisfied by activity participation,

fifteen groups are developed. These groups are:

Group A Attending concerts and

plays Camping Fishing

Group B Driving for pleasure Sightseeing

Group C Swimming Water skiing

Group D Bicycling Pleasure walking

Group E Playing outdoor games/

sports Sailing

Group F Canoeing Hunting Mountain climbing

Group G: Hiking with a pack !lor seback riding

Group H Bird watching Wildlife and bird

photography

Group I Ice skating

Group J Attending sporting

events

Group K General boating

Group L Sledding

Group .t-1 Snow skiing

Group N Nature walks

Group.Q Picnicking

34

By determining clusters according to satisfied psycho-

logical needs, the relationship between the leisure activity

and the recreationist can be better understood. Alternative

recreation activities which similarly satisfy the psychologi­

cal needs of a particular activity can then be identified.

In some circumstances, the outdoor recreation leader

may not be able to supply alternative activities within a

group which provide identical psychological satisfactions.

Figure 3 illustrates the intercluster relationships in terms

of psychological satisfactions. Activity substitution can

be identified on the basis of these relationships. Although

the interclusters are not identical in terms of psychological

satisfaction, they are highly similar.. For example, the acti v­

i ties hunting, canoeing, and mountain climbing are directly

interchangeable in terms of the psychological needs ful­

filled, and would therefore be ideal substitutions for one

another. However, the activities of general boating, play­

ing outdoor games and sports, sailing, and snow skiing could

also be selected as substitute activities. The difference

between these activities is a single element of loss in

terms of needs satisfaction. Further substitution could

occur between the activities of horseback riding and hiking

with a pack with a difference of only two psychological need

fulfillments.

- -

f<~ I \ I

I \

I I AI \ ~~

I E I I - ; , '

\

'

, ,

, , I \

1 I I I

I

----..:.. __ _ \ H,

' I \

\ I

\ 1

' ... 'D ....

... ..

Solid lines indicate psychological clusters which satisfy six of the seven basic psychological needs of man.

Dash lines indicate psychological clusters which satisfy five of the seven psychological needs of man.

Figure 3. Interrelationship of Psychological Clusters.

35

36

Outdoor recreation leaders who are involved in provid-

ing recreation resources and programs for the general public

should first determine what outdoor recreation activities

are being overused. They should then determine what activ­

ities can be efficiently and economically substituted to

lessen the detrimental impact on the overused areas and

facilities.

After the outdoor recreation leader determines what

outdoor recreation activities can be substituted to meet the

needs and desires of the recreationist, he must inform the

public about the alternative activities and motivate the

public into following alternat~ve recommendations.

Studies of user responses show that recreationists

generally have at least partial information about the nature

of the experience expected (Driver and Tocher, 1974). This

information may come from friends, relatives, and media

communications.

Dissemination of Information

The dissemination of information should have three

specific goals:

1. To provide accurate information regarding the

alternative services, facilities, and programs.

2. To demonstrate what benefits are involved in par­

ticipating in the alternative activities.

3. To inform the public as to how they can increase

the present recreation facilities by their finan­

cial and legislative support.

37

There are many channels for disseminating information.

These channels include: newspapers, magazines, newsletters,

brochures, television, radio, slide presentations, speaking

-----engagements and exhibits.

Newspapers seem the most economical way of "getting

the word out." This form of media provides sustained cov-

erage for activities and can be used to transmit information

daily.

Magazines can be used to provide information to local,

state, or regional recreationists. Magazines provide a

good opportunity to use color photographs. They are written

to be read by specific portions of the public. Therefore,

the magazines used will determine what type of reader will

be reached. While magazines can be used to react. a specific

audience, more general coverage can result from newsletters

and brochures.

Newsletters and brochures may range from simple mimeo­

graphed handouts to elaborate full-color brochures. This

type of media should include a description of all major

locations where programs will be held and a listing of pro-

An grammed activities to be offered during a given season.

even more general coverage can be derived from television.

38

Television provides a useful means for reaching all

age groups and making a strong public impact. News programs

provide direct coverage of events or interviews with per­

sonalities. Thirty minute shows depicting the different

recreation activities offered at the recreation site could

be shown during public service times which all stations

customarily transmit.

Radio is still another means of communicating recre­

ation activities to the public. Radio time is more accessi­

ble than television time and can provide similar coverage.

Outdoor recreation leaders may want to use radio as a means

of informing the public about upcoming events. An even more

direct means of informing the public uses the human element

of public speakers.

Public speakers prOvide a close personal contact with

the target organization. Public speakers allow the organi­

zation to ask questions and receive information directly

from a knowledgeable source. Another means of informing

the public is through exhibits. These displays or demon­

stra.tions may be given in varied settings. Central points

in shopping malls, schools, libraries, municipal buildings,

hotels, or·theater lobbies are excellent places for setting

up exhibits where large numbers of people may be influenced

(Kraus and Curtis, 1973).

39

Besides providing information on alternative recreation

choices for the public, outdoor recreation leaders should

use information channels to encourage economic and legisla­

tive support from the public. The emphasis today seems to

be "let the government provide the recreation resources for

the public ... The problems of·today's supply and demand

demonstrate that the government is not adequately responsive

to meet public recreation needs. People want to meet their

basic psychological needs in a variety of ways. If the

public can be shown how they can help to increase and im­

prove recreation areas and facilities for themselves and

their children through channels mentioned, it is possible

they will respond in a positive manner.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The three objectives for this thesis were:

1. To review literature and determine the basic

psychological needs of man;

2. To review literature and ascertain if outdoor rec­

reation satisfied these basic psychological needs;

3. To provide relevant information for outdoor recre­

ation leaders so they can develop satisfying out­

door recreation services for the public.

Seven psychological needs of man were determined to be

basic. These needs were: (1) security, (2) affiliation,

(3} self-esteem, (4) self actualization, (5) sensory grati­

fication, (6) exploration, and (7) freedom from routine and

conformity-

Of the seven psychological needs, only security needs

were found not to be satisfied by several outdoor recreation

activities.

By using the information obtained from the first two

obje~tives., it was de~ermined that outdoor recreation leaders

could substitute outdoor recreation activities to relieve

participant pressure in the most heavily used activities

without loss of the recreationists psychological satisfac­

tion. In determining which activities could be substituted,

40

the activities were checked against the basic

needs to determine which needs were satisfied

41

psychologica~ by partici- J

pating in the activity. The activities which provided simi­

lar satisfactions were then substituted. For example, the

activities of swimming and water skiing could be inter-

changed without a single loss of psychological satisfaction.

These two activities could also be interchanged between the

activities of sledding, playing outdoor games and sports,

sailing, and snow skiing and still fulfill six of the seven

psychological needs. The activities of hiking with a pack,

horseback riding, hunting, mountain climbing, and canoeing

could be interchanged with swimming and water skiing. This

activity interchange would fulfill five of the seven basic

psychological needs. After determining which activities

could be substituted, various media channels such as radio,

television, and newspapers could be used to inform the pub-

lie about alternative ac~ivities.

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'

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Hersey, Paul, and Blanchard, Kenneth H. 1972. Management of Organizational Behavior, Util~zing Human Resources.

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42

ughes, Ann H., and Dudley, ~arold K. 1973. "An Old Idea for a New Problem: Camp~ng as A Treatment for th Emotionally Disturbed in our State Hospitals " e Adolescence 8 (Spring): 45-47. ·

43

Isaacson, Robert L.; Hu~t, Max L.; and Blum, Milton. 1956. Psychology: The Sc~ence of Behavior. Harper and Row Pub., New York. 389 p.

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u.s.

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,11

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44

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1973. The

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45

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