Outcome 2 Unit 3 Memory Memory Is an active information processing system that receives, encodes, stores and retrievesinformation. 3 steps in creating memories Encoding, storage and retrieval
Encoding: changing information into something meaningful that the brain can understand. The information we see in the environment is in a raw form. It is encoded into electricity or chemicals the brain can use. Better we encode the information the easier it is to store. Levels(depth) of processing by
Ones ability to recall items depends upon the depth processing/encoding. How info is stored in LTM Shallow -poor encoding Medium good encoding Deep excellent encoding the deeper levels of processing = stronger memory has been formed.
Type Level Focus Example Structural Shallow (easy to forget) The physical characteristics of words Word begins with a capital letter, has double letters in it, length Phonemic Moderate The sound of the word Noticing that the word rhymes with my name, saying the word Semantic Deep (hard to forget) The meaning attached to the word Noticing that the word is the same as my street name the deeper levels of processing = stronger memory has been formed. Why semantic is the best/deepest level of processing
-More attention Relate new info to your own words Use elaborative rehearsal Question new info Connect new and old info Generate your own examples from own experiences Overall A deeper level of processing involves giving attention to the meaning of information and therefore is related to elaborative rehearsal. A memory will be much stronger the more it is elaborated and given meaning. Q Compare and construct structural, phonemic and semantic levels of encoding. A The structural level of encoding focuses on the physical attributes of a word and is the most shallow level, which makes items easy to forget. In contrast, the phonemic level of encoding involves retaining a stimulus word according to what it sounds like. This is a moderate level of encoding. In comparison the semantic level of encoding encodes by means of understanding, or by allocating personal meaning to the items to be remembered. This is the deepest encoding level. Questions In terms of your knowledge of levels of processing, how can you use this to assist you with the understanding of your Psychology notes??? Answer Link new terms to terms you already know, so that you use semantic encoding to process them. 2) Storage Retention (maintaining) of information and memories over time 3) Retrieval Locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Actual process ofremembering isapparent Michael is completing a French listening comprehension exercise
Michael is completing a French listening comprehension exercise. which three processes are required for Michael to complete the task? A. attention, encoding and storage B. attention, storage and retrieval C. encoding, storage and retrieval D. encoding, storage and consolidation Sam is able to retain the vocabulary he learned in his French class long after the class has ended. The main memory process that accounts for the fact that Sam can hold information in his memory for extended periods of time is A. encoding. B. retrieval. C. chunking. D. storage. Types of long term memories
Procedural = Memory of actions and skills orhow to do something Declarative(2 types) - Episodic Memory: holds information about specific events or personal experiences Semantic Memory memory of facts Retrograde amnesia can form new memories but cant remember old memories Anterograde amnesia cant form new memories but can remember old memories Mechanisms in Memory Formation
Memories are stored throughout the brain rather than in one particular area. Mechanisms in Memory Formation
1) Temporal lobe and Hippocampus: - Hippocampus is found in the medial temporal lobe. involved in consolidation essential for establishing/forming long-term memories Language memories Memory abilities were severely affected How
H.M., Research Had his medial temporal lobe removed (where hippocampus is located) Memory abilities were severely affectedHow Results in anterograde amnesia = Cant form new declarative memories. Can still retrieve and learn procedural memories. Can still retrieve/remember older memories prior to the damage. 2) role of neurons: Cant directly observe memory, BUT can study the biological changes (what happens to the neurons when memory is formed). memory trace/circuits: biological change in the brain when a memory is formed Structure Function More .. Axons Dendrites Synapse Neurotransmitters
Better connection points (synapse) = Long Term Potentiation = more than 1 firing = Better memory LTP = lasting strengthening of connections between neurons resulting in enhanced functioning/firing due to repeated stimulation. Presynaptic (sending) neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft which crossto the receptors of the receiving neuron. This fires the neuronto pass themessage alongto the next neuronand the processcontinues. Things that help the signal to pass Amount of neurotransmitters secreted Presence of other molecules Number of receptor molecules 3) Amygdala (medial temporal lobe) learning associated with a fear or emotional response.
Winning a grand final Divorce Phobias/post traumatic stress linked to abnormal functioning in amygdala If damaged have problems with the formation of implicit/procedural memories Implicit and Explicit memories
Implicit memory : do not require conscious control. E.g brush your teeth. Explicit memory: conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information. E.g writing an exam Tasks requiring implicit memory
mirror tracing reading reversed text singing part of a familiar song Tasks requiring explicit memory paired associate learning identifying the head of state writing a term paper 4) Consolidation Theory: idea that memory / physical changes take up to 30min to set/consolidate and become permanent in LTM Interrupted = will not form Gradual establishment of LTM through altering connections between neurons in the brain during and after learning. Consolidation theory suggests that Pina will be unable to remember
During a netball game Pina was briefly knocked unconscious when her head was bumped by another player. Pina suffered some memory loss. Question 18 Consolidation theory suggests that Pina will be unable to remember A. the person who had scored the goal before her injury. B. the names of the members of her team. C. the position she plays for her team. D. her mobile telephone number. Question 19 According to consolidation theory, Pinas memory loss is due to A. her short-term memory being erased. B. the destruction of existing memory traces. C. her memory traces for events just prior to the incident being repressed. D. a disruption to the formation of her memory traces for the events just prior to the incident Q How may the consolidation of information into memory be likened to the process of concrete setting and hardening? A Just as concrete takes a period of time to set, harden and become permanent, so does the setting of information into LTM. If the consolidation period is disrupted, either by accident or interference, the memory may be altered or completely lost. Like concrete, once the memory is consolidated, it is relatively permanent. Consolidation takes at least 30minutes on average. 5) Memory decline over the lifespan:Memory loss is not a normal (doesn't necessarily occur) consequence of ageing. Largely varied even among people of the same age. Recall declines Recognition does not Reaction time decreases Episodic (life events) memories decrease the most (semantic and procedural stay the same) Old Young Reaction time decrease Reaction time normal Recall decrease
Recall normal Recognition normal Semantic (facts) memories normal Semantic (facts)memories normal Episodic (life events) memories decrease Episodic (life events) memories n normal Procedural (skills) memories normal Why? 1) Slowing of the NS. neurons firing more slowly than they once did. Frontal lobe shrinks. 2) Negative stereotyping of the aged. Lack the confidence they once had to perform well in tests of memory. 3) Lack of motivation. See learning as meaningless. Matilda is 75 years of age. She is fit and healthy and is not suffering from brain disease or injury. Over the last few years, Matilda has most likely A. performed more poorly on recognition tasks than previously. B. found it difficult to learn new material. C. found it difficult to remember procedural memories. D. not experienced large memory losses. Harry is a healthy 70-year-old man who has no brain disease or injury
Harry is a healthy 70-year-old man who has no brain disease or injury. Choose the statement that most probably describes his memory abilities. A. He has joined a book club but cannot remember much about the weekly meetings. B. He is just as likely as a young person to recognise newly learnt information. C. He finds it very difficult to remember how to do activities he once enjoyed. D. He is likely to forget factual information that he once knew well. 6) Diseases Amnesia: some form of memory loss can be total or partial. Anterograde Amnesia: can not form new declarative memories after injury. STM are impacted. Retrograde Amnesia: cant retrieve memories prior to injury. LTM are impacted. (usually temporary older events will be recovered first) Which one of the following is not an expected effect of ageing on memory?
A. taking longer to develop new skills B. decline in episodic memory C. decline in procedural memory D. slowed retrieval of information from memory Jenny had a brain injury two years ago
Jenny had a brain injury two years ago. She now finds that although she remembers and recognises her old friends, she cannot remember people she has met since the injury. She is most likely suffering from A. retrograde amnesia. B. retroactive interference. C. proactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia. Caitlin suffered a head injury after a bicycle accident
Caitlin suffered a head injury after a bicycle accident. Caitlins doctor told her that she was experiencing anterograde amnesia. The doctor may have come to this conclusion based on Caitlins A. difficulty forming new social relationships. B. inability to remember getting ready for work before the accident. C. ability to recognise her family members. D. epileptic seizures following the accident. Five years ago Samantha sustained permanent brain damage when she was in a serious cycling accident. Samantha can remember most aspects of her life prior to the accident. However, she cannot recall anything about the accident and she is unable to learn and remember new information. Samanthas inability to learn and remember new information is known as _____________ amnesia. A. proactive B. retrograde C. retroactive D. anterograde Neurodegenerative disease: progressive decline in structure, activity and functions of brain activity. - Dementia and Alzheimers: Dementia: - describes a variety of symptoms (not only memory loss) poor judgement, social skills, abnormal reactions Dementia = symptom Alzheimer's = disease Alzheimers = incurable and degenerative disease that causes a loss of neurons and therefore synapses in the brain. 4th largest cause of death in Australia Appears that neurons shrink and eventually disappear to a greater rate than normal Damage to hippocampus memory decline (memory of skills/procedure are usually the last to decline) Treatment to slow the process No CURE As the disease develops
persistent and frequent memory difficulties especially of more recent events. Episodic memory disappears first forgetfulness of well known people and places vagueness in everyday conversation is common. In its later stages, requires 24-hour care, and they will eventually lose their capacity to provide speech need assistance walking and showering What happens to the brain:
Atrophy: Brain shrinks Amyloid plaques: grow between the neurons and turn hard preventing the neurons from communicating with each other effectively Tangles: build up of protein form inside neurons and prevent communication Decrease in Acetylcholine (ACTH) Neurotransmitter Alzheimer's Disease, a serious brain disorder, in which levels of ACTH can drop by up to 90 percent. The gradual death of cholinergic brain cells results in a progressive and significant loss of cognitive and behavioural function. Acetylcholine is the primary chemical carrier of thought and memory. This excitatory neurotransmitter is essential for both the storage and recall of memory, and partly responsible for concentration and focus. A deficit in acetylcholine is directly related to memory decline and reduced cognitive capacity. Normal Age Related memory decline
Alzheimers Disease Description Not dementia May be linked to motivation, confidence and slowing of the NS Misconception that all old peoples memory will decrease with age (varies with individuals) Type of dementia Occur mainly in the old A progressive and largely incurable disorder that impairs memory and other cognitive functions Key Brain Structures Some reduction in size and activity of frontal lobe Neurons in the brain decline in speed of processing Degeneration of neurons in the brain, brain tissue shrinks and eventually dies Plagues and tangles Lower level of neurotransmitter involved in memory Usually begins in the hippocampus (spreads to other areas) Memory processes Affected Some decline- episodic memory No decline in semantic or proceduralproblem solving can take longer Can learn new memories, though may take longer Memory loss, forgetfulness, confusion, poor judgment can occur Loss of ability to learn new tasks Initially impaired episodic memory Then all other memories decline considerably Types of memory Atkinson-Shiffrinsmulti store model of memory describes three levels of memory. Sensory Memory Entry point
Stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original/raw form Limited duration (.3 4 seconds) Unlimited capacity We are not consciously aware of the majority of information that enters sensory memory. Any stimulus that is registered in sensory memory is available to be selected for attention and for processing in STM There is a sensory register for each 5 of our senses (we will only look at 2). What things are bombarding our senses? Types of sensory memories
1) Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory, stores visual images for around .3 of a second. 2) Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory, stores sound in their original form for up to 3-4 seconds. (E.G ask what did you say but you then answer it anyway) (clap hand and see if the sound lasts) Tactile = touch Sensory memory and attention
sensory memory needs to be attended to if it is to enter STM Sensory memory Duration = limited (.3 3-4) Capacity = unlimited Derek perceived Jack playing on the swing as a continuous moving image rather than a sequence of still frames moving quickly. This is because of Dereks A. iconic memory. B. echoic memory. C. central executive. D. short-term memory. Sensory memory is generally thought of as having _________ capacity and _________ duration.
A. large; short B. large; long C. small; long D. small; short Iconic memory lasts for
A. a fraction of a second and retains only visual information. B. about a second and retains only auditory information. C. about 34 seconds and retains only visual information. D. up to 20 seconds if it is rehearsed. Short Term Memory (STM)
Limited capacity and duration Once information has been paid attention to it moves to STM, where 72 items of information can be held for approximately 30 seconds Capacity = 7+-2. (overcome by chunking).
Duration = average of seconds. (over come by rehearsal). Chunking (capacity) Remembering items in clusters and groups rather than individually.Increase capacity by increasing the amount of information in an item. Still 7-9 piece of info. 10, 100, 1000, 10000,1000, 100, 10 2, 0, 0, 1, 1, 9, 6, 7 = ?? Effects of Rehearsal (duration)
Rehearsal = actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. 1) Maintenance Rehearsal: involves repeating the information over and over to retain it in STM. Very fragile if interrupted it becomes lost. Does little to encode or add meaning to the information, therefore does not guarantee the retention of information in to LTM. Extends duration 2) Elaborative Rehearsal: manipulate new information to make it more meaningful and link it with existing information in LTM (elaborating on information). E.g = giving directions. Remember how to get somewhere you link it to familiar places you already know. More active process than maintenance rehearsal and helps the info to be encoded and therefore more likely to be transferred to LTM. Part of elaborative rehearsal
Self-referencing effect = involves mentally involving yourself. E.g = remembering the name of a movie or who was in it you may think of where and who you watched the movie with. Information in short-term memory, at any given time, typically consists of
A. information from sensory memory only. B. information from sensory memory and long-term memory. C. information from long-term memory only. D. information from neither sensory nor long-term memory. Which one of the following is an example of an elaborative rehearsal that could be used to learn the names of a group of people? A. writing a list of names B. looking at each face and saying the name over and over C. rehearsing the names in alphabetical order D. reading the names many times Long Term Memory Is the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time. 4 types of LTM Procedural and Declarative. Declarative issplit into episodicand semantic memories Info enters STM memory by attention
Info enters LTM memory by elaboration/processing Procedural Memory how to do
Memory of actions and skills. how to do something. (tie shoe laces, make pasta) Less likely to forget this memory Things that require little conscious effort Implicit memories Declarative Memory knowing that
Memories of events and facts that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared. Split into 2 types Episodic and Semantic 1) Episodic Memory: specific events or personal experiences. details about the time, place and psychological and physiological state of the person when the event occurred. E.g most embarrassing moment, first day of school Your name is a semantic memory (as you can not remember the moment you were named) stores facts and information we know about the world.
2) Semantic Memory: stores facts and information we know about the world. do not depend on a particular place or time but are simply facts. E.G. Knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge, rules, stories about the world There are 7 continents A year has 365 days Difference between Episodic and Semantic
Refers to oneself and personal experiences Refers to general knowledge Is organised by time Not organised by time Events are remembered consciously Information is known Susceptible to forgetting Relatively permanent Knowing how to play tennis
What did you do last new years eve? What is the name of this character? Note Our name is a fact = semantic memory
Not episodic because you can not remember when you were born Adam is looking through his atlas for a suitable outline map of New Zealand to trace.
His ability to recognise New Zealand is a function of his A. geographical memory. B. procedural memory. C. semantic memory. D. episodic memory. Serial Position Effect
Is the tendency to remember items from the beginning and end of a list than the middle. Serial Position Effect When psychologists have studied memory for serial lists (lists of words and numbers are presented in a particular order and must be recalled in that order), a constant finding has emerged. This is known as the serial position effect. Shows evidence that STM and LTM are separate. Research finding suggests, when using free recall items at the end, then the beginning of a list are usually recalled better than those in the middle of the list. Crown, ship, tulip, giraffe, tea, golf, radio, emotion, shadow, purple, Germany, ice WHY? Primacy Effect superior recall of items at the beginning of the list
Primacy Effect superior recall of items at the beginning of the list. These words receive most attention and rehearsal therefore they enter LTM. Recency Effect superior recall of items at the end of a list. These words are the last words heard and are still being help in STM. What would happen if there was a 30 second delay between the last word and recalling them? Research suggests If recall occurs immediately after the list is learned, the last few items in a list are remembered best because they are still in STM. The first few items in the list are remembered well because they received more attention and rehearsal then other items and therefore are transferred into LTM. Items in the middle of the list are presented to late to be rehearsed and transferred into LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal, so they are more likely to be forgotten. If there is a delay in the recall of items from a list (30 seconds) the recency effect is not evident because this exceeds the duration of STM . 30 second delay If there is a delay in the recall of items from a list (30 seconds) the recency effect is not evident because this exceeds the duration of STM . Sinead listened to a list of 20 words
Sinead listened to a list of 20 words. She was asked to recall the list 10 minutes later. Sinead was more likely to remember items from A. both the beginning and end of the list. B. the middle of the list. C. only the beginning of the list. D. only the end of the list. Q Why do we not remember any of the middle words? A Inferior recall of middle items occurs as they are beyond the capacity of rehearsal and encoding from the beginning of the list and are outside the capacity of short term memory (7 +-2) for items from the end of the list. Q: Why would the recency effect disappear when there was a 30 sec delay before subjects asked for recall? A: No recency effects because last items could not be held in STM for that long. Q: What would be the difference between serial recall and any order recall? A: In serial recall there again would be no recency effect. By the time you recited items to be remembered from the beginning in the serial order, the items at the end could have decayed from STM. Due to the very large capacity of the long-term memory it is vital for us to have a mechanism in place to help us find relevant information quickly and easily. Without organisation in the long-term memory we would spend a very long time searching through all of the information to find exactly what we were looking for. One of the theories explaining organisation of the long-term memory is called the semantic network theory. Semantic Network Theory Organisation of information in LTM
Information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of hierarchial networks of concepts that are interconnected and interrelated by meaningful links. Each concept/node, is linked with a number of other nodes. When we retrieve information, the activation of one nodecauses related nodes to beactivated to. Longer links between concepts = a weaker association and will take longer to activate (and therefore retrieve) the information that is further away. The shorter the links between concepts = the stronger the association. This will activate other relevant memories. Notes The retrieval of information from LTM begins with someone searching a particular region of memory and then tracing associations for links among concepts in that region, rather than randomly searching the vast information stored in LTM. A theory that attempts to describe and explain how information is arranged in long-term memory is called the A. spreading activation theory. B. semantic network theory. C. consolidation theory. D. serial position effect. Which one of the following statements about semantic network theory is not true?
A. Grouping of information in long-term memory is based on meaning. B. Concepts with strong relationships have strong links. C. Retrieval of a memory may trigger retrieval of other linked memories. D. Only meaningful material can be stored in long-term memory. Multi-store model has 1 criticism.
They explained short-term memory as being simply a passive holding space for information. Working Memory Model was introduced by Baddeley and Graham Working Memory (second model of memory) Baddeley and Hitch
Is a mental workbench that allows us to manipulate (not just store it)info from sensory and LTM. working memory is more active and complex model for the short-term memory. Consists of Central executive - Visuo-spatial sketchpad (sub system) Phonological loop (sub system) Episodic buffers 1. Central Executive Uses info from other parts of working memory. Uses info from LTM Makes decisions (most important). Active in what we attend to or what we ignore. 2. visuo-spatial sketchpad
Slave system Temporarily stores and manipulates information of a visual and spatial nature from sensory memory or LTM (when trying to produce a memory of an image) Examples: remembering shapes and colours, location of speed of objects in space, planning of spatial movements. 3. phonological loop Slave system
Stores and manipulates information of an auditory nature (read, listen, speak). Consists of 2 sub-systems phonological store: stores info articulatory control system/loop: enables you to repeat info 4. Episodic Buffer Newest slave system Can hold info from all parts
It will retrieve info from LTM that is necessary to perform tasks (central executive) How all systems work together
You hear a familiar sounds (phonological loop) and as you turn your head towards the sound you recognise it is your name is being called out(central executive). Looking out in the distance you see a person waving at you (visuo-spatial sketchpad), so you try to recognise their face by selecting certain features to focus on (central executive hair height) and placing them in the context of being near the year 12 lockers. So the central executive accesses LTM and retrieves their name to call out. In 2000 Baddeley added a fourth component to the model, called the 'episodic buffer'. This component is a third slave system, dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or chronological ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene. The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantic meaning Brodie was playing a game while talking to his friend
Brodie was playing a game while talking to his friend. Explain in terms of working memory why Brodie could do both tasks. The visuo spatial sketchpad is used for playing the game and the Phonological loop was used when listening and The central executive was able to coordinate the information from both stores at the same time as they are involved in different functions. Shelley was using mental arithmetic to calculate the cost of six bread rolls at the bakery. Which subsystems of her working memory was Shelley using? A. the visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the calculation, the phonological loop to mentally say the times tables and the central executive to integrate her knowledge of multiplication B. the central executive to integrate her knowledge of multiplication, the visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the calculation and echoic memory to mentally say the times tables C. the visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the calculation, the phonological loop to integrate her knowledge of multiplication and the central executive to mentally say the answer The visual-spatial sketchpad is
A. activated by verbal command. B. part of long-term memory. C. part of working memory. D. part of iconic memory. Working memory refers to
A. the temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands, or achieve goals. B. memory for facts, images, thoughts, feelings, skills and experiences that may last as long as a lifetime. C. memory specifically dedicated to working only with semantic memories. D. memory that is expressed in behaviour, and acquired through conditioned learning and association Ethan is deciding whether to catch the bus or walk to school
Ethan is deciding whether to catch the bus or walk to school. According to Baddeleys theory of working memory, the subsystem mainly responsible for Ethans decision making is A. the phonological loop. B. the visuospatial sketchpad. C. the central executive. D. the articulatory control system. Forgetting The inability to retrieve previously stored information when it is required. 2 categories of explanations
Cue dependent explanations= memory loss = failure to access the necessary cues (retrieval failure) Trace dependent explanations = memory loss = result of physical alterations to memory traces located in the brain (interference, decay, motivated) Theories of Forgetting Cue Dependent
1) Retrieval Failure Theory/cue dependent forgetting is an inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues. suggests that memories stored in LTM are not forgotten, but are temporarily unavailable because of the lack of cues. retrieval cue = prompt or a hinteg, photo, question, song Ads Research: results improved from 38% (recall) to 96% when asked to recognise. Info is organised in logical ways Dis: - Why do we forget some memories and not others TOT phenomenon is the feeling of knowing something but not being able toretrieve the informationat that point of time. supports the retrievalfailure theory Indicated memory is stored in a number ofplaces Why? Inadequate encoding: info may have been encoded with inadequate retrieval cues Interference from similar things: blocked by interference from similar sounding material Trace Dependent Theories: loss occurs as a result of physical alterations to memory traces
1) Interference Theory: forgetting occurs because other memories interfere with the retrieval of what we are trying to recall more similar the info = more likely it is that interference will occur stronger the initial encoding weaker the interference 2 types A) Proactive Interference: old info can interfere with our ability to recall new information. E.g continue to type in your old password PON= proactive: old interfering with new B) Retroactive Interference: new information interferes with the ability to retrieve old information. E.g cant remember old teachers name Tests Proactive Interference Learn List A Password for computer
Learn List B Learn a new password Test List B Trying to remember your new password (List B) PON = OLD (list A) interfering with new (list B) Tests Retroactive Interference
Learn List A (witness an accident at school) Learn List B (hearing other people talk about the accident) Test List A (attempt to recall your own details that you remember) List A Retrograde = New (list B ) interfering with old (list A) NOTE: In both the above types of interference, the one factor that makes interference more marked is the similarity of the material. Interference is greatest when information is similar to the test material. Based on Freud and his defence mechanisms
2) Motivated Forgetting: forgetting that arises from a strong motive/desire to forget, usually because the experience is too upsetting to remember. Based on Freud and his defence mechanisms 2 types Repression an unconscious process, which an individual blocks a memory from entering conscious awareness. Freud - Block bc it is too psychological painful or unpleasant to remember the specific information. Seen as a survival mechanism. Suppression: being motivated to forget by making a deliberate, conscious effort to keep it out of C awareness. remains aware but actively choose not to think about it. Weakness of motivated forgetting
Strong emotions result in vivid memories not forgetting Maybe false memories Some unpleasant memories, such as car accidents or victims of assault, may be lost due to interruption to consolidation rather than repression 3) Decay Theory: forgetting occurs because a memory trace fades through disuse as time passes.
synaptic connections in the neurons decreases This theory is most relevant to explain memory loss in STM. However the idea of decay in LTM is not as widely accepted. Weaknesses of decay theory:
Doesn't explain why some elderly people still have vivid memories that occurred in early childhood even if they do not use them Suggests memories are not permanent Also over time memories can be found therefore other factors rather than decay of memory tracesover time may be responsible for memory loss. Other reasons we forget
Organic causes of forgetting = Brain damage in the memory area due to physiological causes. Damage can be from: disease, stroke, head injury, long term alcoholism, severe malnutrition, brain surgery or aging. Korsakoffs syndrome - is a neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine in the brain. Linked to chronic alcohol abuse or severe malnutrition. Which theory explains that forgetting is a result of a fading memory trace?
A. decay theory B. consolidation theory C. levels of processing theory D. motivated forgetting theory When phoning her sister at work Olivia asks the receptionist for her sister by her original surname, rather than her married surname, which Olivias sister now uses. According to the interference theory of forgetting this is an example of A. proactive interference. B. retrograde interference. C. retroactive interference. D. anterograde interference. According to the decay theory of forgetting
A. early memories are lost because of competition from the many subsequent memories formed. B. the right cues for retrieval are lost over time. C. the rate of forgetting increases with age. D. a memory is lost because its physical trace fades. Proactive interference is the term used when
A. previously learnt information makes it difficult to remember new information. B. new information makes it difficult to remember previously learnt information. C. a head injury makes it difficult to remember information learnt after the injury. D. a head injury causes information known before the injury to be forgotten. Fred suffered a stroke. The forgetting caused by Freds stroke is an example of A. an organic cause of forgetting. B. motivated forgetting. C. decay theory. D. old age. Jenny had a brain injury two years ago
Jenny had a brain injury two years ago. She now finds that although she remembers and recognises her old friends, she cannot remember people she has met since the injury. She is most likely suffering from A. retrograde amnesia. B. retroactive interference. C. proactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia Marika carries out an experiment on memory
Marika carries out an experiment on memory. She performs a test of significance and finds that p < 0.05. This means that A. there is a less than 5% chance that the results are due to chance. B. there is a greater than 5% chance that the results are due to chance. C. less than 5% of the results are due to chance. D. more than 5% of the results are due to chance. A psychologist tests memory recall under two different conditions.
A test of significance finds that p > 0.05. This means that there is a A. less than 5 in 100 chance that the results are due to chance. B. greater than 5 in 100 chance that the results are due to chance. C. less than 5% difference between the results of the two conditions tested. D. greater than 5% difference between the results of the two conditions tested. Manipulation and Improvement of Memory The FORGETTING CURVE Ebbinghaus and his forgetting curve: Used nonsense syllables to investigate the rate and amount of forgetting over time. Nonsense syllables (3 letters consisting of a vowel in between) eg. BOF Why: meaningless, didnt form associations with already-learnt words in memory, difficult to encode. The Forgetting Curve More than half the memory loss occurs within the first hour of learning Graph shows that forgetting is rapid soon after the original learning, then the rate of memory loss gradually declines, followed by stability in the memories that remain. 22 minutes = 42% lost 1 hour = 55% lost First 8 hours = 65% lost The forgetting curve applies regardless of how long the material is studied
However The forgetting curve for meaningless information is steeper than for meaningful material. Note: when nonsense syllablewords were not used , the rate of forgetting followed a path similar to the curve, but was not as fast Limitation does not tell us the cause of forgetting. Ebbinghaus is known for his work on the features of the forgetting curve. When Ebbinghaus tested subjects on their ability to recall nonsense syllables he found that the rate of forgetting was A. steady for the first two days followed by little decline after that. B. slow for the first 8 hours followed by a rapid decline for two days. C. slow for the first 20 minutes followed by a rapid decline for two days. D. rapid for the first 30 minutes, then slowing with little decline after two days. Measures of RETENTION 3 types
methods used to find out how much information has been retained. 1) Recall: requires a person to recover stored information using minimal amount of cues to assist retrieval (also 3 types of recall). Types of recall A) Free Recall: recalling information in no particular order with little cues (a list of grocery items, short answer questions) least sensitive B) Serial Recall: recalling information in the order it was presented ( list of places you are visiting for an overseas journey in correct order, what you have eaten all day in order, words from a list) C) Cued Recall: where various prompts (cues) are used to assist the retrieval of information (this surname is short and begins with D! this place is hot, is a tourist destination and a bomb went of their in 2002!) 2) Recognition involves identifying the correct information from incorrect alternatives. E.G multi choice questions, recognising a killer from a range of pictures) E.G if you were asked to remember the names of the people in your English class last year how many would you remember with no cues?? compared to if you were asked to remember the people in your English class from a lost of 50 names?? 3) Relearning method of savings
learning information again (another occasion) that has been previously learnt. Measure the amount of information saved from previous learning. Most sensitive = most detected. E.G, toddler takes 5 min to do up shoe lace the first time, then 3 min to do it the next time. Toddler has actually saved 2 minutes, thus providing an estimate of retention Note: If a person learns something more quickly the second time, then we can assume that they have remembered something from the first time it was learnt. Saving Score Way to measure the saving from each learning.
Saving score (ebbinghaus) = a way of measuring the amount of information saved from previous learning. NOTE: Time can be replaced with number of trial (5 3) / 5 X 100 = 40 (40% has been retained) Relative sensitivity of measures of retention
Effort required to access the memory Recall = least sensitive (most effort) Recognition = less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall Relearning = most sensitive (least effort) Note The most sensitive measure of retention is not necessarily the one that produces the greatest amount of retrieved information. Relearning = try to remember original information you are not going to remember as much as if you are able to recognise the information. Therefore recognition results in the most information remembered Which of the following statements is the most accurate?
A. Relearning is a less sensitive measure of retention than recognition. B. Recall is a more sensitive measure of retention than recognition. C. The most sensitive measure of retention is recognition. D. The most sensitive measure of retention is relearning. A. recognition; relearning B. recognition; recall
Michael began a job as a salesman for a pharmaceutical company. He had to learn the names and uses of the companys 30 products before he was allowed to begin selling. To test his knowledge, he was asked to state the names and uses of the 30 products (Task 1). Michael did not do well on Task 1 so he was given a list of 40 products and their uses, including the 30 he had studied, and was asked to identify the original 30 products (Task 2). Task 1 is a test of _____________ and Task 2 is a test of _____________ . A. recognition; relearning B. recognition; recall C. recall; recognition D. recall; relearning When Jane was 19 she completed the first two units of a German language course. Ten years later, she began the course again and found that she learned the material in the fist two units 25% more quickly than she did originally. This is probably because A. relearning is the most sensitive measure of memory. B. the savings score could be calculated. C. the material in the first two units was the easiest. D. she was older and therefore her memory worked better. Which of the following is the least sensitive measure of memory retention?
A. free recall B. recognition C. relearning D. cued recall Context and State Dependent cues
1) Context dependent cues: environmental cues where memories were formed that act as a retrieval cue. E.G : sounds, smells, temperature, sights. Example = preparing for exams use similar timings, location and structure of the exam then given a recall test either in the same or different conditions.
Eg. criminal cases, where people are taken back to the context in order to prompt their memory of the crime. It reminds us of the power of context dependent cues as far as our memory is concerned. Research: Participants were initially asked to learn a list of words on land or 20 feet underwater then given a recall test either in the same or different conditions. Those who learnt on land recalled much more on land while those who learnt underwater did better when tested underwater. 2) State-dependent cues: internal physiological and psychological cues that act as retrieval cues at the time the memory was formed. Research: Two groups of participants in two stages
Research:Two groups of participants in two stages. First, the experimental group learn information while in a special state (alcohol or marijuana) while the control group learns in no special state at all. In the second stage of the study, participants are tested for recall in the same state in which they learnt or in a different state. Results show that participants do better when in the same state as they learnt compared to a different state. The police took Derek back to the park so that he might be able to remember more detail about the woman he had seen. The police did this because they hoped that _____________ would help Derek to remember. A. method of loci B. narrative chaining C. state-dependent cues D. context-dependent cues Mnemonic devices Are techniques used for enhancing or improving memory
How Encoding info more efficiently imagery and rehearsal Linking with info already in LTM 1) Acronyms: Words which are formed from the initial letters of other words.
EG: Roy G Biv for red orange yellow green blue indigo violet ANZAC = Australian and NewZealand Army Corps EFTPOS = electronic funds transfer at the point of sale created using a version of chunking Examples news - North, east, west, south
Laser Light Amplified by the stimulated emission of radiationWHO = world health organisation AAMI = Australian Associated Motor Insurers 2) Acrostics: phrases or poems where the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help memory
Remembering the planets: my very energetic mother just sits up near pop (mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune, pluto) Musical notes = every good boy deserves fruit. E,G,B,D,F Does sue ever paint declarative, semantic, episodic, procedural Acronyms use initials to form a name/word,Acrostics take initials from each concept to form a sentence 3) Narrative Chaining: involves linking otherwise unrelated items to one another to form a meaningful sequence or story (narrative) Put these words into a story Soup, head, goal, dance, shirt, stream, ice-cream The man with the bowl of soup on his head kicked a goal and then danced all night. When he awoke the next day, his shirt was filthy so he washed it in the stream and then ran to get an ice-cream. Advantages and Limitations
Ads: - encoding information through elaborative rehearsal. - linking it with information already in long-term memory. - Retrieval of a part of the information assists retrieval of the rest (image). Dis: - more effective for information that can be put in word list form (not complex material) used for smaller units of information Eyewitness testimony effects of leading questions
Eyewitness testimonies: identifying the perpetrator of illegal behaviour. The research of Elizabeth Loftus: found the type of question(s) presented can have a major impact on peoples memory. First experiment: Aim: to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of speed estimates in a perceived car crash. Showed a film of a car accident, then asked questions Leading questions = suggests to the witness what answer is desired by including false information. Research questions: about how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?
The verb contacted was varied (as the IV) with hit, bumped, collided or smashed being used. All together 5 different groups/5 conditions. The participants estimates of speed (the DV) were plotted against the verb. Results Results suggest ppl can integrate new and false information from leading questions making memory wrong. A week later Loftus also asked same participants
Q = did you see any broken glass? Results = people who had been asked with the smash = 32% compared to those who had been asked with hit = 14% Second Experiment 1) Did you see the broken headlight? Or 2) did you see a broken headlight? IV = wording of the question DV = if they saw or didn't see a broken head light knowing that there had been none. Results Witness thinks they have missed it so they add it into their memory. Conclusion: memory of an event is not always accurate but a reconstruction due to leading questions which contain false information. Memory is more likely to be accurate if leading questions aren't used. Leading questions can mislead eyewitnesses and cause them to incorrectly believe information.