organisational communication

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATIONwww.vustudents.net

INTRODUCTION

Organizational Communication can be defined as a process

through which organizations are created and in turn create and shape

events. The process can be understood as a combination of process,

people, message, meaning and purpose.

Functions of Organizational Communication:

It is the means by which a manager ensures co-operation of

subordinates.

It is the exchange of meanings among members of an organization.

It is the “glue” which binds the elements of an organization

together.

It builds the very structure of an organization i.e. who

communicates with whom about what.

Can misunderstanding of a few words literally mean the difference

between life and death? They can in airlines business. A number of

aviation disasters have been largely attributed to problems in

communication. There are other fields also in which there are examples to

illustrate how miscommunication can have deadly consequences. Good

communication is essential to any group’s or organization’s effectiveness.

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Research indicates that poor communication is probably the most

frequently cited source of interpersonal conflict. Because individuals

spend nearly 70 percent of their working hours communicating-writing,

reading, speaking, listening-it seems reasonable to conclude that one of

the most inhibiting forces to successful group performance is a lack of

effective communication.

No group can exist without communication: the transference of

meaning among its members. It is only through transmitting meaning

from one person to another that information and ideas can be conveyed.

Communication, however, is more than merely imparting meaning. It

must also be understood. In a group in which one member speaks only

German and the others do not know German, the individual speaking

German will not be fully understood. Therefore, communication must

include both the transference and the understanding of meaning.

An idea, no matter how great, is useless until it is transmitted and

understood by others. Perfect communication, if there were such a thing,

would exist when a thought or an idea was transmitted so that the mental

picture perceived by the receiver was exactly the same as that envisioned

by the sender. Although elementary in theory, perfect communication is

never achieved in practice, due to unavoidable reasons.

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2.1 What is Communication?

The term “communication” has been derived from the Latin

word “communis” which means common. It was Aristotle who, for

the first time, brought about a systematic study of the

communication process. According to him, there are three essential

elements in a communication system, namely, the speaker, the

speech, and the audience. Communication strictly stands for sharing

of ideas in common. The word “communication”, however, has

many and varied meanings. Popularly speaking, it refers to the

various means of transmitting information from individual to

individual, individual to a group of individuals or from one place to

another. It is a transmission of messages, ideas, methods, skills, and

thoughts between two or more persons. It is a mutual exchange of

facts, thoughts, opinions or emotions by the use of symbols, words,

pictures, figures, graphs and so on.

Communication is the chain of understanding which

permeates an organization from top to bottom, from bottom to top,

and from side to side, and which moves the organization ahead

towards its stated objectives. It is the cohesive force which holds the

group together.

Vardaman and Halterman opine: “Communication is the flow

of material, information, perception and understanding between

various parts and members of an organization.”

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In the words of Allen, “Communication is the transfer of

meaning from one person to another.” Mitchell goes a step further

and observes, “Communication involves more than just having the

right information — the information should be believed, weighed

correctly, reach the right decision-makers and result in the

appropriate action.” Rogers and Rogers have reiterated this point of

view. They opine “Communication is a process by which an idea is

transferred from a source to the receiver with the intention of

changing behaviour.. ..Communication is made with the intention of

achieving results/change in knowledge, attitude and overt

behaviour.”

Communication is a process in which senders and receivers of

messages interact in a given social context. Interpersonal

communication refers to the exchange of information and

transmission of meaning between two people. Organizational

communication is the subject that deals with the exchange of

information and transmission of meaning throughout the

organizational hierarchy.

Since the leader or the manager accomplishes organizational

objectives through people, it is essential to communicate what the

leader or the manager wants people to accomplish, how to

accomplish, where to accomplish and more important, why to

accomplish. To communicate the organizational philosophy,

objectives, procedures, and practices to all employees is not easy,

because communication is a very complex phenomenon.

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In communication, the people must understand what they are

trying to communicate; they must be willing and able to understand

them; they must accept their communication or message or

information or goals. Thus, all social phenomena are a function of

communication.

2.2 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:

Communication serves four major functions within a group or

organization: Control, motivation, emotional expression and information.

Communication acts to control member behaviour in several ways.

Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that

employees are required to follow. When employees, for instance are

required to first communicate any job related grievance to their

immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply with

company policies, communication is performing a control function. But

informal communication also controls behaviour. When work groups

tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of

the group look bad), they are informally communicating with, and

controlling, the member’s behaviour

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Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees

what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to

improve performance if it’s supbar. The formation of specific goals,

feedback on progress toward the goals, and reinforcement of desired

behaviour all stimulate motivation and require communication.

For many employees, their work group is a primary source for

social interaction. The communication that takes place within the group is

a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustrations and

feelings of satisfaction. Communication, therefore, provides a release for

the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs.

The final function that communication performs relates to its role

in facilitating decision making. It provides the information that

individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data to

identify and evaluate alternative choices.

No one of these functions should be seen as being more important

than the others. For groups to perform effectively, they need to maintain

some form of control over members, stimulate members to perform,

provide a means for emotional expression, and make decision choices.

Almost every communication interaction that takes place in a group or

organization performs one or more of these four functions.

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2.3 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a

message to be conveyed, is needed. It passes between a source (sender)

and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to a symbolic form)

and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who

retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is a

transference of meaning from one person to another.

The exhibit above depicts this communication process. This

model is made up of seven parts: (1) the communication source, (2)

encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5) decoding, (6) the receiver,

and (7) feedback.

The source initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message

is the actual physical product from the source encoding. When we speak,

the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message.

When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expression on our

face are the message. The channel is the medium through which the

message travels. It is selected by the source, who must determine whether

to use a formal or informal channel. Formal channels are established by

the organization and transmit message that are related to the professional

activities of the members. They traditionally follow the authority chain

within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or

social, follow the informal channels in the organization. The receiver is

the object to whom the message is directed.

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But before the message can be received, the symbols in it must be

translated into a form that can be understood by the receiver. This step is

the decoding of the message. The final link in the communication process

is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have

been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines

whether understanding has achieved.

2.4 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION:

Communication can flow vertically and laterally. The vertical

dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions.

Downward

Communication that flows from one level of a group or

organization to a lower level is a downward communication. When we

think of managers communicating with employees, the downward pattern

is the one we are usually thinking of. It’s used by group leaders and

managers to assign goals, provide job instructions, inform employees of

policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer

feedback about performance. But downward communication doesn’t have

to be oral or face-to-face contact. When management sends letters to the

employees’ homes to advise them of the organization’s new sick leave

policy, it is using downward communication. So is an e-mail from a team

leader to the members of her team, reminding them of an upcoming

deadline.

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Upward

Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or

organization. It’s used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of

progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward

communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their

jobs, co-workers, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on

upward communication for ideas on how things can be improved.

Some organizational examples of upward communication are

performance reports prepared by lower management for review by middle

and top management, suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys,

grievance procedures, superior-subordinate discussions, and informal

“gripe” sessions in which employees have the opportunity to identify and

discuss problems with their boss or representatives of higher

management. For example, FedEx prides itself on its computerized

upward communication program. All its employees annually complete

climate surveys and reviews of management. This program was cited as a

key human resources strength by the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality

Award examiners when FedEx won the honor.

Lateral

When communication takes place among members of the same

work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among

managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent

personnel, we describe it as lateral communications.

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Why would there be a need for horizontal communications if a

group or organization’s vertical communications are effective? The

answer is that horizontal communications are often necessary to save time

and facilitate co-ordination. In some cases, these lateral relationships are

formally sanctioned. More often, they are informally created to short-

circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. So lateral

communications can, from management’s viewpoint, be good or bad.

Since strict adherence to the formal vertical structure for all

communications can impede the efficient and accurate transfer of

information, lateral communications can be beneficial. In such cases, they

occur with the knowledge and support of superiors.

But they can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal

vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their

superiors to get things done, or when bosses find out that actions have

been taken or decisions made without their knowledge.

Diagonal Communication

This occurs when communication occurs between workers in a

different section of the organisation and where one of the workers

involved is on a higher level in the organisation. For example in a bank

diagonal communication will occur when a department manager in head

office converses with a cashier in a branch of the bank based on the high

street.

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2.5 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

How do group members transfer meaning between and among

each other? There are three basic methods. People basically rely on oral,

written and non-verbal communication.

Oral Communication

The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication.

Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal

mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication.

The advantages of oral communication are speed and feedback. A

verbal message can be conveyed and a response received in a minimal

amount of time. If the receiver is unsure of the message, rapid feedback

allows for early detection by the sender and, hence, allows for early

correction.

The major disadvantage of oral communication surfaces in

organizations or whenever the message has to be passed through a

number of people. The more people a message must pass through, the

greater the potential distortion. For example, if you ever played the game

“telephone” at a party, you know the problem. Each person interprets the

message in his or her own way. The message’s content, when it reaches

its destination, is very often different from that of the original. In an

organization, where decisions and other communiqués are verbally

passed up and down the authority hierarchy, there are considerable

opportunities for messages to become distorted.

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Written Communication.

Written communications include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax

transmissions, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin

boards, or any other device that is transmitted via written words or

symbols.

Why would a sender choose to use written communications? They

are tangible and verifiable. Typically, both the sender and the receiver

have a record of the communication. The message can be stored for a

indefinite period. If there are questions concerning the content of the

message, it is physically available for later reference. This feature is

particularly important for complex and lengthy communications. The

marketing plan for a new product, for instance, is likely to contain a

number of tasks spread out over several months. By putting it in writing,

those who have to initiate the plan can readily refer to it over the life of

the plan. A final benefit of written communication comes from the

process itself. You are usually more careful with the written word than

the oral word. You are forced to think more thoroughly about what you

want to convey in a written message than in a spoken one. Thus, written

communications are more likely to be well thought out, logical and clear.

Of course, written messages have their drawbacks. They are time

consuming. You could convey far more information to a college

instructor in a one-hour oral exam than in a one-hour written exam. In

fact, you could probably say the same thing in 10 to 15 minutes that it

would take you an hour to write. So, although writing may be more

precise, it also consumes a great deal of time.

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The other major disadvantage is feedback, or lack of it. Oral

communication allows the receiver to respond rapidly to what he thinks

he hears. Written communication, however, does not have a built-in

feedback mechanism. The result is that the mailing of a memo is no

assurance it has been received, there is no guarantee the recipient will

interpret it as the sender intended. The latter point is also relevant in oral

communiqués, except it is easy in such cases merely to ask the receiver to

summarize what you have said. An accurate summary presents feedback

evidence that the message has been received and understood.

Employees’ Handbook: As business grows in size, management often

turns to the use of an employee handbook as a communication tool to

inform employees on issues such as company history and products,

human resource policies, employee compensation and benefits, training

assistance, health services, safety, security, employee responsibilities, and

work standards. Handbooks are also useful to supervisors and

administrators for ensuring consistent implementation and enforcement of

company policies.

These are intended to help in the induction of newcomers and to

provide all the employees with a clear-cut understanding not only of the

general policies of the management but also of the nature of the business,

its sources of supplies, its customers, its products and the range of

benefits and services available to its employees. Many organizations

publish illustrated handbooks, depicting cartoons, charts and

photographs.

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House Magazines and Newspapers: Some organizations maintain one

or more employee magazines or journals. These are meant to keep

employees well informed of the development in the business and to

acquaint them with the personalities and activities of the organisation. It

can explain the policies of the management in easily understood terms.

House magazines contain news, and personal and social items. There may

be references to parties, marriages, births, retirements, honours and

awards.

Financial Reports: Such reports describe the essential facts concerning

the conduct of business, its expenses and profits, its income and

distribution of financial standing. of the organisation and create

understanding between the management and its employees.

Bulletin Boards: Usually, big organizations keep a bulletin board for 50

to 100 employees in attractive colours, types and formats. These boards

contain a wide range of material such as someone’s choice of cartoons

from newspapers and magazines, pin-up photographs, events in the lives

of present or former employees and other items of common interest.

Audio-Visual Aids: Sound films, movies, slides, tapes may be played

back to the workers. Such audio-visual aids have an obvious advantage of

describing a company’s range of operations and products, in illustrating

how financial and other decisions are made, or in explaining work rules.

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Notice Boards: Notices are often pasted o the factory walls or gates or

placed in glass covered notice boards, and these are hung at appropriate

places in the premises of an organisation, near the canteens or factory

gates. These notices usually depict abstracts as desired under the various

statutes as well as notices of the various institutions in the establishment

such as the sports club.

Suggestion System: The suggestion system is designed to enlist the co-

operation of subordinates in effecting improvements and in eliminating

waste and to provide an avenue for a working communication with the

management. Rewards are offered for suggestions which results in greater

productive efficiency. In some organizations, “suggestion boxes” are

located at convenient places throughout the plant.

Communication with Public and Government: Organisations educate

the public about their various activities through advertising, campaigns,

meetings and conferences. Organisations also establish and organize

special groups to communicate with the important segments of

government.

Proper communication plays an important role in a large

organization, and there has to be a proper balance between the oral and

written forms of communication. It need hardly be said that the choice of

any method depends upon the purpose to be accomplished and the

likelihood of its success. Quite often, it is better to use more than one

method to convey the same information so that one can reinforce the

other.

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Nonverbal Communication

Every time we verbally give a message to someone, we also impart

a nonverbal message. In some instances, the nonverbal component may

stand alone. For example, in a singles bar, a glance, a stare, a frown, and

a provocative body movement all convey meaning. As such, no

discussion of communication would be complete without consideration of

nonverbal communication-which includes body movements, the

intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the

physical distance between the sender and receiver.

It can be argued that every body movement has a meaning and no

movement is accidental. For example, through body language we say,

“Help me, I’m lonely”; “Take me, I’m available”; “Leave me alone, I’m

depressed.” And rarely do we send our messages consciously. We act out

our state of being with nonverbal body language. We lift one eyebrow for

disbelief. We rub our nose for puzzlement. We clasp our arms to isolate

ourselves or to protect ourselves. We shrug our shoulders for

indifference, wink one eye for intimacy, tap our fingers for impatience

and slap our forehead for forgetfulness.

The two most important messages that body language conveys are

(1) The extent to which an individual likes another and is interested in his

or her views and

(2) The relative perceived status between a sender and receiver. For

instance, we are more likely to position ourselves closer to people we like

and touch them more often.

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Similarly, if you feel that you’re higher status than another, you’re

more likely to display body movements-such as crossed legs or a

slouched seating position-that reflect a casual and relaxed manner.

Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal

communication. A body position or movement does not by itself have a

precise or universal meaning, but when it is linked with spoken language,

it gives fuller meaning to a sender’s message.

If you read the verbatim minutes of a meeting, you wouldn’t grasp

the impact of what was said in the same way you would if you had been

there or saw the meeting on video. Why? There are no records of

nonverbal communication. The emphasis given to words or phrases is

missing.

Facial expressions also convey meaning. A snarling face says

something different from a smile. Facial expressions, along with

intonations, can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other

characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript

of what had been said.

The way individuals space themselves in terms of physical distance

also has meaning. What is considered proper spacing is largely dependent

on cultural norms. For example, what is considered a businesslike

distance in some European countries would be viewed as intimate in

many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to you than is

considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest;

if farther away than usual, it may mean disinterest or displeasure with

what is being said.

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It’s important for the receiver to be alert to these nonverbal aspects

of communication. You should look for nonverbal cues as well as listen

to the literal meaning of sender’s words. You should particularly be

aware of contradictions between the messages. Your boss may say she is

free to talk to you about a pressing budget problem, but you may see

nonverbal signals suggesting that the is not the time to discuss the subject

regardless of what is being said, an individual who frequently glances at

her wristwatch is giving the massage that she would prefer to terminate

the conversation. We misinform others when we express one message

verbally, such as trust, but nonverbally communicate a contradictory

message that reads, “I don’t have confidence in you.”

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3.1 COMMUNICATION TYPES:

Internal/Organizational Communication

This is communication that takes place within (or across) an

organization. In addition to the usual face to face, telephone, fax or mail;

modern organizations may use technology to communicate internally.

Technology may be used for e-mails or a linked internal communication

system such as the intranet which is an internet system designed solely

for use by those working for the organization.

External communications

Conversely external communication is communication between the

organization and those outside the organization. Modern organizations

may design technological systems so that they can communicate with

customers and undertake e-Commerce. Alternatively they communicate

with other businesses through the internet or similar systems and

undertake e-Business.

Functions of Internal and External Communications;

Technology has rapidly expanded the types of internal and external

communication available to organizations. The diagram illustrates the

vast array of internal and external communication available. Combined

together internal and external types of communications allow various

sectors of the local, national and international community to interact,

liaise and conduct business.

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3.2 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is not an end in itself. There is no use of

communicating just for the sake of communicating. It is a means and

a very effective means for the solution of managerial problems and for

attainment of managerial objectives. Since managers work through

others, all their acts, policies, rules, orders and procedures must pass

through some sort of communication channel. The purposes of

communication are:

1. To develop information and understanding which are necessary

for group effort?

2. To provide an attitude which is necessary for motivation, co-

operation and job satisfaction?

3. To discourage the spread of misinformation, rumours, gossip,

‘and to release the emotional tensions of workers

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4. To prepare workers for a change by giving them the necessary

information in advance.

5. To encourage ideas, suggestions from subordinates for an

improvement in the product and work conditions, for a

reduction in time or cost involved and for the avoidance of the

waste of raw material.

6. To improve labour-management relations by keeping both in

contact with each other.

7. To satisfy the basic human needs like recognition, self-

importance and sense of participation.

8. To serve auxiliary functions such as entertainment and the

maintenance of social relations among human beings.

The purpose of communication is to establish asocial

environment that supports effective interaction and to ensure that the

workforce has the skills to share information and co-ordinate their

achievements efficiently

3.3 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Organizations cannot exist without communication. If there is

no communication, employees cannot know what their respective

associates are doing, management cannot receive information on

inputs, and management cannot give instructions. Co-ordination of

work is impossible, and the organisation will collapse for lack of it.

Co-operation also becomes impossible, because people cannot

communicate their needs and feelings to others. Every act of

communication influences the organisation in some way or the other.

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As such effective communication tends to encourage better

performance, improves job satisfaction, creates proper understanding,

and develops feeling of involvement among the people.

Chester Bernard (1938) has considered communication to be the

“very first function” of a manager and has viewed it as the shaping

force which links people and purposes together in any co-operative

system. In the practice of management, Peter Drucker (1954) has

observed that the manager’s main instrument for operating his affairs

is information. The management process has widely been discussed as

one which embraces the functions of planning, organizing, leading

and controlling, which are intimately involved with and dependant on,

communication. Organisational structure is definitely tied to the

communication systems. Communication is the key to effective

teamwork, for both are based on the common fundamentals of

information, understanding, consultation and participation.

Communication is an essential skill at every level of organisational

functioning and for organisations of all types, whether social,

governmental, or commercial.

According to Miner and Miner’ there Ware four basic types of

communication network: (a) the regulative network ensures security,

conformity to plans and the achievement of productivity through the

communication of policy statements, procedures, and rules; (b) the

innovative network is concerned with problem-solving and change

through such techniques as suggestion systems and meetings; (c) the

integrative network is directly related to consideration of employee

morale and organisational maintenance; and (d) the informative

network relates to employee’s effectiveness and productivity through

a direct dissemination of information and training programmes.

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3.4 RULES FOR COMMUNICATION:

A few basic rules should be followed in planning for and

carrying out communications of all kinds, written and oral, regardless

of form or format.

Clarity: To be effective, communications must be understood,

and to be understood, they must be clear.

Brevity: It makes both written and oral communications easier

to understand. Only one idea should be used in a sentence.

Simplicity: Short, simple words, phrases, and sentences should

be used. Every word should count. Extra words only serve to

confuse.

Precision: Precise words should be used.

Integrity: Communication should always be used as a means,

never as an end.

During any major change programme, internal communication

in an organisation is extremely. Important. It must be borne in mind in

this context that communication is more than a dialogue. It builds on

trust and openness among colleagues, and results in common

understanding of the organisational issues that have a long-term

bearing on the future of the organisation.

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3.5 FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Basically, the two most important media of communication in

an organisation are formal and informal communications. Formal

communications are those that are “official”, that are a part of the

recognized communication system of the organisation. A formal

communication can be from a superior to a subordinate, from a

subordinate to a superior, intra-administrative, or external. These

communications may be oral or written. Informal communication is

those that are “outside” the formal, recognized communication

system. Informal communication originates spontaneously outside the

formal channels and is the natural responses to the need for social

interaction.

Within the organisation, whatever its style or form, cohesive

informal groups develop. Extensive research has shown that these

informal work groups have tremendous power in shaping attitudes,

behaviour, and consequently, production. They share a set of beliefs,

values, and socially acceptable behaviours. In other words, group

members come to think and act in similar ways, and this encourages

feelings of closeness among them.

In industry, at every level of organisational life, employees are

bound together in informal groups and develop a common set of

norms. It is important to remember that these groups are not

established by the management. They are generally beyond the

control of the management, and they do not appear on the

organisation charts. The influence of informal work groups is

pervasive, and they are vital parts of the total organisational

environment. They can work for or against the management, by

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encouraging cooperation and increasing production or by sabotaging

management and slowing production. A major finding of Hawthorne

studies was the revelation of the ways in which these groups operate.

One of the characteristics of informal work groups is leadership.

There are many opportunities for conflict between the needs and goals

of the informal work group and the needs and goals of the

organisation. If management is to deal effectively with the informal

groups, it must recognize their existence and try to understand them.

The informal group serves many needs of the workers. It can serve the

needs of the organisation as well, or it can defeat them. Often, the

ideals and standards of these groups conflict with those of the formal

organisation. New employees who do not conform to the group norms

may be ostracized.

The information actually transmitted through the informal

channels may be inaccurate, distorted, a half-truth, a rumour, a gossip,

or a private interpretation. It spreads with an amazing speed like a

wild fire. Davis observes: “It (grapevine) cannot e abolished, rubbed

out, hidden under the basket, chopped down, tied up, or stopped.

If we suppress it at one place, it will pop up in another If we cut

off one of its sources, it merely moves to another one — quite similar

to the way we change from one channel to another on a television

set....In a sense, the grapevine is man’s birthright, because wherever

men congregate into groups, the grapevine is sure to develop. It may

use smoke signals, jungle toms, taps on the prison wall, or ordinary

conversation, or some other method, but it will always be there.” No

management can ‘fire’ it because it does not hire it. It is simply there.

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Though the grapevine thrives on rumours, it does serve some

useful purpose. A manager can utilize the grapevine as a positive aid,

for a grapevine may turn out to be a barometer for the management as

to what is ailing the employees and what ought to be done about it. It

may be utilized to clarify and spread messages which the management

wishes to convey to its employees and to counter rumours and half-

truths by feeding them the real facts. Though they serve many useful

functions, at times, they become detrimental to the organisation.

3.6 FORMAL SMALL GROUP NETWORKS:

Formal organization networks can be very complicated. They can,

for instance, include hundreds of people and half-dozen or more

hierarchical levels. To simplify our discussion, we’ve condensed these

networks into three common small groups of five people each (as shown

in the exhibit below). These three networks are the chain, wheel and all-

channel. Although these three networks have been extremely simplified,

they do not allow us to describe the unique qualities of each.

The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command. This

network approximates the communication channels you might find in a

rigid three-level organization. The wheel relies on a central figure to act

as the conduit for the entire group’s communication. It stimulates the

communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader.

The all-channel network permits all group members to actively

communicate with each other. The all channel network is most often

characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which all group

members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership

role.

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As the exhibit below demonstrates, the effectiveness of each

network depends on the dependent variable you’re concerned about. For

instance, the structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader,

the all-channel network is best if you are concerned with having high

member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important.

The exhibit below leads us to the conclusion that no single network will

be best for all occasions.

3.7 GRAPEVINE:

The grapevine is used by nearly everyone in an organisation at

one time or another. It can convey accurate messages with amazing

speed. It can also distort and filter messages beyond recognition.

Rumours as well as facts are carried by the grapevine. Good managers

pay attention to grapevine. Even though the grapevine’s reliability can

never be determined with complete certainty, it does serve some

useful functions:

1. It satisfies a need — employees have to enjoy friendly relations

with their fellow employees.

2. It helps workers to make sense out of their work environment

especially in interpreting unclear orders from supervisors.

3. It acts as a safety valve. When people are confused and unclear

about what is going to happen to them, they use grapevine to let out

their anxieties. Passing a rumour along the grapevine is a way of

expressing and releasing negative energy.

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4. When people gossip about someone who is not present, they

often pass judgments. Some people pass judgment on others to find

out where they stand. It is a way of dealing with self-doubt and

insecurity.

Grapevine thrives on information, not openly or generally

available to an employee, either because of its confidential or secret

nature or because of the defective or inadequate formal

communication lines. Grapevine is inevitable but at the same time,

valuable and an intelligent manager uses this form of communication

by feeding accurate information at the right places and thus gains very

quick communication around the establishment. Grapevine properly

used is a great help. Neglecting grapevine is likely to lead to serious

consequences in an establishment.

The best way to dispel grapevine is to give people the facts. If

there is no truth to a rumour or no information concerning it that

should be said? Above all workers should be asked to never repeat a

rumour. Supervisors must show their people that they intend to do

everything possible to keep them fully informed.

3.8 STYLES OF COMMUNICATION

A communication style may be defined as a specialized set of

interpersonal behaviours which are used in a given situation. Since

communication is at the heart of effective managerial functioning, it is

imperative to identify and to analyze the styles of communication

which are used in an organisation. Four basic communication styles

may be characterized in the organisational situation in terms of the

communicator’s concern for self and concern for others.

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1. The Controller Style of Communication: In this style, the

manager has a high concern for himself and a low concern for the

person with whom he communicates; he, therefore, represents an

unbalanced exchange relationship. In business organisations, the

existence of an unbalanced exchange, as in the controller style of

communication, causes strains in inter-personal relationships. The

production- oriented manager often expects loyalty from workers in

exchange for money. In this case, there is usually a transaction from

the critical parent-ego state to the child-ego state with the life

position. “I am O.K., You are not O.K.” The controller

communication thus jeopardizes the interpersonal trust which is

essential for effective communication.

2. The Withdrawn Communicator: In withdrawn communication,

there is the least amount of actual communication, for it involves the

avoidance of interaction. The communicator prefers to withdraw

because he neither wishes to influence others nor wishes to be

influenced.

The withdrawn communicator has the least concern, both for him and

for others, and feel that other people in the organisation are not

interested in them. They, therefore, have a life position of “I am not

O.K., You are not O.K.” The withdrawn style is rarely effective in

communication, because it blocks interaction.

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3. The Relinquisher Communicator: Here the communicator takes

up a receptive rather than a directive position and evinces interest in

others. Here, too, there is an unbalanced exchange, for the

relinquishing communicator tends to be passive in an interchange. It is

possible that, for a relinquishing manager, his subordinates take the

lead in decision-making and discussion. The relinquishing manager

has the life position of “I am not O.K., You are O.K.”, which is

characteristic of the child. Being humble and unsure, the relinquisher

believes it has nothing worthwhile to contribute.

4. The Developmentor Communicator: The ideal type of

communication is, of course, that of the developmentor, which

involves a high concern for both himself and for others. The

Developmentor is an adaptable social type who can be a high or low

participator in a group, depending upon the situation. Since they have

the life position of “I am O.K., You are O.K.”, they neither feel it

necessary to constantly assert their competence, nor do they refrain

from leadership positions when the need arises. The developmentor-

communicator understands the need for a two way communication by

not assuming that he is always right. He is the one who, unlike the

controller, allows the subordinate to make some mistakes in the

process of learning, and builds in him self-confidence and esteem.

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3.9 SUPERVISORY COMMUNICATION:

Supervisory Communication is an important dimension of

management communication for proper functioning of an

organisation. It is mainly the supervisor who is constantly in touch

with the workers and, therefore, it is necessary for him to acquaint

himself with the importance of communication and the principles to

be followed for effective communication. “Talking it over” is very

important to an employee. Employees have asserted that where

communication is lacking, frustration and misunderstanding exist, and

that this condition not only reduces their productivity, but also has an

adverse effect on the total working of the establishment. Supervisors,

therefore, should always: (a) discuss problems immediately with the

subordinates; (b) keep the discussion frank and open; (c) choose a

proper place; (d) be fair and impartial; and (e) develop good attitudes

and maintain good relations.

Four aspects of interpersonal relationships influence

communication in organisations:

(1) The sender’s and receiver’s trust of each other;

(2) The sender’s and receiver’s influence over each other;

(3) The sender’s mobility aspirations; and

(4) The norms and sanctions of the groups(s) to which the

sender and receiver belong. When people trust each other, their

communication tends to be more accurate and open; when they

distrust each other, they are more likely to be secretive or

hesitant to talk openly.

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3.10 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The key to effective communication is reception of messages. It

then implies that the transmission of message sent and received does

not presuppose that communication has occurred. Only on receiving

the intended message that one can conclude that communication has

occurred. The touchstone of effective communication is hearing of the

meaning “intended” and to carry out the message. It then appears that

communication to be effective not only needs the skill of self-

expression but also the skill of effective listening. Listening is more

intricate and complicated than the physical process of hearing.

Effective listening habits prevent misunderstanding and rumours. –

There are four factors affecting reception of messages:

(1) Attention

(2) Perception

(3) Comprehension

(4) Acceptance

Attention refers to situations when individuals become

voluntarily interested in the message. Once attention has been drawn

to the message, the perception of the same begins. It means that the

messages must be recognised in an unbiased manner. Comprehension

is to understand the message received. Acceptance of message results

in effective communication.

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An effective communication serves several purposes, and

benefits an organisation in many ways. First, it acts as a basic

foundation for management. Since communication provides the key to

facilitate the exchange of ideas, information as well as meeting of

minds, it can aptly be described as the “ears and eyes” of the

management.

Second, it plays a vital role in planning. The making of a plan

requires facts and figures which can only be made available through

effective communication. Third, it integrates the formal organisation

structure and is responsible for holding together the members of a

primary social group. Fourth, it also plays a pivotal role in national

decision-making, organisational control, as well as building and

maintaining employee morale.

The transformation of an organisation is conditional on the

employees’ involvement with commitment, common goals and shared

purpose and vision. Communication as a continuous process ensures

this. The climate of communication in an organisation, therefore,

needs constant nurturing by a well- meaning and transparent

management that has the manifest image that it cares for its

stakeholders.

In many organizations, communication occupies a central place

because the structure, extensiveness, and scope of the organisation are

almost entirely determined by communication techniques. It is said

that communication gives life-blood to an organisation. If

organisation fail to provide careful attention to communication, a

defensive climate prevails.

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Experts have laid down several guidelines to improve communication.

They are:

Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating.

Be sure your actions support your instructions.

Consider the total physical and human situations whenever you give

instructions.

Do not over communicate but just enough for the purpose in view.

Listen attentively and develop the skill of listening, be a good listener.

Use simple language as understood by the receiver.

Follow-up on your communication: get feedback.

Concentrate on the problem rather than the people involved.

When people are being emotional, other people should try to be

rational.

When people are misunderstanding and getting confused, others

should try to be sympathetic and understanding.

Consult everyone affected, even though they are not concentrating at

present (because they will resent not being consulted afterwards).

When people are being manipulative or deceptive, this can be

openly acknowledged, but others should be honest and open rather

than trying to pay them back in their own coin.

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There are four fundamental rules of communicating which can

help anyone to get across messages more accurately:

1. Choose your words carefully and do not include unnecessary

words.

2. Do not leave out important information. An incomplete message is

sometimes more dangerous than no message at all.

3. Be concise in your message. The message has to be received

accurately.

4. Be correct in your message. If the information conveyed is false or

misleading, even the best technique cannot save the message.

Other techniques for improving communication include

transaction analysis and active listening. Transactional Analysis (TA)

is a technique aimed at helping interpersonal transactions or

communication between superior and subordinate. It assumes that

there are three ego states — adult, parent, and child - and that the way

a person communicates depends on the state he or she is in. TA helps

to identify one’s own state and the state of the person with whom he

or she is talking to and helps to improve communication between the

two. Active listening is another technique that can help to improve

interpersonal communication.

T.Y.B.M.S35



Communicating Better at Work:

Experience shows there are many ways managers can improve

internal communication. Here are some tips for them:

Understand that communication is a two-way street. It involves

giving information and getting feedback from employees. It is not

complete simply when information is given.

Put more emphasis on face-to-face communication with

employees. Don’t rely mainly on bulletin boards, memos and other

written communication.

Ask each time when an instruction is given whether the message is

clear. Most vagueness is caused by failing to be specific.

View information as “service to” employees and not “power over”

them.

Listen to employees; show respect for them when they speak. They

will feel part of the team and will tend to be more dedicated and

productive.

Don’t just talk open-door policy. Practice it by walking around and

talking to employees. Allow people to disagree and to come up

with new ideas.

Conduct one-on-one meetings, ask employees how management

can help them to do a better job, and emphasize current issues that

employees care about.

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Concentrate on building credibility with employees. Managers

who lack credibility and fail to create a climate of trust and

openness are not believed - no matter how hard they try to

communicate.

3.11 LISTENING

Listening can be described as a combination of:

(i) Hearing — the physical reception of sound;

(ii) Comprehending — the interpretation and understanding of the

message; and

(iii) Remembering — the ability to retain what has been heard.

Hearing is with ears, but listening is with the mind. Effective

listening helps receiver to take the exact intended message. Good

listeners save time because they learn more within a given period of

time and they learn about the person talking, as well as what the

person is saying. Good listening is also good manners; people think

more of us when we listen to them attentively.

Nature has given people two ears but only one tongue,

which is

Gentle hint that they should listen more than they talk.

Listening requires two ears, one for meaning and one for

feeling.

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Decision-makers who do not listen have less information

for making sound decisions.

The Bureau of National Affairs has developed a “laundry list”

of the important concepts related to effective listening:

1. Everyone likes to feel important.

2. people perform better when they know that their opinions and

suggestions are heeded

3. Supervisors must use their expertise and experience of

employees and be able to get them to exercise this expertise.

4. Attention paid to gripes often prevents their blossoming into

big grievances.

5. Supervisors who jump to conclusions lose the respect of their

subordinates.

6. To do a good job of listening, supervisors must plan time for it

in their busy schedules.

7. Listening requires full attention to the speaker; it is impossible

to listen intelligently while the mind is preoccupied with

something else.

8. Listening habits are deeply embedded in the personality and

are related to other personality traits, such as obstinacy,

empathy, and so on.

9. The correction of bad habits is a slow process and must be

self-motivated.

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10. Supervisors who don’t get all the facts often make poor

decisions.

The following guidelines are suggested in respect of listening:

Put the talker at ease. Help a person feel free to talk.

Show a talker that you want to listen. Look and Remove

distractions. Don’t doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it not be

quieter if you shut the door?

Empathize with the talker. Try to help yourself see the other

person’s point of view.

Be patient. Allow plenty of time. Do not interrupt a talker. Don’t

start for the door or walk away.

Hold your temper. An angry person takes the wrong meaning

from words.

Go easy on arguments and criticisms. These put people on the

defensive, and they may calm up or become angry. Do not argue.

Even if you win, you lose.

Ask questions. This encourages a talker and shows that you are

listening. It helps to develop points further.

Stop talking. This is first and the last, because all other guides

depend upon it. You cannot do effective listening job while you

are talking.

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One must develop the art of listening. The higher you go up in

the organisational set-up, the more successful you are likely to be if

you listen to others. Some of the listening gains are:

You get information that may help you.

You get ideas that you might never have thought. (Ideas have

no pride. They are willing to be born to anyone willing to have

them).

You develop understanding of people who are different from

you in many ways.

You get co-operation from people who know that you value

their thinking and ideas.

You motivate action from people who have a part in your

success.

You get good listening on the part of others to what you have to

say.

Listening Tips:

1. Listen for ideas, not just for facts.

2. Control your emotional reactions.

3. Overcome personal prejudgments and distractions.

4. Keep an open mind.

5. Listen more than you talk.

6. Hear the other person out; don’t interrupt.

7. Learn to practice active listening.

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8. Keep your mouth shut (literally, keep your lips closed).

9. Paraphrase frequently in your mind, and aloud to the speaker.

10. Focus on the person speaking.

3.12 HR ROLE IN COMMUNICATION.

Strengthening formal communication through departmental/cross

functional meetings along the suggested lines.

Providing linkages with annual appraisals as a mode of

facilitating meetings.

Ensuring proper dissemination of information, other than through

departmental meetings.

Conducting training programmes on

(a) effective listening skills, and

(b) conducting meetings.

Developing a system of open communication policy to facilitate

more openness and trust.

Involving line personnel in conducting training classes to

improve understanding of each other, and for creating healthy

interaction at shop floor level.

Organizing informal gatherings such as annual day, sports meets,

and the like to promote free interaction and exchange of views.

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Advising departments to maintain circulars and flies relating to

their working for general consumption.

Exploring avenues for establishing a library which would act as a

central point of information.

Facilitating greater clarity of job role and relationships through

job descriptions.

Facilitating upward communication through personal contacts,

fact finding surveys, and soon.

Issuing manuals/guidelines detailing policies, procedures, rules,

and other personnel related matters to ensure clarity.

Frequent interaction with employees tells them they’re

important. The way you communicate with your employees

demonstrates you care about them as people — not just as employees.

Sometimes you have to go out of your way to interact with your

employees, but they always will notice how much effort you put forth

to communicate with them.

Self-check — Communication

Are you making the most of your opportunities to communicate

with your employees? Answer the questions below in YES or NO to

see how well you’re doing.

1. Do you try to greet your employees every day?

2. Do you go out of your way to interact with your employees at least

once each day?

3. Do you speak to your employees before they speak to you?

4. Do you go to your employees’ work areas to talk to them?

T.Y.B.M.S42



5. Do you talk to your employees about non-work activities?

6. Are your employees welcome at your office at any time?

7. Do you have lunch with your employees from time to time?

8. Do you know what your employees like to do when they aren’t at

work?

9. Do you understand your employees’ needs, wants, goals and

aspirations?

10. Do you give frequent positive reinforcement?

11. Do you frequently review goals and expectations?

12. Do you ask your employees’ personal goals and aspirations?

13. Do you ask about your employees’ problems, fears and concerns?

14. Do you ask yourself what you can do to help improve your

employees’ performance?

For any questions that you answered “no,” list below things you can

do to increase your interaction with your employees.

3.13 COMPUTER-AIDED COMMUNICATION

Communication in today’s organizations is enhanced and enriched

by computer-aided technologies. These include electronic mail, for

instance, has dramatically reduced the number of memos, letters, and

phone calls that employees historically used to communicate among

themselves and with suppliers, customers, or other outside stakeholders.

E-Mail:

Electronic mail (or e-mail) uses the Internet to transmit and receive

computer-generated text and documents. Its growth has been spectacular.

Most white-collar employees now regularly use e-mail. In fact, a recent

T.Y.B.M.S43



study found that the average U.S. employee receives 31 e-mail messages

a day. And organizations are recognizing the value of e-mail for all

workers. Ford Motor Company, for instance, recently made a computer,

modem, printer and email account available for $5 a month to all of its

more than 3,00,000 employees worldwide.

As a communication tool, e-mail ahs a long list of benefits. E-mail

messages can be quickly written, edited and stored. They can be

distributed to one person or thousands with a click of a mouse. They can

be read, in their entirety, at the convenience of the recipient. And the cost

of sending formal e-mail to employees is a fraction of what it would cost

to print, duplicate and distribute comparable letter or brochure.

E-mail, of course, is not without its drawbacks. At the top of the

list is information overload .Its not unusual for employees to get a

hundred or more e-mails a day. Reading, absorbing and responding to

such an inflow can literally consume an employee’s entire day.

In essence e-mail’s is of use has become its biggest negative.

Employees are finding it increasingly difficult to distinguish important e-

mails from junk mails and irrelevant messages. Another drawback of e-

mail is that the lack emotional content. The nonverbal quest in a face to

face message or the tone of voice from a phone call convey important

information that come across an e-mail, although efforts have been made

to create emotional icons. Finally e-mails tend to be cold and impersonal.

As such it’s the ideal means to convey information like lay-offs, plant

closings or other messages that might evoke emotional responses or

social support.

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Intranet and extranet links:

Intranets are private. Organization worldwide information

networks that look and act like a web-site, but to which only people in an

organization have access. Intranets are rapidly becoming the proffered

means for employees within the companies to communicate with each

other. IBM recently bought together 52 thousand of its employees online

for what it called Worldjam.Using companies intranet IBMers must

everywhere swapped ideas on everything from how to retain employees

to how to work faster without undermining quality.

In addition organisations are creating extra net links that connect

internal employees with selected suppliers, customers and strategic

partners. For instance an extranet allows GM employees to send

electronic messages and documents to its steel and rubber supplier as well

as to communicate with its dealers. Similarly all Wall Mart vendors are

linked into its extranet system, allowing Wall Mart buyers to easily

communicate with its suppliers and for suppliers to monitor the inventory

status of its product at Wall Mart stores.

Videoconferencing:

Videoconferencing is an extension of intranet or extranet system. It

permits employees in an organization to have meetings with people at

different locations. Live audio and video images of members allow them

to see, hear and talk with each other. Videoconferencing in effect allows

T.Y.B.M.S45



employees to conduct interactive meetings without the necessity of all

physically being in the same location.

In the late 1990s videoconferencing was basically conducted from

special rooms equipped with television cameras located at company

facilities. More recently cameras and microphones are being attached to

individual computers allowing people to participate in videoconferences

without leaving their desks. As the cost of this technology drops in price

videoconferencing is likely to be increasingly seen as an alternative to

expensive and time consuming travel.

3.14 CHOICE OF COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

Neal .L. Patterson, CEO at medical software maker Cerner

Corporation likes e-mails. May be too much so. Upset with his staff’s

work ethics he recently sent an e-mail to his firm’s 400 managers. Here

are some of those e-mails highlight:

“Hell with freeze over before this CEO implements ANOTHER

EMPLOYEE benefit in this culture….. We are getting less those 40 hours

of work from a large number of our Kansa City based employees. The

parking is sparsely used at 8am likewise at 5pm. As managers-you either

do not know what your EMPLOYEES are doing or YOU do not CARE

….we has a problem and we will fix it or will replace you. ..What are you

doing as managers with this companies makes me sick.

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Patterson’s e-mail additionally suggested that managers schedule

meetings at 7 Am., 6pm., and Saturday mornings promised a staff

reduction of 5% an institution of a time clock system and Patterson’s

intention to charge unapproved absences to employees vacation time.

Within hours of this e-mail, copies of it had made its way on to a

Yahoo website. And within three days Corners’ stock price has

plummeted 22%. Although one can argue about whether such harsh

criticism should be communicated at all, one thing is certainly clear

Patterson erred selecting the wrong channel for his message. Such an

emotional and sensitive would have been better received in a face to face

meeting.

Why do people choose one channel of communication over

another-for instance a phone call instead of face you face talk? Is there

any general insight we might be able to provide regarding choice of

communication channel? The answer to the later question is a qualified

‘Yes’. A model of media richness has been developed to explain channel

selection among managers.

Research has found that channels differ in their capacity to convey

information some are rich in that they have ability to:

(1) handle multiple quest simultaneously

(2) Facilitate rapid feed back.

(3) be very personal .Others are lean in that they score low on these

three factors.

Generally, face-to-face conversation scores highest in terms of

channel richness because it provides for the maximum amount of

information to be transmitted during a communication episode. That is, it

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offers multiple information cues , immediate feedback, and the personal

touch of “being there “ Impersonal written media such as formal reports

and bulletins rate lowest in richness.

The choice of one channel over another depends on whether the

message is routine or non-routine. The former types of messages tend to

be straight forward and have a minimum of ambiguity. The latter are

likely to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding.

Managers can communicate routine messages efficiently through

channels that are3 lower in richness.

However, they can communicate non routine messages effectively

only by selecting rich channels. Referring back to our opening example at

Cerner Corp, it appears that Neal patter sons problem was using a channel

relatively low in richness to convey a message that, because of its no

routine nature and complexity, should have been conveyed using a rich

communication medium.

Evidence indicates that high-performing managers tend to be more

media sensitive than low-performing managers. That is, they’re better

able to match appropriate media richness with ambiguity involved in the

communication.

The media richness model is consistent with organizational trends

and practice during the past decade. It is not just coincidence that more

and more senior managers have been using meetings t5o facilitate

communication and regularly leaving the sanctuary of their executive’s

offices to manage by walking around. These executives are relying on

rich channels of communication to transmit the more ambiguous

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messages they need to convey. The past decade has been characterized by

organisations closing facilities, merging, consolidating and introducing

new products and services at an accelerated pace-all no routine messages

in high ambiguity and requiring the use of channels that convey a large

amount of information .It is not surprising, therefore to see the most

effective managers expanding their use of rich channels .

4.1 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

A number of barriers can retard or distort effective communication.

In this section, we highlight the more important of these barriers.

Filtering

Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information

so it will be seen mare favorably by the receiver. For example, when a

manager tells his boss what he feels his boss wants to hear, he is filtering

information.

The major determinant of filtering is no. of levels in the

organization structure .The more vertical levels in the organizations

hierarchy, the more opportunities there are for filtering. But you can

expect some filtering to occur whenever there are status differences.

Factors such as fear of conveying bad news and the desire to please one’s

boss often lead employees to tell their superiors what they think those

superiors want to hear, thus distorting upward communications.

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Selective Perception

We have mentioned it earlier. It appears again here because the

receivers in the communication process see and hear based on their needs,

motivations, experience, background and other personal characteristics.

Receivers also project their interests and expectations into

communications as they decode them. The employment interviewer who

expects a women job applicant to put her family ahead if her career is

likely to see that female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants

feel that way or not

Information Overload

Individuals have a fine capacity for processing data. As noted in

our previous discussion of e-mail, when the information we have to work

with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information

overload .And with e-mails, phone calls, faxes, meetings and the need to

keep current in one’s field, more and more managers and professionals

are complaining that they’re suffering overload.

What happens when individuals have more information than they

can sort out and use? They tend to select out, ignore, pass over or forget

information. Or they may put off further processing until the overload

situation is over. Regardless, the result is lost information and less

effective communication

Emotions

How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication

will influence how he or she interprets it. The same message received

when you are angry is often interpreted differently from when you’re

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happy. Extreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely

to hinder effective communication.

In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our national and

objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

Language

Words mean different thing to different people. Age, education and

cultural background are three of the more obvious variables that influence

the language a person uses and the definitions he or she gives to words.

In an organization, employees usually come from diverse

backgrounds. The grouping of the employees into departments creates

specialists who develop their own “buzzwords” or technical jargon. In

large organizations, members are also frequently widely dispersed

geographically-even operating in different countries. The existence of

vertical levels can also cause language problems.

There point is that although you and I probably speak a common

language-English –our use of that language is far from uniform. If we

knew how each of us modified the language, communication difficulties

could be minimized. There problem is that the members in an

organization usually don’t know how those the words and terms they use

mean the same to the receiver as they do to them This assumption is often

incorrect.

Communication Apprehension

Another major barrier to effective communication is that some

people- an estimated 5-20% of the population-suffer from debilitating.

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Although lots of people speaking in front of a group, communication

techniques.

People who suffer from it experience undue tension and anxiety in

oral apprehensive may find it extremely difficult to talk with others face

to face or become extremely anxious when they have to use the

telephone. As a result, they may rely on memos or faxes to convey

messages when a phone call would be not only faster but more

appropriate.

Studies demonstrate that oral-communication apprehensive avoid

situations that require them to engage in oral communication. We should

expect to find some self-selection in jobs so that such individuals don’t

take positions such as teacher. But almost all jobs require some oral

communication is a dominant requirement. And of greater concern is the

evidence that high oral communication apprehensive distort the

communication demands of their jobs in order to minimize the need for

communication. So we need to be aware that there is a set of people in the

organization who severely limit their oral communication and rationalize

this practice by telling that more communication isn’t necessary for them

to do their job effectively.

Poor structure to the communication

The structure of a communication is an essential factor in how well

a business communication is received by an audience.

It doesn't matter whether that audience is an audience of one or one

million, good structure is essential if a communication is to be 'heard'

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amongst the advertising and marketing 'noise' of today's business

environment.

So a poor structure to your message or delivery is therefore a major

barrier to effective communication.

Weak delivery

It doesn't matter how important or impressive the subject of your

communication is, if you deliver it without any 'punch' you will not get as

many people to take your desired action as you would like.

A weak delivery is like the very funny joke with the badly-told

punch line --- it is not as funny or as memorable as you remember the

original to be. It's all in the delivery. It is important to not get confused

between delivery and presenter.

Several businessmen are extremely confident in the public's gaze,

very happy to be in front of an audience. But because their presentations

and communications lack a suitable structure, they 'lose' their audience

within minutes, the audience becomes increasingly confused and

eventually frustrated by not being able to understand clearly and easily

what on earth these businessmen are on about.

The use of the wrong medium

You have to announce a temporary hold on non-essential stationery

spending in your department. How do you communicate this?

An advertising campaign on local radio would be a highly

ineffective way of reaching the desired audience if the message was

complex and really intended for a narrow niche audience.

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Similarly, a public presentation, with 'obligatory' PowerPoint TM

slideshow full of complex charts and data, would be the wrong medium if

the message you were trying to communicate would be better served by a

white paper, or some similar print-based format that allowed the audience

to digest the complexities at their own pace.

suggested

When considering which medium to use for which type of message

you wish to communicate, it is wise to analyze the following:

What is the fixed cost of production? Are there ad agency fees,

broadcast or print fees that must be paid, irrespective of the number

or volume of items produced?

What are the variable costs -- such as CDs, DVDs, audio cassettes

and printing costs?

How long will it take to write, edit and produce your

communication in your chosen medium?

What percentage of your target audience is likely to have access to

your chosen medium at the time you choose to publish/play/present

it?

What percentage of your target audience will be likely to pay

attention to your chosen medium?

Is your message a complex one? Would your message be more

easily and readily comprehended through auditory, tactile or visual

(e.g. reading or images) modalities?

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How quickly do you need your audience to comprehend and take

action on your message?

A mixed message

It is very hard for an audience -- whether an audience of 1 or 1

million to understand your communication if you unnecessarily confuse

the audience.

If you deliberately, or otherwise, confuse them. A HUGE barrier to

business communication is the ability of 'business-speak' to confuse and

alienate its audience.

It does this in two ways:

1. By using terms and phrases that are 'jargon', the meaning of which are

possibly recognized but probably not fully understood

2. By trying to 'save time/paper' by rolling several different

communication messages into one.

Another barrier arising from mixed messages is when a previously-

held stance is lightly overturned to meet some political or business

expediency, then upheld again. An example of this would be where the

acceptance of corporate gifts is not allowed, but then allowed if it a brand

new client who has contracted a large amount of money to your business,

then not allowed again after the gift-giving and receiving season is over.

Or a company-wide budget cut that stops all business-class travel,

but the very senior management is found to be traveling first class.

Be very careful of mixing your messages, as mixed messages are a

very real barrier to effective business communication.

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The wrong audience

Presenting your message to the wrong audience for your business

communication is a complete waste of your time and money. Don't do it

-- pick your audience then pick the medium that will best find them.

A distracting environment

There's nothing worse than trying to communicate your message to

a group of people who cannot 'hear' you.

Whether their inability to 'hear' you is because of:

Your voice not being strong enough

Too many others talking in the room at the same time

Police and ambulance sirens outside the venue

Too many phone calls coming in to their office while they're trying

to read your memo

Interruptions while they try to read your report

Incoming emails keep popping up while they are reading your

web-based communication

Their minds are full of other pressing matters

They are supposed to be somewhere else at that moment

Their mobile phone keeps ringing, or vibrating if they've set it to

'silent' instead of switching it off

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Their internet connection is slow

Their internet connection keeps dropping out

There are too many interesting people to look at while they are on

the bus trying, in vain, to concentrate on your report

The room's air-conditioning is not working and the room is hot and

stuffy

The room's heating is not working and the room is cold and

clammy

Well, there are of course a thousand possible distracting reasons

why they cannot or will not attend to your business communication.

The point is to do whatever you can, whilst acknowledging that

this might be next to nothing, to reduce the number of distractions your

chosen audience might be subjected to.

4.2 CURRENT ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

In this section we discuss four current issues relating to

communication in organization. Why do men and women often have

difficulty communicating with each other? What role does silence play in

communication? What are implications of the “politically correct”

movement on communications in organizations? And how individuals

can improve their cross culture communication?

Communication Barriers between Women and Men

Research by experts provides us with some important insights into

the differences between men and women in terms of their conversational

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styles. The essence of the research is that men use talk to emphasize

status, whereas women use it to create connection. The conclusion, of

course, doesn’t apply to every woman. Thus it , means “a larger % of

women or men as a group talk in a particular way, or individual women

and men are more likely to talk one way or the other.

Communication is a continual balancing act, juggling the

conflicting needs for intimacy and independence. Independence emphasis

separateness and differences. But here’s the kick Women speak and hear

a language of connection and intimacy men speak and hear a language of

status power and independence. So for many men conversations are

primarily a means to preserve independence ands maintain status in a

hierarchical social order’s few examples will illustrate this:

Men frequently complain that women talk on and on about their

problem. Women criticize men for not listening. What’s happening is that

when men hear a problem, they frequently assert their for independence

and control by offering solutions .Many women, on other hand view

telling a problem as a means to promote closeness’s e women present the

problem to gain support and connection ,not to get the man’s advise.

Mutual understanding is symmetrical. But giving advise is asymmetrical

it sets up the advise giver as more knowledge, more reasonable, and more

in control. This contributes to distancing men and women in their efforts

to communicate

Men are often more direct than women in conversation. A man

might say “I think you are wrong at that point”. Women might say” Have

you looked at the marketing research report on that point?” Men

frequently see female indirections as “covert “or “sneaky” but women are

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not vas concerned as men with the status and one-upmanship that

directness often creates.

Women tend to be less boastful than men. They often downplay

their authority or accomplishments to avoid appearing as braggarts and to

take the other’s person feelings into account Men can interpret this and

incorrectly conclude that a woman is less confident and competent than

she really is.

Finally men often critise women for seeming to apologize all the

time .Men tend to see the phrase “I m sorry” as a weakness because they

interpret the phrase to mean the woman is accepting blame, when he

knows she’s not to blame. The problem is that the women use often “I m

sorry” to express to regret and restore balance to conversations. For many

women “I m sorry “is an expression of understanding and caring about

the other person’s feelings rather than an apology.

4.3 SILENCE AS COMMUNICATION:

Sherlock Holmes once solved a murder mystery based on what

didn’t happen. Holmes remarked to his assistant Dr .Watson, about “the

curious incident of the dog in night time. “Watson surprised responds”

But the dog did nothing in the night time.

“Holmes concluded thwart crime had to be committed by someone

with whom the dog was familiar because the dog didn’t bark. The dog

that didn’t bark in the night is often used to metaphor for an event that is

significant by reason of its absence. That story is also an excellent

illustration of the importance of silence in communication.”

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Silence—defined here as an absence of speech or noise-has been

generally ignored as a form of communication in OB because inaction or

no behavior .But it’s not necessarily in action .Nor is silence as, many

believe a failure to communicate. It can be a powerful form of

communication. It can mean someone is thinking a response to question.

It can mean a person is anxious and fearful of speaking. It can signal

agreement, dissent, and anger.

In terms of Organizational Behaviour we can see several links

between and work related behaviour. For instance, silence is a critical

element of group thinks, in which it implies agreement with majority. It

can be a way of employees to express dissatisfaction, as when they

“suffer in silence”. It can be sign that someone is upset, as when a

typically talking person says nothing

Failing to pay close attention to silent portion of a conversation can

result in missing a vital part of the message. Astute communications

watch for gaps, pauses, hesitations. They hear and interpret silence. They

treat pauses; they pay attention to what comes next. Is the person

suffering from communication apprehension? Sometimes the real

message in a communication is buried in silence.

4.4 “POLITICALLY CORRECT”

COMMUNICATION:

What words do you use to describe a colleague who is wheel-chair

bound? What terms do you use to address a female customer? How do

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you communicate with a brand new client who is not like you? Your

answers can mean between losing a client, an employee, a lawsuit, a

harassment claim or a job.

Most of us are aware of how our vocabulary has been modified to

reflect political correctness. For instance, most of us have cleansed the

words handicapped, blind, and elderly from our vocabulary – and

replaced them with physically challenged, visually impaired, senior. The

Los Angeles Times, for instance, allows its journalists to use the word old

age but cautious that it varies from “person to person”.

We must be sensitive to others feelings. Certain words can and do

stereotype and insult individuals. We must be sensitive to know how

words might offend others. There is a downside to political correctness.

To illustrate, you probably know what these 4 terms mean: death,

garbage, quotas women. But each of these words also has been found to

offend one or more groups. They’ve been replaced by negative patient

outcome, post consumer waste materials, educational equity, and people

of gender. You know what death means; I know what death means; but

can you be sure that “negative patient outcome” will be consistently

defined as synonymous of death?

Some critics for humor’s sake enjoy carrying political correctness

to the extreme. Even those of us with thinning scalp, who aren’t thrilled

at labeled “bald” have to smirk when we’re referred to as “follicle

challenged”. But our concern here is with how politically correct

language is contributing a barrier to effective communication.

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Words are primary means with which people communicate. When

we eliminate words from use because they are politically incorrect, we

reduce our options for conveying messages in accurate form. For the most

part, the larger the vocabulary used by sender, the greater opportunity to

transmit messages. By removing certain words from our vocabulary we

find it hard to communicate.

We must sensitive to how our choice of words offends others. But

we also have to be careful not to sanitize our language to the point at

which it clearly restricts clarity of communication. However you should

be aware of the trade-offs and the need to find a proper balance.

4.5 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION:

Effective communication is difficult under the best of conditions.

Cross – cultural factors clearly the potential for increased communication

problems. A gesture that is well understood and acceptable in one culture

can be meaningless or lewd in another.

Cultural barriers:

One author has identified 4 specific problems related to large

difficulties in cross-cultural communications.

First, there are barriers caused by semantics. As we’ve noted,

words mean different to different people. This is true for people from

different cultures. Some words. Don’t translate between cultures.

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Understanding sisu will help you to communicate in Finland but this is

non transferable to English.

Second there are barriers caused by word connotations. Words

imply different things in different languages. Negotiations between

Americans and Japanese executives are made more difficult because

Japanese hai translates as yes but its connotation will be “yes I m

listening” rather than “yes I agree”

Third are barriers caused by tone differences in some cultures,

language is formal, in others it’s informal. In some, tone changes

depending upon the context: people speak differently at home. Using a

personal, informal style in situation in which a more formal style is

expected can be embarrassing and off-putting

Fourth, there are barriers caused by differences caused by

perceptions. People who speak different languages actually view the

world in different ways. Thais perceive no differently than Americans

because the former have no such word in the vocabulary.

Cultural Context:

A better understanding of these barriers for communicating across

cultural can be achieved by considering the concepts of high and low

context cultures.

Cultures tend to differ in importance to which context influences

meaning that individuals take from what is actually said or written in

light of who the other person is. Countries like china, Korea, Japan and

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Vietnam are high context cultures they rely heavily on nonverbal and

subtle situations cues when communicating with others. A person’s

official status in society and reputation carry considerably weight in

communications. People from Europe and North America reflect their

low context cultures.

What do these contextual differences mean in terms of

communication? Actually quite a lot. Communication in high context

cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties. What may

appear to outsider as casual and insignificant is important because it

reflects a desire to build a relationship and create trust. Oral agreements

imply strong commitments in high context cultures. Low context cultures

value directness. Managers are directed to be explicit and precise in

conveying intended meaning.

A Cultural Guide:

When communicating with people from a different culture what

can you do to reduce misperceptions and misevaluations? You can begin

by trying to assess context culture. The 4 rules are helpful:

(1) Assume differences until similarity is proven. Most of us assume

that others are more similar to us than they actually are. But people

from different countries often are different.

(2) Emphasis description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

Interpreting or evaluating what someone has said or done is based

on observer’s culture and background than on observed situation.

(3) Practice empathy. Before sending a message put yourself in the

recipient’s shoes what don you know about his or her education,

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upbringing or background? Try to see other person as she or he

really is.

(4) Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis. Once you’ve

developed an explanation for a new situation think your empathize

with some foreign culture. Carefully assess the feedback by

recipients to see if it confirms your hypothesis. For important

decisions or communiqués, your can also check with other foreign

and home country colleagues to make sure that your interpretations

are on target.

CONCLUSION

Thus, Communication is an exchange of information and

transmission of meaning. It is considered as a crucial function of

modern management. Communication always involves a sender,

channel and receiver. The symbols of communication are words,

actions, pictures, and numbers.

Organization communication thus is one of the most important

tools used by many Human Resource Development (HRD) managers to

cut the communication gap in the organisation. It also plays an important

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part to build an organization structure. Lack in organizational

communication hampers the productivity of employees and in turn that of

the organisation. Moreover, the case studies also help to throw light on

the important aspects of organizational communication and depict how

useful it is in shaping the organization’s future and helping it achieve its

objectives. To be fully effective, a communication programmes must:

1. Be properly organized and integrated with the structure of the

corporate enterprise;

2. Have the support the support of top management to operate in a

climate favourable to free and open exchange of views and attitudes;

3. Have continuity.

Case Study 1

6.1 DO WE HAVE A COMMUNICATION PROBLEM

HERE?

“I don’t want to hear your excuses. Just get those plains in the air,”

Jim Tuchman was screaming at his gate manager. As head of American

Airlines’ operations at the Mexico City Airport, Tuchman has been

consistently frustrated by the attitude displayed by his native employees.

Transferred from Dallas to Mexico City only three months ago, Tuchman

was having difficult adjusting to the Mexican style of work. “Am I

critical of these people? You bet I am! They don’t listen when I talk.

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They think things are just fine and fight every change that I suggest. And

they have no appreciation for the importance of keeping on schedule.”

If Tuchman is critical of his Mexico City staff, it’s mutual. They

universally dislike him. Here’s a few anonymous comments made about

their boss: “he thinks if he yells and screams, that things will improve.

We don’t see it that way.” “I’ve been working here for four years. Before

he came here, this was a good place to work. Not anymore. I’m

constantly in fear of being chewed out. I feel stress all the time, even at

home. My husband has started commenting on it a lot.”

Tuchman was brought in specifically to tighten up the Mexico City

operation. High on his list of goals is improving American’s on-time

record in Mexico City, increasing productivity, and improving customer

service. When Tuchman was asked if he thought he had any problems

with his staff, he replied, “yep. We just can’t seem to communicate.”

Questions:

1. Does Jim Tuchman have a communication problem? Explain.

2. What suggestions, if any, would you make to Jim to help him

improve his managerial effectiveness?

Answer 1.

Yes, Jim Tuchman has a communication problem. It is obvious

from the fact that his employees are unhappy and dissatisfied with him.

They have shown their dissatisfaction, through their comments like not a

good place to work anymore, stress, Jim only screams and yells, fear of

being chewed, etc.

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Moreover, Jim Tuchman was transferred to Mexico City to

improve customer service and increase productivity, but he himself

agrees to the fact that he and his employees are not able to communicate

properly. His employees dislike him and therefore they have parted such

comments. They feel Tuchman is being insensitive to their needs, etc. on

the other hand, Tuchman is also critical of them but because they are not

communicating properly. Both the parties, i.e. Tuchman and his staff are

not doing well with each other. He thinks his employees don’t listen to

him and are not ready to change as he suggests. On the other hand, the

employees think he does not listen to them and only keeps yelling. But

actually he is not yelling but trying to convey his ideas without proper

communication. Thus it can be clearly seen that there lies a

communication in this situation. This problem will only keep Tuchman

away from achieving his goals.

Answer 2.

For the improvement of managerial effectiveness, the first and

foremost thing required by Jim Tuchman is communication. He has to

understand that achieving his goals of improving American’s on-time

record in Mexico City, increasing productivity and improving customer

service can be done only with the co-operation of his native employees.

He should try to be good to the employees so that they don’t dislike him.

Moreover, since he had been transferred only three months ago. He

had to have a bit of patience to get adjusted to Mexican style of work.

Even in this step i.e. to get adjusted to Mexican style of work, his

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employees could help him in a better ay, as they were from the native

country, so could help him to do the necessary changes accordingly.

Here, Tuchman should communicate verbally, all his ideas to the

employees. There is lack in downward communication which should be

rectified, so that Tuchman can know the likes and dislikes of the

employees. This would in turn result in good upward communication, i.e.

the employees would start communicating properly and then their

misunderstandings could be cleared out and the required objectives could

be achieved.

Case Study 2

6.2 COMMUNICATION – LINE AND STAFF.

Good communication between line and staff personnel is important

in all organizations, and it can be said that effective communication plays

a significant role in determining the overall success of the organization.

However, when the communication process between line and staff

is less effective, problems can develop as seen in the following

illustrations:

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Raman who manages the personal department of an industrial plant

of about 500 employees, recently distributed to all employees a detailed

questionnaire that required the employees to fill in information pertaining

to their job title, number of years with the organization, salary drawn and

description of their job responsibilities. The form stated by the purpose of

the questionnaire would be two provide management with an update

material concerning job classification. It was also indicated that all

employees should return the firms on or before the coming Friday, which

gave the employees five days to fill the needed information. Raman

announced to each department that he would visit the plant on Friday

morning and collect the forms that have not yet been returned to the

personnel department. The updating of the job classifications was

requested by the plant manager. The reason was to review all the job

duties with the possibility of re-classifying some of the positions and to

provide in some cases a more equitable pay structure.

At the end of the week, before Raman’s visit of the plant, less than

20 percent of the questionnaires had been returned to the personnel

department. After visiting the plant, Raman had collected only an

additional 15 forms. As the response was poor, Raman contacted plant

manager and other management officials and sought their co-operation.

Obviously, an accurate study of the wage and salary structure could not

be done because of the lack of necessary data. There appears to be a

problem between line and staff, more specifically the passing of

information from one to the other.

QUESTIONS:

1. How will the line personnel suffer as a result of not filling out the

questionnaires?

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2. How could Raman have made his communication more effective?

Answer 1.

In this case there is a problem in lateral communication i.e.

between the line and staff, in passing of the information from one to the

other. It can also see that there is downward communication problem i.e.

from the managers to the employees. They did not convey the message

well and thus there was some sort of problem in getting the

questionnaires filled up. Since the questionnaires were not filled up study

of wage structure and salary structure could not be done because they did

not have the necessary data.

Moreover the review of all the job duties and also re-classification

of some of the positions could not be done. Re-classification of certain

positions and also providing more equitable pay structure would have

motivated employees and helped them to see ahead, a better path to work

on with that organization. This would help in retention of employees. Due

to the failure in filling up of questionnaires all this could not be done for

the employees. Dissatisfaction among employees would ultimately cause

problems to the line and staff personnel, when the employees would

gradually start complaining about their wages and salaries or position in

the organization. These questionnaires if filled and returned properly

could have been of great help to the line personnel to satisfy the

employees. Thus, the line personnel may suffer a lot as a result of not

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filling out the questionnaires and the necessary changes that Raman

wanted to bring out simply failed.

Answer 2.

To make his communication more effective Raman could have

made use of grapevine. In a grapevine accurate messages are passed

among employees with amazing speed. Raman could have feed the right

information at the right place and thus gain very quick communication

among the employees. Also, an employee is satisfied with an idea of his

sub-ordinate he can better influence other employees about that idea,

rather than the manager making regular announcements about that idea

formally to all the employees.

So, Raman should not have announced to everyone formally, but

influence an employee who is mostly liked by all the others. The most

liked employee then influence the others in a better way.

To influence such an employee who is liked by all other

employees, Raman should have communicated to him directly or

indirectly about the purposes and benefits of filling up of the

questionnaires. In this way Raman could have taken advantage of lateral

communication that is among the employees. Raman could also be

diplomatic by handing over the responsibility of collection of forms to the

most liked employee so that he would definitely influence his fellow

employees, so that he could impress his manager Raman. In this activity

Raman would benefit by getting almost all the questionnaires filled up on

time and help the line personnel to go ahead with their job of studying the

wage and salary structure. Then they could do their further required job

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of re-classifying some of the positions and to provide in some cases a

more equitable pay structure thus satisfying the employees.

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organisational communication

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