Origins of Western Diet [Read-Only] - Optometry Hominin Fossil Record: Plio-Pleistocene Diets vAs...

Loren Cordain, Ph.D.

Colorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO USA

Origins and Evolution of The Western Diet:

Health Implications for the 21st Century

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au. rudolfensis

Au.bahrelghazali

Au. anamensis

Australopithecus habilis

Au. garhi

Au. africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus boisei

Ardipithecus ramidus

Orrorintugenensis

Sahelanthropustchadensis

Kenyanthropus platyops

P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Mill

ions

of Y

ears

The Hominin Fossil Record:Plio-Pleistocene Diets

As many as 20 hominin speciesmay have existed since the evolutionary split between hominins and pongids (5-7 MYA)No universal diet existed, but rather varied by ecologic niche, season, geographic locale, availability of edible foods

Wood B. Palaeoanthropology: hominid revelations for Chad. Nature 2002:418:133-35

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – An Omnivorous Diet

Minimally Processed, Wild Plants and Animals

!Kung Woman displays fruits of her gathering: tamma melons,grewia berries, tortoise, roots

The Diet of Our Closest Living RelativesPan troglodytes, Pan paniscus

Primarily frugivorousDiet varies by habitat & season~3-5 % animal foods (small vertebrates & insects)During the dry season meat intake may reach ~ 65 g/day in adults

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence

Schoeninger MJ, Moore J, Sept JM. Am J Primatol 1999;49:297-314Teleki G. The omnivorous diet. . . In: Omnivorous Primates, Columbia Univ Press, NY, 1981Stanford CB. The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolutionary

ecology of Pliocene hominids. Am Anthropol 1996;98:96-113.

Chimp Eating Colobus Monkey

-12 -10 -8 -6 2-4 -2 0

Chasmoporthetes(Pliocene hyena)

Hyaena brunea

Crocuta-spotted hyena

Meganteron - sabertooth

Australopithecus africanus

P. Pardus - leopard

Paranthropus robustus

Homo

Theropithecus - BaboonPapio sp. - Baboon

Procavia sp. - Hyrax

Suids

Grazers

Browsers

δ 13C %o

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence

Stable Isotopes

more C3 more C4

(Grasses, Sedges)

Lee-Thorp J et al. J Human Evol 2000;39:565-76

A. africanus

“ It now seems inescapable that all hominid species inhabiting theS. African landscape from the latePliocene to the early Pleistoceneexploited foods of C4 grass originand were very likely all omnivorous ”

Sponheimer M et al. Science 1999;283:368-70

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au. rudolfensis

Au.bahrelghazali

Au. anamensis


Au. garhi

Au. africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus boisei


Orrorintugenensis



P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Mill

ions

of Y

ears

Beginning at least 2.5 MYA, a number of lines of evidence indicate increasing reliance upon animal foods by some species of hominins

Wood B. Palaeoanthropology: hominid revelations for Chad. Nature 2002:418:133-35

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – Secular Increase in Animal Food

Mor

e An

imal

Foo

d

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

Semaw S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 1997;385:333-6

Oldowan Lithic TechnologyFirst Appears 2.5-2.6 MYA

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The EvidenceEarliest Meat & Marrow Extraction (2.5 MYA)

SEM

HammerstonePercussion Pits

Scanning electron microscopyof a stone cut mark on the medial surface of an Alcelaphine bovid(wildebeest/Hartebeest) mandiblemade during tongue removal

Hammerstone pits on Bovid right tibial midshaft made duringmarrow extraction

De Heinzelin J et al. Science 1999; 284:625-29

0500

10001500

20002500

30003500

40004500

5000

Observed (65 kg Human) Expected (Similar SizedPrimate)

Org

an W

eigh

t (gm

)

Heart HeartKidney

Liver

Gut

Brain

Kidney

Liver

Gut

Brain


The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

Chimpanzee

Modern Human

Australopithecine

Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.

INTERPRETATION:

Relaxation of selective pressure formerly requiring a large gut cause by:Increase in dietary qualityIncrease in energy densityDecrease in fibrous, high roughage plant foodsIncrease in animal foods

Lake Turkana, KenyaH. ergaster1.65 MYA

Dmanisi, GeorgiaH. ergaster/erectus1.8 MYA Zhoukoudian, China

H. erectus800,000 YA

Longgupo, ChinaH. erectus1.9 MYA

JavaH. erectus1.6-1.8 MYA

JavaH. erectus~40,000 YA


Northern Latitude Colonization


Evolutionary Biochemical Adaptations Similar to Carnivores

Cats Humans1. Synthesis of Taurine Lacking Inefficient (Semi-conditional) 2. Synthesis of vitamin A

from beta carotene Lacking Inefficient3. Desaturase enzymes Extremely low Low4. Dietary B12 requirement Essential Essential

Cordain L et al. The paradoxical nature of hunter-gatherer diets:Meat based, yet non-atherogenic. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au. rudolfensis

Au.bahrelghazali

Au. anamensis


Au. garhi

Au. africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus boisei


Orrorintugenensis



P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Mill

ions

of Y

ears

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?

How Much Animal Food?M

ore

Anim

al F

ood

Clearly, plant:animal subsistence would have varied by season, geographic locale and food availability Were there general trends?

The ethnographic dataGray JP. A corrected ethnographic atlas. World Cultures J 1999;10(1):24-85.Analysis included 229 World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies


How Much Animal Food?

!Kung Hunter-GatherersButchering Giraffe

Clues From Historically Studied Hunter Gatherers:

Cordain L et al. Plant to Animal Subsistence Ratios and Macronutrient Energy Estimations in World Wide Hunter Gatherer Diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92

Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence upon GATHERED PLANT FOODS in World Wide

Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

11

3542 45

3530

23

62 0

05

101520253035404550

0-5

6-15

16-2

526

-35

36-4

546

-55

56-6

566

-75

76-8

586

-100

Soci

etie

s (n

)

% Dependence

Mode = (26-35%)Median =(26-35%)

Only 13.5% of all societies have > 56%subsistenceupon gathered plantfoods


Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence upon TOTAL (FISHED + HUNTED) ANIMAL FOODSin World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

0 26

2330

35

45 4235

11

05

101520253035404550

0-5

6-15

16-2

526

-35

36-4

546

-55

56-6

566

-75

76-8

586

-100

Soci

etie

s (n

)

% Dependence

Mode = (56-65%)Median =(56-65%)

58 % of all societieshave > 56%subsistence dependenceupon animal foods


Shortcomings of Ethnographic Data

The majority of ethnographic data is subjective & not quantitativeHowever, a few quantitative studies of hunter-gatherer diet do exist

Bannock Indians (circa 1870)

% animal % plantPopulation Location Latitude food food Reference

Aborigines(Arhem Land) Australia 12S 80 20 McArthur, 1960Ache Paraguay 25S 90 10 Hill et al, 1984Anbarra Australia 12S 87 13 Meehan, 1982Efe Africa 2N 44 56 Dietz et al, 1989Eskimo Greenland 69N 96 4 Sinclair, 1953; Krogh & Krogh, 1914Gwi Africa 23S 24 76 Silberbauer, 1981; Tanaka, 1980Hadza Africa 3S 54 46 Blurton Jones et al, 1997;

Hawkes et al, 1989Hiwi Venezuela 6N 78 22 Hurtado & Hill, 1986;

Hurtado & Hill, 1990!Kung1 Africa 20S 33 67 Lee, 1968!Kung2 Africa 20S 68 32 Yellen, 1977Nukak Columbia 2N 61 39 Politis G, 1996Nunamiut Alaska 68N 99 1 Binford, 1978Onge Andaman 12N 81 19 Rao et al, 1989; Bose, 1964

Islands

MEAN 69 31Without Eskimo, Nunamiut 64 36

The 13 Quantitative Studies of Hunter Gatherer Animal: Plant Subsistence

Cordain L et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52

Richards MP et al. Neanderthal diet at Vindija and Neanderthal predation: TheEvidence from staple isotopes. Proc NatlAcad Sci 2000;97:7663-66

02468

1012

Neanderthal 1 Neanderthal 2Wolf Actic FoxHerbivore BisonDeer

d15N

(%o)



Clues From Stable Isotopes:

“The isotope evidence overwhelminglypoints to the Neanderthals behavingas top-level carnivores”

Neanderthal Mandible, Vi-207from Vindija (29,080 + 400 Yr BP)

Richards MP et al. Gough’s Cave Human stable Isotope values indicate a high animal protein diet.J Archaeolog Sci 2000;27:1-3. 0

2

4

6

8

H. sapien1 H. sapien2H. sapien3 H.sapien4H. sapien5 Arctic FoxDeer AurochHorse

d15N

(%o)



Gough’s Cave Adult Cranium, OXA 2796 (12,380 + 110 yr BP)

Clues From Stable Isotopes:

“We were testing the hypothesis that these humans had a mainly hunting economy, and therefore a diet high in animal protein. We found this to be the case. . .”

Minimally Processed, Wild Plants

Highly Processed, Refined Foods

What are the HealthImplications?

Minimally Processed, Wild Animals

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

These foods comprise (>70% energy)in typical Western Diets

But were virtually unknown inAncestral Human Diets

Breads, Cereals, Rice and Pasta Dairy Products Added Salt

Refined Vegetable Oils Refined Sugars(except honey) Alcohol

Cordain et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;71:682-92

Fatty Meats

Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy = 70.9% of energy in the U.S. food supply

Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy represent Neolithic & Industrial era foods that were not present in traditional ancestral human diets By default, their inclusion displaces minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods.

15.71.4

3.1

3.3

4.8

0.8

10.623.9

17.8

18.6Refined Sugars

Refined Vegetable Oils

Vegetables

Fruits

Grains

Nuts, SeedsLegumes

Eggs

Dairy

Meats, Fish

Miscellaneous

Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55

Evolution of the Western Diet:Neolithic (10,000 to 5,500 yrs ago) Food

Introductions

10,0

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1,00

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Years ago

066100133167200233267300333HumanGenerations(30 yrs)

pres

ent

33

SUCROSE

WHEAT & BARLEY DOMESTICATED ~10,000 YRS AGO

FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE

SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED

WINE & BEER

FIRST SALT MINES

Evolution of the Western Diet:Industrial Revolution (~200 yrs ago)

1798

1828

1858

1888

1918

1948

1978Year

0234567HumanGenerations(30 yrs)

2008

1

REFINED GRAINS

HFCS

HYDROGENATED OILS

SUCROSE

REFINED VEGETABLE OILS

FEEDLOT PRODUCED MEATS

Evolution of the Western Diet:Industrial Revolution

Processed Foods – The 20th Century

1898

1908

1918

1928

1938

1948

1958

1968

1978

1988

1998Year

O234HumanGenerations(30 yrs)

2008

1

1900: HERSHEY’S CHOCOLATE BAR

1902: PEPSI

1906: KELLOGS CORN FLAKES

1911: CRISCO

1913: OREO COOKIE

1921: WONDERBREAD

1928: RICE KRISPIES

1932: CORN CHIPS

1941: M&M’s

1952: SUGAR FROSTED FLAKES

1969: PRINGLES CHIPS

Neolithic and Industrial Era Foods: Nutritional Implications

As Neolithic & Industrial Era foods displace minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods, they adversely affect the following nutritional factors:1. The Glycemic Load2. The Fatty Acid Balance3. The Macronutrient Balance4. The Trace Nutrient Density5. The Acid/Base Balance6. The Sodium/potassium Balance7. The Fiber Content

Disruption of these 7 nutritionalcomponents fundamentally underliesmuch of the chronic diseases in the Western World

Item % total energy

Whole grains 3.5Refined grains 20.4TOTAL: 23.9

85 % of all grains are consumed as refined grains


Contribution of CerealsTo Total Energy in the U.S. Diet


(Cereals)

Cereal grains which are the seeds of grasses(Gramineae) in their wild state are:

1. Small 2. Difficult to harvest3. Minimally digestible

without (a) grinding to break down cell walls (b) cooking to gelatinize starch granules

Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double edged sword. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 1999;84:19-73


(Cereals)

Bar-Yosef O. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol Anthropol 1998; 6:159-177.

Wright K. The origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest Asia. Paleorient 1991;17:19-45

Thus, the appearance of crude grindstones and mortars in the Middle East (Natufians) and elsewhere (10-15,000 years ago) heralds the beginnings of humanity’s use of cereal grains as a staple food


(Cereals)

How Cereals Were Milled until about 1880

Water or Draft AnimalPowered Stone Mill

100% extraction, unlessflour sieved of bran

Human Mortar & Grindstone100% of flour (endosperm,germ, bran) used – hence

100 % extraction

Evolution of the Western Diet:Industrial Food Introductions (Refined Cereals)

Steel rollers squeeze endosperm out of coating to leave germ & bran to be sieved offWhereas, Stone mills pulverize & mix germ along with endosperm; bran remains unless sieved; flour particle size is mixedMultiple breaks with steel rollers = uniformly small particle size

Steel Rollers to Mill WheatInvented ~1880

Stone Milling of Wheat

Storck J, Teague WD. A History of Milling. Flour for Man’s Bread. Minneapolis, Univ Minnesota Press, 1952.

How Steel Roller Milling of Flour Influences Fiber Content, Particle Size

& Glycemic Index

0102030405060708090

100

100 90 80 70 60 50 40

Flour extraction Rate (%) Flour Remaining

Cru

de F

iber

Ret

aine

d (%

)

WHITE BREAD [steel milled particles] - 72% extraction: GI=70

FANCY PATENT FLOURS [steel milledparticles] 40-65% extraction: GI=70-80

WHOLE WHEAT KERNEL -100% extraction [fully intact particle] : GI=41

CRACKED WHEAT KERNEL (bulgur bread) - [cracked particles] GI=52

WHOLE MEAL FLOUR[steel milled particles] - : GI=69

High Glycemic FoodsALMOST ALL REFINED GRAINS HAVE HIGH GLYCEMIC INDICESRice Chex Cereal 89Corn flakes 84Pretzels 83Rice Krispie Cereal 82Rice Cakes 82Rye bread 76Waffles 76Total Cereal 76Graham crackers 74Cheerios 74Bagels 72Short grain white rice 72Corn chips 72White bread 70Whole Wheat bread 69

HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70LOW G.I. FOODS < 55

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56

High Glycemic Load Carbohydrates Promote Diseases of Insulin Resistance

Type 2 DiabetesHypertensionCoronary Heart Disease (CHD)Dyslipidemia (Reduced serum HDL cholesterol, elevated triglycerides, elevated VLDL, elevated small dense LDL cholesterol)ObesityGout

Liu S et al. Dietary glycemic load and atherothrombotic risk. Curr Atherosclerosis Rep 2002;4:454-61

Ludwig DS. The glycemic index. Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002;287:2414-23.

The Metabolic Syndrome orSyndrome X

Cereal Grains Are Net Acid Producers

+ values = acid-values = alkalineGrains: Meats, Fish, EggsBrown rice 12.5 Trout 10.8Rolled oats 10.7 Turkey 9.9Whole wheat bread 8.2 Chicken 8.7Spaghetti 7.3 Eggs 8.2Cornflakes 6.0 Beef 7.8White Rice 4.6 Cod 7.1Dairy: FruitsParmesan cheese 34.2 Raisins -21.0Processed cheese 28.7 Black currants -6.5Hard cheese 19.2 Bananas -5.5Cottage Cheese 8.7 Apricots -4.8Whole milk 0.7 VegetablesLegumes: Spinach -14.0Peanuts 8.3 Celery -5.2lentils 3.5 Carrots -4.9Peas 1.2 Lettuce -2.5

Potential Renal Acid Loads of Foods (100 g portion)

Remer T, Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH. J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:791-97

Cereal Grains: Acid/Base Balance

Kurtz I et al. Effect of diet on plasma acid-base composition in normal humans. Kidney Int 1983;24:670-80

The average western diet produces a slight chronic metabolic acidosisNet Acid Yielding:1. Cereal Grains = 23.9 % energy2. Meats, fish = 15.7 % energy3. Dairy = 10.6 % energy4. Nuts, legumes = 3.1 % energy5. Eggs = 1.4 % energy6. Salt (NaCl) = 9.6 g/dayNet Alkaline Yielding:1. Vegetables = 4.8 % energy2. Fruits = 3.3 % energyNeutral (but displace alkaline foods):1. Refined sugars = 18.6 % energy2. Refined Oils = 17.9 % energy

Cereal Grains: Acid/Base Balance

Sebastian A et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1308-16

The displacement of fruits and vegetables by cereal grains shifted hominin diets to net acid yieldingDiseases promoted by a net metabolic acidosis:1. Osteoporosis2. Hypertension3. Kidney stones4. Stroke

Refined Grains Reduce the Trace Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

20 172

25 2033

18

50

24

0

20

40

60

80

100

Biotin Vit E Vit B3 Vit B2 Vit B1 PantoAcid

Vit K

Whole wheat White flour

Per

cent

age

EnrichedOnly since

1998

Vitamin Depletion from Flour Milling

Vit B6 Folate

Hyperhomocysteinemia = IncreasedRisk for CHD

Mineral Depletion from Flour Milling

50

3320 20 18

10

75

20 22

0

20

40

60

80

100

Ca Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Se Zn K

Whole wheat White flour

Per

cent

age

Enriched

Refined Grains Reduce the Trace Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

Diseases: Iron deficiency anemia, osteoporosis,Hypogonadal dwarfism

Both Whole and Refined Cereals Reduce Fiber Content

624

41

185

020406080

100120140160180200

RefinedCereals

Whole GrainCereals

Fruits Non StarchyVegetables

Tota

l Fib

er (g

ram

s)10

00 k

cal s

ampl

e

(n = 3) (n = 8)(n = 20)

(n = 20)

Diseases: Constipation, appendicitis, hemorrhoids, deep veinThrombosis, varicoses veins, diverticulitis, hiatal hernia, gastro-esophageal reflux

Item % total energy

Whole milk 1.6Low fat milks 2.1Cheese 3.2Butter 1.1Other 2.6TOTAL: 10.6


Contribution of Dairy ProductsTo Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

(Dairy)

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

(Dairy)

10,0

00

9,00

0

8,00

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7,00

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6,00

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5,00

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1,00

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Years ago

O100150200250300350400450500HumanGenerations

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ent

50

FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE

SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED

Hiendleder S et al. Proc R Soc Lond B 2002;269:893-904 (SHEEP); Luikart G et al. ProcNatl Acad Sci 2001;98:5927-32 (GOATS); Loftus RT et al. Mol Ecol 1999 8:2015-22 (COWS)

Copley MS et . Proc Natl Acad Sci 2003;100:1524-29

The Displacement of Game Meats & Fish by Dairy Foods Increases Saturated Fats at the Expense of

Polyunsaturated Fats & Monounsaturated Fats

2.8 3.7

35.728.7

33.128.9

36.2

23.6

63.7 62.2

23.6

38

010203040506070

Cheese Whole Milk Salmon Venison

Polyunsaturated Fat Monounsaturated Fat Saturated Fat

% T

otal

Fa t

s

Total Fat (74% fat) (49% fat)) (46.0% fat) (19.0 %) (by energy)

Increased Saturated Fat = Increased risk for Syndrome X,CHD, certain cancers

Evolution of the Western Diet:Neolithic Food Introductions (Dairy)

ALMOST ALL REFINED GRAINS HAVE HIGH GLYCEMIC INDICESRice Chex Cereal 89Corn flakes 84Pretzels 83Rice Krispie Cereal 82Rice Cakes 82Rye bread 76Waffles 76Total Cereal 76Graham crackers 74Cheerios 74Bagels 72Short grain white rice 72Corn chips 72White bread 70Whole Milk 27Yogurt 24

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56

Despite a low glycemic load,dairy products paradoxicallyhave insulin indices similar towhite bread

Ostman EM et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:96-100

Hoyt G, Hickey MS, Cordain L. Brit J Nutr2005;93;175-77.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Eaten

(Fatty Meats)

Prior to Agriculture, all animal foods consumed by humans were: Wild AnimalsThe entire edible carcass (all organs) was usually consumedIn Western countries rarely are meats other than muscle meatconsumed

Fatty Meats: Year Round Staples in Western Diets

Hot Dogs82 % Fat, 14 % Protein

Salami74 % Fat, 22 % Protein Ground Beef

64 % Fat, 33 % Protein

T-bone Steak68 % Fat, 30 % Protein

Bacon77 % Fat, 21 % Protein

Pork Ribs72 % Fat, 26 % Protein

Wild vs. Domestic Animals

Body fat in wild animals waxes and wanes seasonallyWith the advent of animal husbandry 10,000 years ago, it became possible to attenuate or prevent the seasonal decline in body fat % by provisioning captive animals with plant foodIt also became feasible to consistently slaughter the animal at peak body fat %

Caribou

Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal Body Fat % (by Weight)

05

1015202530

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Mature Bull Caribou Young Bull Caribou Mature Female Caribou

% B

ody

F at

Month of the Year

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An ArchaeologicalStudy. New York, Academic Press, 1979.

Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal Body Fat % (by Weight)

4.6 3.7 3.2 2.9 3.1 3.3 4.3 6.912

16.611 9.3

05

1015202530


% B

ody

F at

Month of the Year

For 7 months out of the year, the group mean body fat % is 3.1For the entire year, the mean body fat % is 6.8

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An ArchaeologicalStudy. New York, Academic Press, 1979.

14 12 10 9 10 10 1320

28 33 27 2412 10 9 8 9 9

12

17

2529

2421

33 3 2 3 3

3

4

55

44

68 73 76 77 76 75 7058

4233

44 49

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%


Saturated Fat Monounsaturated FatPolyunsaturated Fat Protein

% T

otal

Edi

ble

Car

cass

Ene

rgy

Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal Edible Carcass Fatty Acid Composition

7 months out of the year : (1) mean body fat % = 3.1 by weight(2) mean body fat % = 24.1 by energy(3) mean body SFA = 11.1% by energy

AHA recommendations: (1) Total fat < 30 % energy (prevention of CHD) (2) Saturated fat < 10 % energy

Total ω-3 Fatty Acids in Wild, Grass and Grain Fed Animals Muscle Meat

(100 g sample)

178

225 216

6146

0

50

100

150

200

250

Elk Deer Antelope Pasture fedCow

Grain fedCow

Tota

l n-3

fatty

aci

ds (m

g)

Cordain et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56:181-91

Diseases linked to reduced ω-3 fatty acids: Syndrome X,CHD,cancer, autoimmune diseases, all inflammatory (“itis”) diseases

Total Salt (NaCl) in the U.S. Diet (Grams per Day)Source grams/day

Added in processed foods 7.2Table salt and cooking use 1.4Naturally occurring in foods 1.0TOTAL: 9.6


Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed

(Added Salt)

Salt was known to be gathered on a dry lake bed in China ~ 8,000 years agoFirst inland salt mines appear in Europe ~ 6,000 years agoHunter gatherers living near the ocean dipped food in seawater and used dried sea saltInland hunter-gatherers rarely used salt on a regular basis

The first known salt mine in Europe(6,200 - 5,600 years ago)

The Mountain of Salt(Cardona, Catalonia, Spain)

Diseases linked to salt consumption: Hypertension, stroke, osteoporosis, kidneystones, Menierre’s Syndrome, stomach cancer, insomnia, motion sickness, asthma,exercise induced asthma

Weller O. Antiquity 2002;76:317-18.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed

(Added Salt)

Contribution of Refined Sugars to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

Item % total energy

Sucrose 8.0High fructose corn syrup 7.8Glucose 2.6Syrups 0.1Other 0.1TOTAL: 18.6


U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugarsSweeteners, Washington D.C.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed

(Refined Sugars)Crystalline sugar was first produced from sugar canein Northern India in ~ 500 BCHoney would have always been part of the human diet, but was only available seasonally.Thus, year roundconsumption of refined sugars would not have been possible


(Refined Sugars)

Galloway JH. The Cambridge World History ofFood, Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 437-49

Evolution of the Western Diet:Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1745

1760

1775

1790

1805

1820

1835

1850

1865

1880

1893

1905

1915

1922

1930

Year

Per c

apita

con

sum

ptio

n (lb

s.)

1937

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption in the Netherlands (1745-1937)

Evolution of the Western Diet:Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1815

1830

1846

1860

1870

1880

1895

1910

1915

1918

1920

1930

1940

1944

1946

1948

1952

1955

Year

Per c

apita

con

sum

ptio

n (lb

s.)

1970

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption in England (1815-1970)

WWI WWII

020406080

100120140160

1909-19

1920-29

1930-39

1940-49

1950-59

1960-69

1970-79

1980-89

1990-99

All sugars

90105

123

Poun

ds

115

Annual Per Capita Consumption of Refined Sugars in the U.S. (1909-99)

113 112 109127

148

64 %


Changes in the Refined Sugar Composition in the U.S. Diet Since 1970

In 1960, 90 % of the refined sugar in the U.S. Food supply came from sucroseWith the advent of chromatographic enrichment technologyBeginning in the late 1970’s it became economically feasible to manufacture high fructose corn syrup in mass quantity from corn starch

Ion Exclusion Chromatography columns for fructose syrup

manufacture

Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.

10283

64 66

019 50

6419 20

2222

020406080

100120140160

1970 1980 1990 2000

Sucrose High Fructose Corn Syrup Glucose

121 122151

Poun

ds

136

Annual Per Capita Consumption of Refined Sugars in the U.S.

HFCS has increased from 0.4 lb in 1970 to 64 lbs in 2000. Total fructose (from sucrose & HFCS) has increased from51.5 lbs in 1970 to 64.9 lbs in 2000 (26 %)


U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugarsSweeteners, Washington D.C.

Diseases linked to refined sugars:Syndrome X (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertensionDental cariesCertain cancers


(Refined Sugars)

Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.

Contribution of Refined Vegetable Oils to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

Item % total energy

Salad, Cooking Oils 8.8Shortening 6.6Margarine 2.4TOTAL: 17.8



(Refined Vegetable Oils)

Vegetable Oils are made via three processes:1. Rendering & pressing (oldest)2. Steel expeller pressing (recent)3. Solvent extraction (recent)

Oils made from walnuts, almonds0lives, sesame seeds and flaxseedwere first produced via rendering & pressing ~ 5-6,000 years ago

However, except for olives most oils wereused for non-food purposes (lubrication,Illumination, medicine)



O’Keefe SF. Cambridge World History of Food,Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 375-97

High pressure steel expeller technology developed in the industrial era + new purification processes allowed non traditional oilseeds to be exploited (i.e. cottonseed –Wesson oil -- 1899)The hydrogenation process was first developed in 1897 which allowed vegetable oils to become solidified to produce shortening and margarineYielding novel trans fatty acids

Portable Steel Expeller for theExtraction of Vegetable Oils

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed


05

1015202530

1909-19

1920-29

1930-39

1940-49

1950-59

1960-69

1970-79

1980-89

1990-99

Margarine Shortening Salad, cooking oils Total Vegetable Oils

kg

Per Capita Change in Refined Vegetable Oils in the U.S. (1909-99)

Total vegetable oil consumption has increased 459 % since 1909


Salad, Cooking Oil consumption has increased 1340 % since 1909Margarine consumption has increased 488 % since 1909Shortening consumption has increased 237 % since 1909

Vegetable oils are high in ω-6 fatty acids, but low in ω-3 Diseases linked to high ω-6/ ω-3 Syndrome X (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertension), cancers, autoimmune diseases, virtually all inflammatory (“itis”) diseases



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