ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Foundations of Individual Behavior

CH: 2CH: 2

2–2

Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics

Biographical Factors:

Age

Gender

Marital Status

Tenure

Biographical CharacteristicsPersonal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status, tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.

2–3

Ability, Intellect, and IntelligenceAbility, Intellect, and Intelligence

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

1. Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.

2–4

Parameters of Intellectual AbilityParameters of Intellectual Ability

Dimension Description Job Example

Number Aptitude

Verbal Comprehension

Perceptual Speed

Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

Rapid visualization

Memory

Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic.

Ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other.

Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately.

Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and them solve the problem.

Ability to use logical and assess the implication of an argument

Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed

Ability to retain and recall past experiences

Accountant: Computing the sales tax on a set of items.

Plant manger: Following corporate policies

Fire investigator: Identifying clues to support a charge of arson.

Market Researcher: Forecasting demand for a product in the next time period.

Supervisor: Choosing between two different suggestions offered by employee.

Interior decorator: Redecorating an office.

Salesperson: Remembering the names of customers.

2–5

2. Physical Abilities2. Physical Abilities

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

2–6

Parameters of Physical AbilitiesParameters of Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic Strength

2. Trunk Strength

3. Static Strength

4. Explosive strength

Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time

Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles

Ability to exert force against external objects

Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts

Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic Flexibility

Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible

Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements

2–7

Parameters of Physical AbilitiesParameters of Physical Abilities

Other Factors

7. Body Coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body

Ability to maintain equilibrium deposit forces pulling off balance

Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time

2–8

LearningLearning

Learning• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Learning• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

2–9

Theories of LearningTheories of Learning

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

2–10

Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

2–11

Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Attentional processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts

• Attentional processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation and direct experience.

2–12

Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and performance.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and performance.

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

2–13

Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcementRemoving an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.

PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to

eliminate an undesirable behavior.

ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to

cause its cessation .

2–14

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

2–15

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

2–16

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

ExampleNature of

Reinforcement Effect on Behavior

Reinforcement Schedule

Continuous

Fixed-interval

Variable-interval

Fixed-ratio

Variable-ratio

Reward given after each desired behavior

Reward given at fixed time intervals

Reward given at variable times

Reward given at fixed amounts of output

Reward given at variable amounts of output

Fast learning of new behavior but rapid extinction

Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction

Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction

High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction

Very high performance with slow extinction

Compliments

Weekly paychecks

Pop quizzes

Piece-rate pay

Commissioned Sales

2–17

Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors

2. Develop baseline data

3. Identify behavioral consequences

4. Develop and apply intervention

5. Evaluate performance improvement

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors

2. Develop baseline data

3. Identify behavioral consequences

4. Develop and apply intervention

5. Evaluate performance improvement

OB Mod

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

2–18

OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications

Well Pay versus Sick PayReduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence.

Employee DisciplineThe use of punishment can be counter-productive.

Developing Training ProgramsOB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.

Self-managementReduces the need for external management control.