origin of a city

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City

A cityis a relatively large andpermanenthuman settlement.[1][2]Althoughthere is no agreement on how a city is

distinguished from a town within generalEnglish language meanings, many citieshave a particularadministrative,legal, orhistorical status based on local law.

Cities generally have complexsystems forsanitation,utilities, landusage,housing,and transportation. The

concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people andbusinesses, benefiting both parties in the process, but it also presents challenges tomanaging urban growth.[3]A big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs

andexurbs.Such cities are usually associated withmetropolitan areasand urban areas,creating numerous businesscommuterstraveling to urban centers for employment.Once a city expands far enough to reach another city, this region can be deemedaconurbationormegalopolis.

Origins

There is not enoughevidenceto assert what conditions gave rise to the firstcities. However, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions, and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces.

The conventional view holds that cities first formed after theNeolithic revolution.The

Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populationspossible, thereby supporting city development.[4]The advent of farming encouragedhunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived byagricultural production. The increased population-density encouraged by farming andthe increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem moresuitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development,PaulBairochtakes up this position in his argument that agricultural activity appearsnecessary before true cities can form.

According toVere Gordon Childe,for a settlement to qualify as a city, it musthave enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large

population.[5]

Bairoch points out that, due to sparse population densities that wouldhave persisted in pre-Neolithic, hunter-gatherer societies, the amount of land thatwould be required to produce enough food for subsistence and trade for a largepopulation would make it impossible to control the flow of trade. To illustrate this point,Bairoch offers an example: "Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, [where] thedensity must have been less than 0.1 person per square kilometre".[6]Using thispopulation density as a base for calculation, and allotting 10% of food towards surplusfor trade and assuming that city dwellers do no farming, he calculates that "...to
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maintain a city with a population of 1,000, and without taking the cost of transport intoaccount, an area of 100,000 square kilometres would have been required. When thecost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 squarekilometres ...".[6]Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size ofGreat Britain.

The urban theoristJane Jacobssuggests that city-formation preceded the birthof agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted.[7]

In his book City Economics, Brendan O'Flaherty asserts "Cities could persistasthey have for thousands of yearsonly if their advantages offset the disadvantages"(O'Flaherty 2005,p. 12). O'Flaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages knownasincreasing returns to scaleandeconomies of scale,which are concepts usuallyassociated withfirms.Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems aswell. Increasing returns to scale occurs when "doubling all inputs more than doublesthe output [and] an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doublescost" (O'Flaherty 2005,pp. 572573). To offer an example of these concepts,O'Flaherty makes use of "one of the oldest reasons why cities were built: military

protection" (O'Flaherty 2005,p. 13). In this example, the inputs are anything thatwould be used for protection (e.g., a wall) and the output is the area protected andeverything of value contained in it. O'Flaherty then asks that we suppose the protectedarea is square, and each hectare inside it has the same value of protection. Theadvantage is expressed as: (O'Flaherty 2005,p. 13)

(1) , where O is the output (area protected) and s stands for the lengthof a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of thelength of a side.

The inputs depend on the length of the perimeter:

(2) , where I stands for the quantity of inputs.So there are increasing returns to scale:

(3) . This equation (solving for in (1) and substituting in (2))shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output.

Also, economies of scale:

(4) . This equation (solving for in equation (3)) shows that thesame output requires less input.

"Cities, then, economize on protection, and so protection against

marauding barbarian armies is one reason why people have cometogether to live in cities ..." (O'Flaherty 2005,p. 13).

Similarly, "Are Cities Dying?", a paper by Harvard economistEdward L. Glaeser,delves into similar reasons for city formation: reduced transport costs for goods, peopleand ideas. Discussing the benefits of proximity, Glaeser claims that if a city is doubled insize, workers get a ten-percent increase in earnings. Glaeser furthers his argument bystating that bigger cities do not pay more for equal productivity than in a smaller city,
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so it is reasonable to assume that workers become more productive if they move to acity twice the size as they initially worked in. However, the workers do not benefit muchfrom the ten-percent wage increase, because it is recycled back into the higher cost ofliving in a larger city. They do gain other benefits from living in cities, though.[which?]

Geography

City planning has seen many different schemes for how a city should look. Themost commonly seen pattern is thegrid,used for thousands of years in China,independently invented byAlexander the Great's city plannerDinocrates of Rhodesandfavoured by the Romans, while almost a rule in parts ofpre-Columbian America.Derry,begun in 1613, was the firstplanned cityinIreland,with the walls being completed fiveyears later. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was considered agood design for defence. The grid pattern was widely copied in the colonies ofBritishNorth America.

Theancient Greeksoften gave their colonies around theMediterraneana gridplan. One of the best examples is the city ofPriene.This city had different specialiseddistricts, much as is seen in modern city planning today. Fifteen centuries earlier,theIndus Valley Civilisationwas using grids in such cities asMohenjo-Daro.In medievaltimes there was evidence of a preference for linear planning. Good examples are thecities established by various rulers in the south of France and city expansions in oldDutch and Flemish cities.

Grid plans were popular among planners in the 19th century, particularly after theredesign ofParis.They cut through the meandering, organic streets that followed old

paths. The United States imposed grid plans in new territories and towns, astheAmerican Westwas rapidly established, in places such asSalt Lake CityandSanFrancisco.

Other forms may include a radial structure, in which main roads converge on acentral point. This was often a historic form, the effect of successive growth over longtime with concentric traces oftown wallsandcitadels.In more recent history, suchforms were supplemented by ring-roads that take traffic around the outskirts of a town.Many Dutch cities are structured this way: a central square surrounded by concentriccanals. Every city expansion would imply a new circle (canals together with town walls).In cities such asAmsterdam,Haarlemand alsoMoscow,this pattern is still clearlyvisible.
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HistoryTowns and cities have a long history, although opinions vary on whether any

particularancientsettlement can be considered a city. A city formed as central places oftrade for the benefit of the members living in close proximity to others facilitatesinteraction of all kinds. These interactions generate both positive and negativeexternalities between others' actions. Benefits include reduced transport costs,exchange of ideas, sharing of natural resources, large local markets, and later in theirdevelopment, amenities such asrunning waterandsewagedisposal. Possible costswould include higher rate of crime, higher mortality rates, higher cost of living, worsepollution, traffic and high commuting times. Cities grow when the benefits of proximitybetween people and firms are higher than the cost.

The first true towns are sometimes considered large settlements where theinhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to takeon specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power were centralized.In 1950Gordon Childeattempted to define a historic city with 10 generalmetrics.[8]These are:

1. Size and density of thepopulation should be abovenormal.

2. Differentiation of the population.Not all residents grow their ownfood, leading to specialists.

3. Payment of taxes to a deity orking.

4.

Monumental public buildings.5. Those not producing their own food are supported by the king.

6. Systems of recording and practical science.

7.A system of writing.

8. Development of symbolic art.

9. Trade and import of raw materials.

10.Specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group.

This categorisation is descriptive, and it is used as a general touchstone whenconsidering ancient cities, although not all have each of its characteristics.

One characteristic that can be used to distinguish a small city from a large townis organized government. A town accomplishes common goals through informalagreements between neighbors or the leadership of a chief. A city has professionaladministrators, regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities ormeans to trade for them) to feed the government workers. The governments may bebased on heredity, religion, military power, work projects (such as canal building), fooddistribution, land ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or acombination of those. Societies that live in cities are often calledcivilizations.
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Ancient times

Early cities developed in a number of regions of the ancient world.Urukis theworld's first city.[9]After Mesopotamia, this culture arose in Syria and Anatolia, as shownby the city ofatalhyk(75005700BC). It is the largest Neolithic site found to

date.[citation needed]Although it has sometimes been claimed[citation needed]thatancientEgyptlacked urbanism, several types of urban settlements were found inancient times.

The Indus Valley Civilization and ancient China are two other areas with majorindigenous urban traditions. Among the early Old World cities,Mohenjo-daroof theIndus Valley Civilization in present-dayPakistan,existing from about 2600 BC, was oneof the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more.[10]

In ancient Greece, beginning in the early 1st millennium BC, there emergedindependentcity-statesthat evolved for the first time the notion ofcitizenship,becoming in the process the archetype of thefree city,thepolis.[11]TheAgora,meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritualand political life of the polis.[12]These Greek city-states reached great levels ofprosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that ofclassical Greece,expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy, and nurturedinAthensunder ademocratic government.The GreekHippodamus of Miletus(c. 407BC) has been dubbed the "Father of City Planning" for his design ofMiletus;theHippodamian, or grid plan, was the basis for subsequent Greek and Roman cities.[13]Inthe 4th century BC,Alexander the GreatcommissionedDinocrates of Rhodesto lay outhis new city ofAlexandria,the grandest example of idealized urban planning of theancient Mediterranean world, where the city's regularity was facilitated by its level site

near a mouth of the Nile.This roster of early urban traditions is notable for its diversity. Excavations at

early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely populated political capitals, otherswere trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities hadlarge dense populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms ofpolitics or religion without having large associated populations. Theories that attempt toexplain ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as economic benefit, fail to capturethe range of variation documented by archaeologists.[14]

The growth of the population of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancientempires concentrating political power, and the growth

in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greatercapital cities and centres of commerce and industry,withAlexandria,AntiochandSeleuciaof theHellenisticcivilization,Pataliputra(nowPatna)inIndia,Chang'an(nowXi'an) in China,Carthage,ancient Rome, its eastern successor Constantinople(laterIstanbul).
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n.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinocrates_of_Rhodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-crabgrass-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miletushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippodamus_of_Miletushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-InternationalDictionary-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-tws2Y21-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_city_(antiquity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk


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Keith Hopkins estimates that ancient Rome had a population of about a millionpeople by the end of the 1st century BC,[15]after growing continually during the 3rd,2nd, and 1st centuries BC, making it the largest city in the world at thetime.[16]Alexandria's population was also close to Rome's population at around thesame time, the historian Rostovtzeff estimates a total population close to a million

based on a census dated from 32 AD that counted 180,000 adult male citizens inAlexandria.[17]

Cities of Late Antiquityunderwent transformations as the urban power baseshrank and was transferred to the local bishop (seeLate Roman Empire). Citiesessentially disappeared, earliest inRoman BritainandGermaniaand latest intheEastern Roman EmpireandVisigothic Spain.[citation needed]

In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed intheAndesandMesoamerica.In the Andes, the first urban centers developed intheNorte Chico civilization(alsoCaralor Caral-Supecivilization),ChavinandMochecultures, followed by major cities in

theHuari,ChimuandIncacultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30major population centers in what is now theNorte Chico regionof north-centralcoastalPeru.It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the30th century BC and the 18th century BC.[18]Mesoamerica saw the rise of earlyurbanism in several cultural regions, including thePreclassic Maya,theZapotecofOaxaca, andTeotihuacanin central Mexico. Later cultures such as theAztecdrew onthese earlier urban traditions.

In the first millennium AD, an urban tradition developed in the Khmer region ofCambodia, where Angkor grew into one of the largest cities (in area) of theworld.[19]The closest rival to Angkor, the Mayan city ofTikalin Guatemala, was

between 100 and 150 square kilometres (39 and 58 sq mi) in total size.[20]Although itspopulation remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systemsin the Angkor area may have supported up to one million people.[21]

Agriculture was practiced in sub-Saharan Africa since the third millennium BC.Because of this, cities could develop as centers of non-agricultural activity. Exactly whenthis first happened is still a topic of archeological and historical investigation. Westernscholarship has tended to focus on cities in Europe and Mesopotamia, but emergingarcheological evidence indicates that urbanization occurred south of the Sahara wellbefore the influence of Araburban culture.One of the oldest sites documented thusfar,Jenn-Jenoin what is today Mali, has in fact been dated back to the third century

BC. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenn-Jeno did not fit into traditionalWestern conceptions of urbanity as it lacked monumental architecture and a distinctiveelite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based on more a morefunctional redefinition of urban development. In particular, Jenn-Jeno featuredsettlement mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than vertical, powerhierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functionalinterdependence with the surrounding hinterland.[22]Archaeological evidence fromJenn-Jeno, specifically the presence of non-West African glass beads dated from the
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ri_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moche_(culture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norte_Chico_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamericahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothic_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity#Citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-cities-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City#cite_note-15


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third century BC to the fourth century AD, indicates that pre-Arabic trade contactsprobably existed between Jenn-Jeno and North Africa.[23]Additionally, other earlyurban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust,Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade routbetween Egypt and Gao.[24]

Middle Ages

This woodcut showsNurembergas a prototype of a flourishing and

independent city in the 15th century

Bardejovin Slovakia - an example of a well-preserved medieval city.

The building in the centre is acity hall.

While David Kessler andPeter Teminconsider ancientRome the largest city before the 19th century, Londonwas the first to exceed a population of 1million.[25]George Modelski considers medievalBaghdad, with an estimated population of 1.2 millionat its peak, the largest city before 19th century Londonand the first with a population of over one

million.[26]Others estimate that Baghdad's populationmay have been as large as 2 million in the 9th century.[27]

From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, the city ofConstantinople,capital oftheByzantine Empire,was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a populationapproaching 1 million.[28][29]

During theEuropean Middle Ages,a town was as much a political entity as a collectionof houses. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord andcommunity: "Stadtluft macht frei"("City air makes you free") was a saying in Germany.InContinental Europecities with a legislature of their own were not unheard of, the lawsfor towns as a rule other than for the countryside, the lord of a town often beinganother than for surrounding land. In theHoly Roman Empire,some cities had no otherlord than the emperor. In Italymedieval communeshad quite a statelike power. Inexceptional cases likeVenice,GenoaorLbeck,cities themselves became powerfulstates, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensivemaritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case ofSakai,whichenjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.

Early modern
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While thecity-states,orpoleis,of theMediterraneanandBaltic Sealanguished from the16th century, Europe's larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce followingthe emergence of anAtlantictrade. By the early 19th century, London had become thelargest city in the world with a population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-developed regionally traditional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul andKyoto.

During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept wasextensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories,and were bound to several laws about administration, finances and urbanism.

Most towns remained far smaller, so that in 1500 only some two dozen places in theworld contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700, there were fewer thanforty, a figure that rose to 300 in 1900. A small city of the early modern period mightcontain as few as 10,000 inhabitants, a town far fewer.[citation needed]

Industrial age

The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive

urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions,as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities intourban areas. In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads reducedtransportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowingmigration from rural to city areas. However, cities during those periods of time weredeadly places to live in, due to health problems resulting from contaminated water andair, and communicable diseases. In theGreat Depressionof the 1930scities were hardhit by unemployment,especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the U.S.urbanization rate increased forty to eighty percent during 19001990. Today the world'spopulation is slightly over half urban,[30]with millions still streaming annually into thegrowing cities of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

External effects

Modern cities are known for creating their ownmicroclimates.This is due to the largeclustering of heat absorbent surfaces that heat up insunlightand that channel rainwaterinto underground ducts.

Wasteand sewage are two major problems for cities, as is air pollution coming fromvarious forms of combustion,[31]including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, otherheating systems,[32]andinternal combustion engines.The impact of cities on placeselsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion ofcityfootprinting(ecological footprint). Other negative external effects include healthconsequences such as communicable diseases, crime, and high traffic and commutingtimes. Cities cause more interaction with more people than rural areas, thus a higherprobability to contracting contagious diseases. However, many inventions such asinoculations, vaccines, and water filtration systems have also lowered health concerns.Crime is also a concern in the cities. Studies have shown that crime rates in cities arehigher and the chance of punishment after getting caught is lower. In cases such asburglary, the higher concentration of people in cities create more items of higher value
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worth the risk of crime. The high concentration of people also makes using automobiles inconvenient and pedestrian traffic is more prominent in metropolitan areasthan a rural or suburban one.

Cities also generate positive external effects. The close physical proximityfacilitatesknowledge spillovers,helping people and firms exchange information andgenerate new ideas.[33]A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching betweenfirms and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructureand production facilities, however in very dense cities, increased crowding and waitingtimes may lead to some negative effects.[34]Another positive external effect of citiescomes from the diverse social opportunities created when people of differentbackgrounds are brought together. Larger cities typically offer a wider variety of socialinterests and activities, letting people of all backgrounds find something they can beinvolved in.

Cities may, however, also have a positive influence on the environment.UN-HABITATstated in its reports that city living can be the best solution for dealing with

the rising population numbers (and thus still be a good approach on dealing withoverpopulation)[35]This is because cities concentrate human activity into one place,making the environmental damage on other places smaller.[36]However, this can onlybe achieved ifurban planningis improved[37]and if city services are properlymaintained.

Distinction between cities and towns

There are probably as many different ways of conceiving what a city is as there arecities. A simple definition therefore has its attractions. The simplest is that a city is ahuman settlement where strangers are likely to meet.

Richard Sennett,The Fall of Public Man, 1977, p. 39.[38]

The difference between townsand citiesis differently understood in different parts ofthe world. Indeed, some languages other than English use a single word for bothconcepts. Iberian languages typically use a three-way designation(Catalan: "poble", "vila", "ciutat"; Galician: "aldea", "vila","cidade";Portuguese: "aldeia", "vila", "cidade"; Spanish: "pueblo", "villa", "ciudad"respectively"village", "town", "city"); Italian: "villaggio", "paese""citt"respectively "village","village/town", "city/town"; but otherRomance languagesdon't(French: "village", "ville").[citation needed]

Even within the English-speaking world there is no one standard definition of a city: theterm may be used either for a town possessing city status; for an urban localityexceeding an arbitrary population size; for a town dominating other towns withparticular regional economic or administrative significance.United Kingdom city statusisformally conferred on some settlements, which range in population from about 10,000to over 1,000,000. Larger settlements which aren't designated as cities are towns,smaller settlements are villages (informally defined, historically, to have at least a
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church, a shop, a pub and a post office) and very small settlements are called hamlets.In the US cityis used for much smaller settlements.

Although citycan refer to an agglomeration including suburban and satellite areas, theterm is not usually applied to a conurbation (cluster) of distincturban places, nor for awidermetropolitan areaincluding more than one city, each acting as a focus for parts ofthe area. And the word "town" (also "downtown") may mean the center of the city.

Global cities

Main article:Global city

A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking,finance, innovation, and markets. The term "global city", as opposed tomegacity,wascoined bySaskia Sassenin a seminal 1991 work.[citation needed]Whereas "megacity" refersto any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence.Global cities, according to Sassen, have more in common with each other than withother cities in their host nations.

The notion of global cities is rooted in the concentration ofpowerand capabilities withinall cities. The city is seen as a container where skills and resources are concentrated:the better able a city is to concentrate its skills and resources, the more successful andpowerful the city. This makes the city itself more powerful in the sense that it caninfluence what is happening around the world. Following this view of cities, it is possibletorank the world's cities hierarchically.[39]

Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power. The term global cityisheavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that areotherwise significant. Additionally, it has been questioned whether the city itself can be

regarded as an actor.[by whom?]

In 1995, Kanter argued that successful cities can be identified by three elements: goodthinkers (concepts), good makers (competence) or good traders (connections). Theinterplay of these three elements, Kanter argued, means that good cities are notplanned but managed.

Inner city

Main article:Inner city

In the United States, United Kingdom and Ireland, the term "inner city" is sometimesused with the connotation of being an area, perhaps aghetto,where people are less

wealthy and where there is more crime.[citation needed]These connotations are lesscommon in other Western countries, as deprived areas are located in varying parts ofother Western cities. In fact, with thegentrificationof some formerly run-down centralcity areas the reverse connotation can apply. In Australia, for example, the term "outersuburban" applied to a person implies a lack of sophistication. In Paris, the inner city isthe richest part of the metropolitan area, where housing is the most expensive, andwhere elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the developing world, economic
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modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at theedge of current settlement (seefavelas,shacksandshanty towns).

The United States, in particular, has a culture of anti-urbanism that dates back tocolonial times. The AmericanCity Beautifularchitecture movement of the late 19thcentury was a reaction to perceivedurban decayand sought to provide stately civicbuildings and boulevards to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban core.Modern anti-urban attitudes are found in the United States in the form of a planningprofession that continues to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, whereaccess to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car ratherthan by foot or transit.

However, there is a growing movement in North America called "New Urbanism" thatcalls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allowspeople to walk from one type of land-use to another. The idea is that housing,shopping, office space, and leisure facilities are all provided within walking distance ofeach other, thus reducing the demand for road-space and also improving the efficiency

and effectiveness ofmass transit.

21st century

There is a debate about whethertechnologyand instantaneous communications aremaking cities obsolete, or reinforcing the importance of big cities as centres oftheknowledge economy.[40][41][42]Knowledge-based development of cities, globalizationof innovation networks, and broadband services are driving forces of a new cityplanning paradigm towardsintelligent cities.Intelligent /smart citiesuse technologyand communication to create more efficient agglomerations in terms ofcompetitiveness, innovation, environment, energy, utilities, governance, and delivery ofservices to the citizen. Some companies are building brand newmasterplannedcitiesfrom scratch ongreenfieldsites.

Gujarat International Finance Tec-City,India

Nano City,India

Putrajaya,Malaysia

King Abdullah Economic City,Saudi Arabia

Sejong City,South Korea

Songdo International Business District,South Korea

Dubai Waterfront,United Arab Emirates Dubai World Central,United Arab Emirates

Masdar City,United Arab Emirates
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LOCAL AND

INTERNATIONAL CITY

(PASIG CITY AND SAN FRANCISCO,

CALIFORNIA)


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LOCAL CITY: PASIG CITY

Pasig, officially City of Pasig (Filipino:Lungsod ng Pasig) is one of the highly

urbanised cities ofMetro Manilain thePhilippinesand was the former capital of the

province ofRizalprior to the formation theNational Capital Region.Located along theeastern border ofMetro Manila,Pasig is bordered on the west byQuezon

CityandMandaluyong City;to the north byMarikina City;to the south byMakati

City,Pateros,andTaguig City;and to the east byAntipolo City,the municipality

ofCaintaandTaytayin the province ofRizal.

A formerly rural settlement, Pasig is primarilyresidentialandindustrial,but has been

becoming increasinglycommercialin recent years, particularly after the construction of

theOrtigas Centerbusiness district in its east. The city is also theseeof theRoman

CatholicDiocese of Pasig,makingits cathedral(formerly the Immaculate Conception

Cathedral) alandmarkbuilt around the same time as the town's foundation in 1573.

EtymologyThe city's name Pasigwas believed to

have come from the oldSanskritword passid,

or sand, which refers to the tribal community

beside the sandy edges of the river.[4]Some

historians believed that El Pasigcame

from Legaspi (Miguel Lopez de Legazpi,

theBasqueexplorer well known for being

involved in the "Sanduguan", and was the first

Governor-General of the SpanishEast Indies.

It was pronounced mapaksikby the Pre-Hispanic Chinese inhabitants

ofBinondo,Manila(Mabagsik isTagalogfor "terrifying"- depicting the river's raging

current during thetyphoon season,causing massive floods on nearby towns and

villages, destroying wide hectares offarmland,and even bringing huge amounts of logs

and water lilies fromMarikina River,Laguna de Bay,andSan Juan Rivertowards

Colonial Manila). Mapaksik"later became "Pah-sik", and was then changed to what is

now "Pasig". It may have also come from the Tagalog word "dalampasigan", which

means "riverbank".

According to Jose Villa Panganiban, the former director of The Institute of

National Language, "Pasig" is another ancient Sanskrit word meaning

Awaterwaycoming from one body of water to another, which briefly describes the

river because its flow starts from Laguna de Bay, leading toManila Bay.

History
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Metro_Manila)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_River_(Metro_Manila)http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/riverbankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pasig_City_1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwayhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/riverbankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_River_(Metro_Manila)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_de_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marikina_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagaloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binondohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Indieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanduguanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_Lopez_de_Legazpihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasig#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasig_Cathedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Pasighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortigas_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residentialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rizal_(province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taytay,_Rizalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cainta,_Rizalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipolo_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taguig_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pateros,_Metro_Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makati_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makati_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marikina_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandaluyong_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quezon_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quezon_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Capital_Regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rizalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_language


15/36

Old center of Pasig at the Pasig City Museum and near the Immaculate Conception

Cathedral

Here lies a nearly-extinctcreekthat played animportantroleamidst the days of

thePhilippine Revolution.Long before theSpaniardshave reached and discovered the

"Ciudad-Municipalde Pasig" in the year 1573, a thrivingMuslimcommunity(Barangay)

was already been established along this creek, ruled byRajah LontokandDayang

Kalangitanof theSultanate-KingdomsofTondoandNamayan(The present-dayMetro

Manila).

The creek was given the name "Bitukang Manok" (Tagalogfor "ChickenGut"),

due to theserpentine shapeof itswaterway.Among its earlydwellersconsistofEthnic

Malays,theChinesefromSouthern China(with their origins dating back from theMing

Dynasty), and theIndigenousTinguianNomadswho migrated from the deepjunglesof

theSierra MadreMountain Range.The Bitukang Manok was once a principletributaryof

theMarikina River.The Spanish Colonizers called the creekRiode Pasig; however,

thenativesstill referred to it as the Bitukang Manok.The first stretch of the Bitukang Manok became known as the "Pariancillo" (Esterode

San Agustin), where itsshorelinewas oncesettledby Chinese

andMalaymerchantstotradetheirgoodswith the natives, until itdevelopedup to the

1970s as the city's mainpublic market.Likewise, the creek contributed enormously to

theeconomic growthof Pasig during the Spanish ColonialEra,throughirrigationof its

widepaddy fields,and by being the progressive center ofbarter trade.

The Bitukang Manok, also known as the "Parian Creek", had once linked theMarikina

Riverwith the "AntipoloRiver". Before theManggahan Floodwaywas built in 1986, The

Parian Creek was actually connected to the Sapang Bato-Buli Creek (which serves as

the boundary between Pasig's barangays Dela Paz-Manggahan-Rosario-Sta. Lucia andtheMunicipalityofCainta), the Kasibulan Creek (situated at Vista Verde, Brgy. San

Isidro, Cainta), the Palanas Creek (leaving Antipolo through Brgy. Muntindilao), the

Bulaw Creek (on Brgy. Mambungan, besides theValleyGolfandCountry Club), and

theHinulugang TaktakFalls of Brgy. Dela Paz (fed by the Taktak Creek passing close to

the AntipoloTown Square), thus being thedetachedand long-abandoned Antipolo

River.

Since the early 1600s up to the period ofJapanese Imperialism,over a

thousandCatholicdevotees coming from "Maynilad" (Manila), "Hacienda Pineda"

(Pasay), "San Juandel Monte", "Haciendade Mandaloyon" (Mandaluyong), "Hacienda

Mariquina" (Marikina), "BarrioPateros", "Pueblode Tagig" (Taguig), and "San Pedro deMacati" (Makati), followed thetrailof the Parian Creek to thePilgrimageCathedralon

themountainouspueblo of Antipolo,Morong(The present-dayRizal Province).

The Antipoleos and several locals from the far-reached barrios of "Poblacionde San

Mateo", "Montalban" (Rodriguez), "Monte de Tanhai" (Tanay), "Santa Rosa-Oroquieta"

(Teresa), and "PuntaIbayo" (Baras), had also navigated thisfreshwatercreek once to

go down to thevast"Kapatagan" (Riceplains)oflowlandPasig. Even
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origin of a city

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