Operational Plans and Procedures for Manned Space Flight

8/7/2019 Operational Plans and Procedures for Manned Space Flight

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OPERATIONAL PLANS AND PROCEDURESFOR MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

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The Syrnpssirwr of t h e Can- Aerona&&s- and Space Inst&+&eAst ronaut ic s Sec t ion

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OPERATIONAL PLANS AND PROCEDmES FOR MANNED SPACE FLiGhTBy John D . Hodgeit

INTRODUCTION

The p resen t paper i s a d i s cu s s io n o f m an y f ace t s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n sn e ce s sa r y t o s u pp o rt t h e U. S. manned space f l i g h t programs. Operat i onsmeans many th in gs t o many pe op le. I n t h i s p ap er i t i s c o n s id e r e d t o b ea two-fold fun ct i on . The f i r s t p a r t i s p l a n n i n g w h i c h e n t a i l s t h e t o t a lp r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e mi s si o n b e f o r e t h e f a c t . T ab le I i s a l i s t of someo f t h e f a c e t s of t h i s p l a n ni n g f un c t io n . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n ot e t h a tapprox imate ly 20,000 p e rs o ns p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Mercury mission as d i r e c top er at io na l supp or t . These people come f rom ind us t ry , NASA, o t h e rc i v i l i a n agenc i es , t he Depar tment of Defense, and o t he r cou n t r ie s . Theimportance of t h i s p lannin g fu nc t i on cannot be overemphas ized. Thed e t a i l which t h i s p l an n in g i n v o l ve s ~ s uc h a s s c h ed i il i ng , t r a i n i n g , c o-o r d i n a t i o n , a nd p re p a r a t i o n of p r o c e d ur e s , c o n t r i b u t e s l a r g e l y t o t h es i lccess of an ope rat io n. The second fu nc t i on i s t h e c a r r y i n g o u t oft h e ac tu a l o p e r a t i o n . I n t h i s p ap er t h e v a r io u s p h as e s o f t h e M ercuryo p e r a t i o n a r e d i s cu s s ed . Also an out l ine of the proposed Gemini andApollo programs and the future of o p e r a t i o n s a r e p r e s ent ed .t h e p l an n in g p h as e i s c o n t in u o u s, and e s s e n t i a l l y b e g i n s a t t h e com-mencement of the program, th e di r e c t oper at i on i s assumed t o be gin whent h e s p a c e c r a f t and t h e l a u n ch v e h i c l e a r r i v e a t t he launch s i t e .

Although

S in ce t h e M ercury s p ac ec r a f t and t h e A t l a s l au n ch v eh i c l e a r e w e l lknown, t h ey a r e o n ly d e s c r i b ed b r i e f l y . f i g u r e 1 shows the Mercurys p a c e c r a f t a n d i t s ba s i c sys tems. The emergency escape tower se pa ra te sth e s p a cec r a f t fr om th e l au n ch v eh i c l e s h o u ld a malfunc t ion occur befo re2- m in ut es a f t e r l i f t - o f f . A f t e r t h i s t im e , s e p a ra t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f tfrom t h e l a un c h v e h i c l e i s accomplished by f i r i n g t h e p o s i gr a de r o c k e t sw hic h a r e l o c a t e d n e ar t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s .

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The co n i c a l s e c t i o n ( ant enn a h o us ing ) co n t a in s t h e d r og u e p a r ach u t e ,an t en n as , an d h o r i zo n s can n e r s .

The cy l i nd r i ca l s e c t io n ( recovery compartment ) con ta in s the mainan d r e s e r v e p a r ach u t e s an d t h e p i t ch an d yaw th r u s t e r s .

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\c A s s t . C h ie f f o r F l i g h t C o n t ro l , F l i g h t O p e ra t io n s D i v i s i o n ,NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f t C en te r.


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The a f t e r bo d y c o n t a i n s a l l t h e sys te ms n e c e s sa r y t o su p p o rt t h ea s t r o n a u t , t h a t i s , t h e e n v i ro n m en t al c o n t r o l sy s te m , e l e c t r i c a l sys t em ,communicat ions system, automat ic s tabi l iza t ion and cont ro l system, anda l l a s s o c ia t e d i n st r um e n ta t io n .

The forebody con ta ins th e hea t sh ie ld , t he l and ing bag , and themajo r po r t ion o f the r eac t ion con t ro l sys t em.

The r e tr o pa c ka g e a t t a c h e d t o t h e h e a t sh i e l d c o n t a i n s t h r e e p o s i -g ra de r o c k e t s and t h r e e r e t r o g r a d e r o c k e t s a nd t h e i r a s so c i a t e d i g n i t e r sand wi r in g. The high-frequency antenna and a few sp e ci a l experimentsa r e l o c a t e d i n t h e r e t r op a c k a g e.

F i g i r e 2 shows the launch veh ic l es used f o r Mercury miss io ns .The L i t t l e Joe veh i c l es were used fo r r e se a rch and development t e s t s ,and t h e R ed sto ne was used f o r e a r l y b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t s . The l a un c hvehic le used f o r o r b i t a l f l i g h t s i s a modif ied At las D . The Mercurys p a c e c r a f t i s a t t ache d t o the l aunch veh i c l e by means o f a sp ec ia la d a p t e r . The Atlas stands 67 f e e t 4 i n c h e s , b u t w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f ti t i s 95 f e e t I + i nches i n he ig h t . The At l as has two s t ag es wi th f iv eengines : two booster engines , one s i i s ta iner engine , and two verniere n g i n e s . The two b o o s t e r e ng i ne s a r e j e t t i so n e d a t s t a g i n g , l e a v i n gt h e s n s t a i n e r a nd t h e two v e r n i e r s t o p l a c e t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o o r b i t .The t o t a l th r i i s t i s 360,000 pounds, which i s obta ined by burningker ose ne and li qi ii d oxygen. The At la s D has obta ined a h igh degree ofperformance, and i t s r e l i a b i l i t y h as bee n v e ry s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t h eMercury program.

The sequence of events during a normal Mercury mission are i l l u s -t r a t e d i n f ig u re 3 . Af te r l i f t - o f f , t he Mercury -At las p roceeds on aprogramed tu rn f o r about 2 minutes 10 seconds. A t t h i s t i m e , the twoboo ste r engines ar e shut down and je t t i s on ed . Twenty seconds l a t e r ,the escape tower i s j e t t i s Jn e d . Th e A t la s c o n t i n u e s t o a c c e l e r a t e , byu s i n g t h e s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e , t o a n a l t i t u d e o f 87 n a u t i c a l m i l e s a n d af l igh t -pa th ang le of 0". A t t h i s t i m e , t h e s u s t a i n e r and v e r n i e rengine s shut down. This sequence occ urs aboii t 427 n a u t i c a l mi les fromCape Canaveral, E'la. The apogee, or h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e , ?f t h e s p a c e c r a f ti s approximately 148 n a u t i c a l m i l e s. The o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n co n d i ti o n slomentioned d i l l c i e c e t h e s pa c e c ra f t i n t o a n o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t i o n o f 32-.2

When SECO, or su s t a i n e r e n g in e c u t o f f , o c ci i rs , t h e sp a c e c r a f tsepara tes f rom the A t l a s and the as t ro na u t yaws t he s pac ecra f t 180" ,p l a c i n g th e h e a t sh i e l d t ow ard t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e o r b i t a l m o t i o n .I f t h e o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n c o n d i t io n s a r e m e t, t h e s p a c e c r a f t c an con-t i nu e f o r the p lanned number of o r b i t s . S o f a r , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a scompleted two t h w e - o r b i t m i s s i on s an d o ne s i x - o r b i t m i s s i on a n d i sp r e se n t l y p l a n n i n g a one-day mission in t h e near f u t u r e .


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The a t t i t u d e s o f t h e s p acec r a f t may b e co n t r o l l ed au to m a t i ca l l yby t h e au to m a t i c s t ab i l i z a t i o n and co n t r o l s y st em , o r b y t h e a s tr on z7 Jtus in g t'ne f ly-by-wire or manuai pr op or t io na l sys tems.

When it i s des i red t o terminate t h e m i ss io n, t h e a s t r o n a u t a l i n e st h e s p a c e c r a ft t o a p i t ch down ( -34") a t t i t u d e a n d n o r m a l l y s e l e c t s t h eau tomat ic system f o r r e t r o f i r e . The r e t r o r o c k e t s r ed uc e t h e o r b i t a lv e l o c i t y f ro m 2 5, 73 5 f t / s ec t o 2 5, 30 0 f t / s ec , a r ed u c t i o n o f o n ly435 f t / se c , b u t s u f f i c ie n t t o i n i t i a t e t h e p ro pe r b a l l i s t i c r e en t rywhich causes th e s pac ecr a f t t o l and approx imate ly 3 ,000 m i l e s beyondt h e p o i n t of r e t r o f i r e .

A t a n a l t i t u d e of 10,000 f e e t the main parachute i s deployed, and1 2 s eco n ds l a t e r t h e l a n d in g b ag , w hich i s a 'pneumatic device whicha t t e n u a t e s t h e s h oc k of impact on the water , i s r e l ea s ed .

I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s p h as e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s f o r aM ercur y- At la s f l i g h t a r e d e s c r i b ed .

P r e f l i g h t O p er a ti o nsThe p re f l igh t phase beg ins when the spacecra f t i s d e li v e re d t o t h e

l au n ch s i t e and ends a t l i f t - o f f . T h i s p e r i o d v a r i e s f ro m m i ss io n t om i s s io n , b u t t h e av e r ag e i s about fo ur months. The spac ec ra f t andl a u n c h v e h i c l e a r e f i r s t check ed o u t i n d e t a i l , s y st em by system, andindependen t o f each o ther . A t t h e co n c lu s io n o f t h e s e d e t a i l e d systemst e s t s , a combined systems t e s t i s co n d u c t ed , w i th t h e s p acec r a f t u s in ga l au n ch - v eh ic l e s im u la to r an d th e l au n ch v eh i c l e u s in g a s p a c e c r a f ts im ula tor . About 2 t o 3 weeks befo re laun ch, ag ai n depending upon th em i ss i o n, t h e v e h i c l e s a re moved t o t h e l au n ch p ad an d mated.

Launch Pad OperationsThe many t e s t s invo lved i n t h i s p ha se o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s a r e a s

f o l l o w s :1. Launch complex checkout2. I n t e r f a ce i n s p e c t i o n3. Mechanical mating4. S p a c e c r a ft s ys te ms t e s t


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5 . E l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f a c e a n d a b o r t s6. F l ig h t a ccep t an ce co m p o s i t e t e s t s7 . F l ig h t co n f ig u r a t i o n s eq u en ce an d ab o r t s8. Launch simulation9. S im ul at ed f l i g h t

10. S p acec r a f t s e r v i c in g11. Frec ount, pyr ote chn ic hookup, and coun tA f t e r t h e f i r s t seven t e s t s i n t h e l i s t are completed, the s imu-

l a t e d f l i g h t i s t h e f i n a l t e s t w hich co m p let e ly ch ecks a l l s p acec r a f ts ys tems d u r in g a s im u la t ed f l i g h t from l i f t - o f f t o l an d in g . The t e s ta l s o permi t s a check o f the a u tomat ic l aunch-veh ic le ab or t system.

Under some c i rcums tances , a f l igh t - read iness f i r ing i s performedd u r i n g which a l l t h e A t l a s e n gi n e s z r e i g n i t e d f o r a p e r io d o f 20 secondst o ana lyze th e ov er a l l Mercury-Atlas systems con f ig ura t ion .

Precount, Pyrotechnic, and Launch CountThe countdown i s performed i n two p ar ts . The f i r s t part , known as

the p recoun t , i s pr imar i ly a check o f the var ious spacecra f t sys tems .Fo l lowing comple t ion o f th i s f i r s t p a r t of t he countdown, th er ei s an app ro xima te l 5- h ou r h o ld f o r p y r o t ech n ic ch eck , e l e c t r i c a l

connec t ion, and perox ide- sys tem s erv ic i ng and su r ve i l l an ce .l a un c h co un t a l l s y st em s a r e e n e rg i ze d a n d f i n a l o v e r a l l c h ec ks a r emade.co n nec t in g t h e e s cap e - ro ck e t i g n i t e r . All systems are checked and thea s t r o n a u t i s i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e s p ac e c r a ft a t T-135 minutes .minutes the hatch i s b o l t e d , a nd a t T-35 m in u te s t h e l au n ch v eh i c l e i sf i l l e d w it h l i q u i d oxygen. A t T-IO minutes the spa ce cr a f t changes f romex te r n a l t o i n t e r n a l power an d a t T-3 m in ute s t h e l au n ch v eh i c l e a l s os w i t ch es t o i n t e r n a l p o w er . A t T-35 s eco n d s t h e s p acec r a f t i u n b i l i c a li s e j e c t e d , a nd a t T-0 th e Mercury-Atlas combination l i f t s o f f .

Dur ing theThe countdown begins again a t T-330 m i n u t e s b y i n s t z l l i n g a n d

A t T-90

F l ig h t O p e r a t i o n s

The fo l lowing paragraphs a r e a des cr ip t i on of the opera t ions whichocciir imm ed ia te ly p r i o r t o an d di i ri n g t h e ac tua l . f l i g h t .


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About 2 weeks b e f o r e t h e l a u nc h , t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l t eam s a r edep loyed t o th e many t r a ck ing s t a t i on s a round th e world .pa r t i c ip a t in g i n ne twork checkou ts and s imula t ion s which assu r e equ ip -ment mc? p e r c c x e l yeadinesc.. The s i m i i 1 a t . i ons are of many types :t hose which check ou t the Mercury Con t ro l Cen te r and as t rona u t f o r abo r tp ro c ed u re s ; t h o s e which c he ck o ut t h e r e e n t r y s i t e s f o r r e t r o f i r edec i s ions and p rocedures ; and those which check ou t the en t i r e World-wide Mercury Network f o r equipment, communica t ions , and f l igh t - con t ro lopera t ing p rocedures .

They begin

The Mercury Network, shown i n fi g u r e 4 , cons i s t s o f the MercuryContro l Center a t Cape Canaveral , F la . , the Communication andComputing Center a t Goddard Space Fl i gh t Cen ter , Green bel t , M d . , ando t h e r t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s a round the wor ld which a r e loca ted a long thesp ac ec ra f t ' s o rb i t a l g round t r a ck . The Mercury Con t ro l Cen te r i s t h ecommand and co nt ro l s t a t i o n which makes most of th e d ec is io ns whicha f f e c t th e f l i g h t . The Communication and Computing Center i s t h ece n t r a l agency f o r r e l ay ing a l l t e l e typ e and vo ice communications froma l l t h e t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s a nd f o r do i ng most o f t h e computing f o rs p a c e c r a f t - t r a j e c t o r y p ur po se s d u si ng a l l p h as e s o f f l i g h t .

The r e m ai n in g t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s a r ou n d t h e w o rl d a r e r e f e r r e d t oas the "remote s i t e s " a n d t h e y p r o v i d e m o n i t o r i n g c a p a b i l i t y n e e d e d forr e l a y i n g t e l e m et r y , r ad ar , and vo ice da ta back t o th e Mercury Con t ro lCen te r .

The r ecovery fo rce s a r e a l s o dep loyed a t abou t th e same t i m e , andt h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l an d combined r e co v er y e x e r c i s e s i na manner s im i l ar t o t h a t of th e Mercury Network.

On the f i n a l day , a l l o p e r a ti o n a l f o r c e s p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h eactual launch countdown which i s fu l ly coord ina ted and synchron ized .

The i n - f l i g h t p ha se b e g i n s a t l i f t - o f f a nd co n t i n u es th ro u ghland in g . The Opera t ions Di r ec to r , s i t ua te d i n the Mercury Con t ro lCen te r , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o v e r a l l op e r a ti o n . He i s suppor ted bya s t a f f a nd o r g a n i z a t i o n a s shown i n f i g u r e 5 . The mission i s super -v i s e d , u s i n g a c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l t e ch n iq u e where a l l m aj or d e c i s i o n sa re made a t th e Mercury Contro l Center . T h i s i d e a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n , o fc o u r se , i s n o t a l wa ys f e a s i b l e and p ro c e du r es a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o i n s u r et i m e l y a c t i o n i n t h e e v e n t of c o n t i n ge n c i e s i f communications with theMercury Contr o l Center a re broken. For t h e Mercury miss ion , by f a r them ost c r i t i c a l ti me p e ri o d i s t he powered-f l igh t phase . During t h i s pe r iodt h e dynamic c o n d i t i o n s a r e c ha ng in g c o n t i n uo u s l y , an d a t a l l t imes a c t i o n si n t h e e v e n t o f m a l f un c t io n s must b e l mi ie di at cl y a v a il a b l e t o a s s i s t t h ef l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s a nd t h e a st r o n au t i n t ak i n g t h e p r op er c o r r e c t i v es t e p s . A s e t o f m i ss io n r u l e s i s p r e pa r ed p r i o r t o t h e m i ss io n t o c o ve r


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a l l re co g ni za bl e s i t u a t i o n s . O f cour se , o the r s i t ua t i on s which have no tbeen recognized w i l l occur from t ime t o t im e, and th e main purpose ofthe ex tens ive s imula t ion and t r a in ing p rogram i s a l lo w t h e f l i g h t con-t r o l l e r s t o make t h e c o r r e c t d e c i s i o n s u nd er t h e se c i r c u m st a n c e s .P robab ly the s ing le most c r i t i c a l f u n c ti o n which i s performed i s t h ed e t e r m in a t i o n of t h e o r b i t a l p ar a m et e rs i m me di at el y a f t e r t h e c u t o f f .I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e o r b i t c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c le be r a p i d l ydetermined s o t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n t o c 0 nt in u. e or t o r e e n t e r i m m e di at el yi n an ab or t or cont ingency lan ding ar ea can be made. F igure 6 i s t h eplo t which i s used t o a s s i s t i n making t h i s d e c i s io n .a computer and may use a number of tracking sources. A s u i t a b l e o r b i ti s o b ta in ed i f t h e v e l o c i t y r a t i o a nd t h e f l i g h t - p a t h a n gl e a r e w it h i nthe l ens- shaped a r ea on th e r igh t -hand s id e .

It i s der ived by

D uring t h e o r b i t a l p h as e, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f u n c t i o ns t o be p e r -formed, a l though in gene ral , de ci s io n making i s not always as c r i t i c a . 1as it i s dur ing the powered- f ligh t phase . Both th e as t ron au t and th eground syst em con t inuous ly moni to r th e v eh ic l e , i t s s t a t u s , a n d t h ef l i g h t p l an . Trends a r e es t a b l i sh ed which de te rmine whether o r no t ap o t e n t i a l c o n t i n g e n c y e x i s t s . A t a l l ti me s t h e a s t r o n au t i s informedof t h e c o r r e c t r e t r o f i r e t im e t o a ch i ev e a l a n d i n g i n a c o nt in ge n cyland ing a r ea . (The manner i n wh ich th e va r io us l and in g a r eas a r ee s t a b l i s h e d i s d i sc u s se d i n a su bse qu en t s e c t i o n of t h i s p a p e r . )i s i m p or t an t t o remember t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t t h a t t h e a s t r o n a u t p l a y si n th e succ ess fu l complet ion of a miss ion . The spa ce cra f t has manymodes o f o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e a s t r o n a u t i s a syst ems manager. A s t h es i t u a t i o n o r f l i g h t pl an d i c t a t e s , he i s a b l e t o s e l e c t t h e b e s t modeof opera t ion and to co n t r o l h i s consumables i n the de s i r ed manner.Under many abnormal con di t io ns , h i s presence enhances th e po ss ib i l i t yt h a t t h e m i s s i o n w i l l con t inue t o th e succ ess fu l accompli shment of a l lp l anned ob jec t ives . During t h i s o r b i t a l p e ri o d, t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r sa t t h e remote s i t e s a c t a s t h e e y es and t h e e a r s of the Mercury ControlC e n t e r, a nd a f t e r t h e sp a c e c r a f t h as p a sse d o v e r t h e s t a t i o n , t h e yt ra ns mi t summary re po r t s t o th e Mercury Co ntro l Ce nter . A t t h e r e q u ir e dt ime , prep ara t ions a re made f o r th e r e t r o f i r e maneuver which may bec o n t r o l l e d e i t h e r m an ua lly o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y . F i r i n g of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t scan be accompl ished by the onboard c loc k, by the a s t ro na ut h imse l f , o rby ground command. The es ti ma te d la nd in g p o s it i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d e i t h e rby r a d a r t r a c k i n g o r by u t i l i z i n g t e l e m e t r y i n fo r m at i on o b t a i n e d du r i n gt h e p e r i o d o f r e t r o f i r e .e s t i m a t e d l a n d i n g p o s i t i o n .t h e s p a c e c r a f t an d a s t r o n a u t a f t e r l a n d i n g.

I t

The r e co v e ry f o r c e s a r e t h e n a l e r t e d a s t o t h eThey a r e p r e p a re d t o l o c a t e a n d r e t r i e v e

Recovery Operat ionsThe recovery operat ion i s p l a n n e d a r o u n d t h e c o n c e p t t h a t t h e r e a r e

se v e r a l di s c re Lc a r e a s a l o n g t h e g ro un d t r a c k w hic h a r e p r e f e r r e d l a n d i n ga r e a s . These a r e a s a r e d i vi d ed i n t o s e v e r a l c a t e g or i e s. F i r s t , t h e


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launch s i t e r ecovery a r ea i s s e le c te d t o r e t r i e v e t h e a s t r on a ut i f ana b o r t were t o o c cu r e i t h e r b e fo r e l i f t - o f f o r d ur i ng t h e f i r s t fewseconds o f powered f l i g h t . Dur ing t h i s pe r io d , most o f the l and ingsa r e d e p i c t e d i n f i g u r e 7. Along t h e l a un c h t r a c k , s e v e r a l a r e a s a r es e l e c t e d t o c o ve r a b o r t s d u r i n g th e ?-minute p eri od of powered f l i g h t .D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , t h e l a n d i n g a r ea t r a v e r s e s t h e A t l a n t i c Ocean t o t h eA f r i c a n c o a s t .r o c k e t s , i t i s p o ss i b l e t o re d uc e t h e t o t a l number o f l a n d i n g a r e a s a sshown i n f ig u r e 7 . N ex t, p la nn ed l a n d in g a r e a s a r e s i t u a t e d a t t h e e ndo f t h e m i s s i o n , and the re i s a t l e a s t o ne p l an n ed l a n d i n g a r e a a l o n g t h eg ro un d t r a c k o f e a c h o r b i t a l p a s s .d ep lo ye d i n t h e s e a r e a s t o a l l ow l o c a t i o n a nd r e t r i e v a l w i th i n 3 t o 5h o ur s a f t e r l a nd i n g .a r eas wh ich a r e l o c a t e d t o g i v e a l a n d i n g c a p a b i l i t y i n c a se o f e mergencya s shown i n f i g u r e 8 .t h e se a r e a s , r e c o v e ry f o r c e s a r e n o t u su a l l y p re d ep lo y ed b u t a r e on as t a nd b y b a s i s . Lo c a ti o n a nd p a ra r e sc u e a s s i s t a n c e i s a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n18 h o u r s . The a c t u a l r e t r i e v a l t i m e w i l l depend on th e s i tu a t io n . Thetwo f u n c t i o n s o f r e co v e ry a r e l o c a t i o n an d r e t r i e v a l .a c co m pl ish ed by a i r c r a f t e qu ip pe d w i t h d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g e qu ip me nt . I na d d i t i o n , g ro un d b as e d hi gh -f re qu en cy d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r eu se d a s w e l l a s a MILS network depending on sound waves i n i t i a t e d b y aSOFAR bomb which i s r e l e a s e d from t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t l a n d i n g . R e t r i e v a li s a c co m pl ish ed i n t h e p l an n ed l a n d i n g a r e a s b y t h e h e l i c o p t e r s , d e -s t r o y e r s , or c a r r i e r s . I n t h e c on ti ng en cy l a n d i ng a r e a s , l o c a t i o n w i l lbe fo l lowed by a pa ra rescue team dropp ing i n t o the a r e a o f the spa cec ra f tt o re n de r a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e a s t r o n a ut a s r e q u i r ed and t o i n s u re t h a t t h es p a c e c r a f t r e m a i n s a f l o a t .

- 7 ; l l n-n.1- nn +Ln 1 ~ n A-van n v n ~ ~ n At h o l n 3 1 n n h c i + n %a r r f h n r s r o s cW l l l " L LU I "*I U L L L I U l i U U l C U U I V U I I U "I1L L U W l L l . U L " L . _ I L L V Y l L L A U L L U Y

By s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n of t h e t i m e t o f i r e t h e r e t r o -

( S e e f i g . 8 . ) Recovery fo rce s a r eThe r emain ing r ecovery a r eas a r e con t ingency l and ing

Because of the ve ry low p rob ab i l i ty o f l and ing i n

Location i s u s u a l l y

GEMINI

A s an in t erm edi a te s te p between Pr oj ec ts Mercury and Apol lo , t heo b j e c t i v e s o f P r o j e c t Gemini a r e :

1. To prov ide long-dura t ion manned f l i g h t exper i ence (up t o14 d a y s ) by s t u d y i n g e f f e c t s o f w e i g h t l e s sn e s s , d e t e r m in i n gp h y s i o l o g i c a l a nd p sy ch o l og i c al r e a c t i o n s t o l o n g - du r a t io nmiss io ns , and deve lop ing pe rfo rmance ca pa b i l i t i e s o f th e c r ew.

2. To provide e ar ly manned rendezvous ca pa bi l i ty by developingt e c h n i q u e s , a s s e s s i n g p i l o t f u n c t i o n s , d e v el o p in g p r o p u l si o ng u id a nc e a nd c o n t r o l , d e v el o p in g p i l o t d i sp l a y s , a nd t r a i n i n gp i l o t s afid providing them wi th r endezvocs exper i ence .


9/31

The Gemini s pa ce cr af t shown i n f i gu re 9 i s a c o n i c a l s t r u c t u r ebe ari ng a marked resemblance t o i t s predecessor , Mercury.ba s i ca l l y of a r e en t ry module and an adap te r .o f a hea t sh ie ld , c r ew and equ ipment sec t ion , r eac t ion con t ro l sys t emse ct io n , and th e rendezvous and recovery se ct io n . The f i r s t s e c t i o n i sp r e s su r i z ed t o house t h e t wo a s t r o n a u t s s e a t e d i n r o c k e t c a t a p u l t e j e c t i o ns e a t s i n a s ide-by-s ide con f igu rat io n wi th t he command as t r on au t on thel e f t and the second as t r onau t on the r i gh t . The as t r ona u t s f ac e r e a r -ward and can v isual ly observe the space envi ronment through the obser -va t ion windows provided i n the ing ress - e g ress ha tches . The l a s t twose c t i on s a r e unpressu r i zed compartment s. They con ta in t r i c yc le ,sk i - type l and ing gea r , t he p a rag l ide r wing , and sys t ems necessa ry toc o n t r o l t he s p a c e cr a f t a t t i t u d e d u ri ng o r b i t a l an d r e e n t r y f l i g h t .External access doors are provided for equipment compartments whichgreat ly reduce checkout t i m e and component replacement.

I t c o n s i s t sThe reent ry module consis ts

The adap te r cons i s t s o f the l aunch-veh ic l e mat ing sec t ion , t heequ ipment sec t io n , and the r e t rograde se c t i on . The l aunch-veh ic l emat ing sec t ion i s b o l t e d t o t h e l au nc h v e h i c l e , and a po r t ion o f th i sse ct io n remains wi th th e launch ve hi c l e when i t separa tes f rom thesp ac ec ra f t . The equipment se ct io n co nt ain s major components o f t h e f u e lc e l l s and th e i r r ea c ta n t supp ly , t he maneuvering p ropu l s ion sys tem, theequipment cooling system, and the pr imary oxygen supply for the environ-m e n ta l c o n t r o l sys t em . The r e t r o g r a d e s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s t h e r e t r o g r a d erockets and some components of the equipment cooling system.

The veh ic le used t o launch th e Gemini sp ace cra f t i s a modifiedT i t a n 11, which used n i t rogen t e t rox ide a s an ox id i ze r and UDMH (un-symmetr ica l d imethyl hydraz ine) as th e hypergol ic fu el . The Agena Dveh ic l e , wh ich w i l l be launched by an A t la s l a u n c h v e h i c l e , w i l l beused a s the ta rg et ve hi c l e fo r Gemini rendezvous and docking. Bothth e Gemini-Titan and th e Atlas-Agena co nf ig ur at io ns ar e shown i nf i g u r e 10.

The O rb i t a l Miss ionThe normal miss ion can be lo g i ca l l y d iv ided i n to s i x bas i c phas es .They a r e pr e la u n ch , l a u n c h, o r b i t , r e t r o g r a d e , r e e n t r y , a nd la n d i n g.The prelaunch phase i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h a t p r e v io u s l y

des cr ib ed f or Mercury, wi th the excep t ion t h a t much of the Geminicheckout w i l l be autom at ic . These autom at ic checkout procedures w i l lreduce the t ime ne cessa ry f o r checkout a t Cape Canaveral from the

1214 mor!t,hs f o r t he Mercu-ry t o 2- t o 3 months for Gemini.


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The l am cl i phase cover s the countdown, th e as t ron au t s ' en t r y in tot h e s p a c e c r a f t , c ha ng eo ve r from e x t e r n a l t o i n t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l powers y st em s , l i f t - o f f , e nd t h e f i r s t and second s t ag es o f powered f l i g h t .

I n t h e o r b i t a l p h a se, a s i n M erc ury, t h e sp a c e c r a f t t u r n s 180" i nyaw so that the as t ronauts face away f rom the d i rect ion of mDtion.from any pa r t i c u l a r miss ion maneuvers , f o r the long-dura t ion f l i g h t st h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l s t a y i n t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n f o r t h e c omplete o r b i t a ld u r a t i o n . Th i r t y s e co n ds b e f o r e r e t r o g r a d e i s pl-anned, the equipmentse c t i o n o f t h e a d a p t e r i s j e t t i so n e d . The r e t r o g r a d e r o c k e t s a r e f i r e dse q u e n t i a l l y a nd t h e r e t r o g r a d e s e c t i o n of t h e a d a p t e r i s j e t t i s o n e d .The r e e n t r y p h a se o f t h e m i s s i o n i n c l u d e s t h e a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n i n g o fthe spa cec ra f t t o min imize hea t in g , and by use o f ang le o f a t t a c k a n dhence a modera te l i f t - to -d ra g r a t i o and th e onboard compute r , t he as t r o -nau ts may make f l i gh t - pa th co r re ct i on s t o assu re touchdown wi t h in t hed e s i r e d a r e a . When a l l g u id a nc e e r r o r s a r e c o r r e c t e d , t h e l i f t v e c t o ri s c a n ce l ed b y p u t t i n g t h e sp a c e c r a f t i n t o a s l ow 2 0 " /s e c r o l l .l and ing phase beg ins when the as t r ona u t i n i t i a t e s dep loyment of thedrogue parac hute . Subsequent ly , the drogue parach ute i s used t o e x t r a c tt h e p a r a g l i d e r . By c o n t r o l l i n g t he p a r a g l i de r i n p i t c h and r o l l v i a t h ec e n t r a l hand c o n t r o l l e r , e i t h e r a s t r on a u t ca n f l y t h e s p a c e c r a ft t o aconven t iona l l and ing s i t e . The paragl ider i s j e t t i s o n e d a f t e r touchdown.

Apart

The

RendezvousThe rendezvous mis sio n as shown i n f ig u re 11 i s accomplished by

p l a c i n g t h e Agena t a r g e t v e h i c l e i n o r b i t a nd t h e n sometime l a t e r ,p l a c i n g t h e Gemini sp a c e c r a f t i n a s i m i l a r o r b i t . V e h ic l e p r o p u ls i o nc a p a b i l i t y i s used t o b r i ng t he Gemini in to a docked pos i t ion wi th theAgena.i n t o o r b i t . F i n a l i n s e r t i o n w i l l be accomplished by the Agena i t s e l f ;and when the des i r ed o rb i t a l cond i t ions a r e ob ta ined , the Agena eng inew i l l b e sh u t down, b u t r e a d y f o r r e l i g h t i n g a t a l a t e r t i m e .

The A t l a s d o e s n o t p r ov id e su f f i c i e n t p ower t o i n s e r t t h e A gena

A ft e r t h e Agena t a r ge t i s i n orbi t , the modif ied Mercury groundt r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s w i l l determine whether o r no t the Agena i s o p e r a t i o n a land i s i n t h e p r o pe r o r b i t f o r re nd ez vo us . Th er e w i l l be a per iod oft i m e during which the Gemini might be launched and be i n c l o s e p ro xi m it yt o t h e Agena. By r e l i gh t i ng th e Agena p ro pu l s ive sys tem and chang ingi t s o r b i t t o conform more c l os ely t o th e Gemini o r b i t , the window canb e e x t en d e d i n e x c e s s o f 4 ho ur s. The Gemini w i l l e i t h e r b e l a u nc h eddur ing th i s window or dur ing a co r r espond ing window a t t ime i n t e r va l so f abou t 24 hour s .

The mission object ive i s t o comple te th e r endezvous by us ingsp ac ec ra f t propul s ion only . However, th e Agena propul s ion i s a v a i l a b l ei f i t i s re qu ir ed . The Agena has an op era t io n l i f e t i m e i n o r b i t of


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a t l e a s t 5 days. However, pr es en t p la ns ar e t o complete th e rendezvousw i t h i n 24 hours . Launch t im ing and midcourse co r re ct io ns of the Ti t an I1w i l l be such th a t t he Gemini s pac ecr a f t w i l l b e p l a ce d i n c l o se p r o x i m i t yt o th e Agena. The Gemini ve hi cl e w i l l b e i n an o r b i t w i th an a l t i t u d e of87 t o 1 6 1 n a u t i c a l m i l e s . The as t ronau t s w i l l con t ro l t he Gemin i veh ic l et o approach the Agena i n accordance wi th in s t ru c t io ns from ground t r ac k in gs t a t i o n s .

A s the Gemini approaches within 250 n a u t i c a l miles of t he Agena i no r b i t , the Gemini can be guided toward i t s t a r g e t a u t o m a t i c a l ly by a i dof an onboard radar and computer , or t h e a s t r o n a u t may c o n t r o l t h e sp a c e-c r a f t m a n u a l l y . A f t e r us ing th e r a da r sys t em aboard th e Gemini t o c l osew i t h i n a b o u t 20 m i l e s of th e Agena, the as t ro na u t s w i l l b e a b l e t o u set h e h i g h i n t e n s i t y , f l a s i n g l i g h t ab oa rd t h e Agena for o p t i c a l t r a c k in g .A t t h i s t i m e t h e two v e h i c l e s , a l th o u gh t r a v e l i n g a t some 18,000 mph,w i l l h av e a s p ee d d i f f e r e n t i a l o f o n ly 1 t o 2 mph. Fi n al docking w i l lbe achieve d by manual co nt ro l of th e Gemini by p lac in g th e nose of th eGemini in to th e docking c o l l a r of th e Agena. There i s a p o s s i b i l i t yt h a t a t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a w i l l be mounted on the Agena or i n t h e Geminis o t h a t t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s c a n m o ni to r t h e d o ck in g pr o ce d u re s .

D u r i n g t h e l a t c h i n g part of t he dock ing phas e, when clamps in si deth e Agena c o l l a r g ra sp the Gemini nose cone and pu l l it i n t o a l a t c h e dp o s i t i o n , t h e i n s t ru m e n t a t io n wires w i l l a l s o be connec ted. Thea s t r o n a u t w i l l t h e n be a b l e t o o b ser v e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e Agena sy st e ms .F a c i l i t i e s ab o ar d t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t w i l l en ab le t h e p i l o t t o s t a r tthe Agena propuls ion system.

The Agena engine w i l l h a v e m u l t i r e s t a r t c a p a b i l i t y ; t h u s , w h e n t h eGemini a r r i v e s i n o r b i t , it w i l l h av e a n o t h e r en g i ne w a i t i n g t h e r e t osupply power fo r or b i t a l maneuver ing . Here the eng ine can be usedfor a d j u s t i n g t h e o r b i t , e x t en d i ng t h e a po ge e o f t h e o r b i t , or f o rchanging t o a n o th e r o r b i t .

W ith t h e a b i l i t y t o m ane uver i n sp a c e , t h e G emini p i l o t s m ig ht u set h e Agena t o t h r u s t t h e G emini s p a c e c r a f t i n t o a d i f f e r e n t o r b i t forb e t t e r c h o i c e o f a l and ing s i t e ; t h ey mig ht c o n t r o l t h e i r d i r e c t i o n f o ra s p e c i f i c la n d i n g l o c a t i o n e v en th ou gh t h e i r c r a f t w ere n o t g o i n g t op a s s ov e r t h a t r e g io n d u r i n g t h a t o r b i t .

There i s t h u s a v a i l a b l e a f l e x i b l e sy s te m w i t h wh ic h t o p er fo rm av a r i e t y of m is s io n s i n a c hi e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e s .

Because o f the exper i ence ga ined i n P ro jec t Mercury , i t i s p o s s i b l et o r educe the number of ne twork s t a t io ns r eq u i r ed t o moni to r the miss ion .The o r b i t a l m i s s io n s w i l l be d i r ec ted f rom the Mercury Con t ro l Cen te r wi thsome s l ig h t mod i f i ca t ions . For t he r endezvous miss ions , a new In teg ra tedMission Contro l Center i s under cons t ruc t ion nea r Hous ton , Tex .


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Recovery operat ions w i l l remain e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r t o th o s e o fMercury.a r e a s , y a r t . i c u l a r l y alone +.he 1ai inch t , r a j e c t , n r y i w i l l be en la rged , be -cause o f t h e v a r i a b l e iaUKlCh aziirriuih ol" iiie G e r r i i r i i iauiicil vt.i i lcie. Iiia d d i t i o n , t h e Gemini sp a c e c r a f t has a l a n d l a n d i n g c a p a b i l i t y u t i l i z i n gt h e p a r a g l i d e r .

One va r i a t i o n which shou ld be mentioned i s tha t some recovery

PROJECT APOLLCThe Apo llo opera t ions p la n as shown i n f i gu re 12 , i s , l i k e t ho se

of Mercury and Gemini , t o be a step- by-st ep program of inc re as in g com-pl ex it y. The program w i l l c o n s i s t o f t h r e e p h a se s : f i r s t , l o n g d u r a t i o no r b i t a l f l i g h t s ; s e co n d, f l i g h t s which a pp ro a ch t h e moon a nd p o s s i b l yor b i t t he moon; and th i r d , t he lun ar l and ing miss ion .

F igure 1-3 i s a d iagram of the Apol lo spacecraf t . It i s composedof t h r e e ba s ic se ct .i on s: t ,he comma.nd. m or j i i l e ~ t.he se rv ic e module, andth e lu na r excu rsio n module. The command module houses t h e ast ro na ut sand c o n t a i n s a l l s y st em s n e ce ss a ry f o r t h e a s t r o n a u t s t o c a r r y o u tt h e i r c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s d u r i ng t h e m i s si o n. I n a d d i t i o n , i t c o n t a i n sconsumables o f su f f i c i e n t quan t i t y fo r a r een t ry maneuver, a s us t a inedp e r i o d p r i o r t o r e c o v e ry , a nd a n a d e qu a t e r e se r v e su p p l y . The s e r v i c emodule co nta i ns th e major propuls ion system, th e majo r i ty o f the powersy st em , a nd a l l t h o se a d d i t i o n a l sy st em s n e c e s sa r y t o c om pl et e t h enormal lu na r miss ion .se l f - co n ta ined un i t which i s capable of separat ing from the commandand s er vi ce module, performing a maneuver t o l an d on th e moon, re -maining on t h e moon f o r a s much as a day, and performing a rendezvousmaneuver wi th th e command and se rv ic e module a t t he complet ion of th el u n a r mi ss io n. The command module ha s a normal crew of three, two o fwhich form the crew of th e lu na r excur s ion module f o r the lun ar land ingmiss ion . The l un ar excur s ion module has a cap ab i l i t y o f r e tu rn in g t oth e command and se rv ic e modu-le a t any t im e du rin g t he lu na r la nd in gmaneuver. From an ope ra t i ona l po in t o f v i ew, t he re a r e seve ra ld i f f e r ences be tween the Apo l lo miss ion and the previous missions .F i r s t , t h e r e i s a crew of three a s compared w it h two f o r Gemini an done fo r Mercury . Second, th e crew has a la rg e r ca pa bi l i ty f o r on-b o a rd c o n t r o l t h a n i n p r e vi o us m i s s i o n s. Es se n t i a l l y , t h e crew h a st h e c a p a b i l i t y t o c om pl et e a normal m i s s i on fr om l i f t - o f f t o l a n d i n gwi thou t th e as s i s t an ce of the g round sys t ems . O f c o u r se , t h e m a j o rpurpo se of t h e gro-nd syster?, i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e c a s e of a n orm almiss ion and t o p rov ide th e r equ i r ed emergency ac t io n i n the even t o fm a l f u n ct i o n s o f e i t h e r t h e sp a c e c r a f t o r t h e l a u nc h v e h i c l e . Th i r d ,t h e A p ol lo v e h i c l e h a s t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r a r e l a t i v e l y l a r ge v e l o c i tyv a r i a t i o n , a nd a s a r e s u l t t h e number o f a l t e r n a t e m is s i on s an d m i s s i o nab or t s th a t can be pe rfo rmed i n the even t o f sys tem mal func tions i se x t r e m e l y l a r g e .

The lunar excurs ion module i s a completely


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me launch ve hi c l es which ar e t o be used f o r the Apol lo mannedThe C - 1 i s a

The second stage i s t h e S-IV

s p a c e f l i g h t s a r e t h e S a t u r n C - 1 , Satu rn C - l B , a nd t h e S a tu r n C - 5 .The Saturn C - 1 and Sa tu rn C - 5 a r e shown i n f i g u r e 14.two-stage ve hic le . The f i r s t s t age has e igh t eng ines which use l i q u i doxygen and RP-1 (a form of kerosene) .which i s a pr op el le d by l i q u i d hydrogen and oxygen.t o t he C-1 e x c e p t t h a t t h e s e c o n d s t a g e i s r e s t a r t a b l e . T h e C-5 i s at h r e e - s t a g e v e h i c l e . The l ow e r s t a g e c o n s i s t s o f f i v e F-1 eng ineswhich use a combination of RP-1 and l i q u i d oxygen. The second st ag ei s the S-11 which i s a l i qu id hydrogen and oxygen s t ag e , and th e t h i r ds t a g e i s the S-IVB s i m i l a r t o t h a t used a s t h e s e co nd s t a g e o f t h eC-1B v e h i c l e . A l l v e h i c l e s a r e i n e r t i a l l y g u id e d. The o b j e c t i v e o ft h e e a r l y o r b i t a l manned f l i g h t s o f t h e k p o l l o v e h i c l e i s p r i m a r i l y t op ro ve t h e t o t a l sys te m i n t h e sp a c e e nv ir on me nt f o r l o n g d u r a t i o n s com-parab le t o t h o se r e q u i r e d f o r t h e l u n a r m i s si o n . S e v e r a l m i s s i o n s a r einvolved which w i l l g r a d u a ll y b u i l d up t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v e h i c l ea nd p r o g r e s s i v e l y use a l l t h e r e q u i r e d sy st e ms .w i l l u t i l i z e a communications system having a range which i s compat ib lewi th tho se of th e p re se nt Mercury and proposed Gemini systems.example, i t w i l l have a C-band tr a ck in g beacon, UHF t e l emet ry sys t em,UHF vo ice sys t ems , and a UHF command system , a l l of which w i l l o p e r a t ea t d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s . Ev e n t u a l ly , t h e g ro un d n et wo rk w i l l bemodif ied t o o p e ra t e w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t a s i n g l e f re q ue n cy i n t h eS-band range. A l l i n fo rmat ion f lowing between t he sp ac ec ra f t and theground w i l l be ob ta ined by modu la t ion o f t h i s s in g l e f r equency . Theo pe ra t i on s p la n s f o r t h es e o r b i t a l f l i g h t s w i l l b e v e r y s i m i l a r i nn a t u r e t o t h ose u se d f o r t h e M ercury a nd Gemini o r b i t a l f l i g h t s . Thep r e f l i g h t c h e c k o u t w i l l con tin ue t o become more a utomated, us in g e s -s e n t i a l l y a compute r co n t ro l l e d checkou t sys tem. Miss ion co n t r o l w i l lbe exerc i sed f r s n t h e I n t e g r a t e r M i s s i o n C o n t r o l C e n t e r . The Apol loprogram w i l l t hen con t inue on t o th e luna r phase . Th i s phase w i l lc o n s i s t o f a s e r i e s o f c i rc u ml un a r f l i g h t s l e a d i n g e v e n t u a l l y t o t h el u n a r l a n d i n g m i s s i o n .

The C-1B i s s i m i l a r

The e a r l y v e h i c l e sFor

Figure 15 shows the bas i c sequence of even t s f o r the lu na r l and ingmis sio n. The laun ch w i l l be conducted from Cape Can avera l , Fl a. Thev a r i a b l e l a u n c h t e c h n i q u e w i l l be used t o p rov ide , approx imate ly , a4-hour window during each day. I n a d d i t io n , t h e v e h i c l e w i l l f i r s t bep ut i n t o e a r t h o r b i t a nd w i l l r emain in o rb i t f o r a pe r iod o f f rom onet o f o u r r e vo l ut i on s . This o r b i t a l p e ri od w i l l b e u se d t o c he ck o u t t h et o t a l v e hi cl e and t o p r ov id e f u r t h e r f l e x i b i l i t y i n s e l e c t i n g t h e i n -j e c t i o n p o in t f o r t h e t r a n s l u n a r p o rt i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y .requi red t ime, the S- IVB w i l l b e r e s t a r t e d a n d t h e v e h i c l e w i l l bea c c e l e r a t e d t o a pp r o xi m a te l y 36,000 f e e t p e r s e c o n d .j e c t i o n , t h e S-IVB s t a g e w i l l b e s e p a r a t e d f rom t h e sp a c e c r a f t a nd t h elunar excur s ion modiile w i l l b e r o t a t e d t o t h e f o r w ar d en d of t h e sp a c e -c r a f t . I n t h i s c o n f i gu r a t io n s uc h m o d if i ca t io n s t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y a sa r e r e q u i r e d w i l l be made dur ing the t r ans lunar phase .

A t t h eFo l lowing in -

When th e ve h ic le


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r eaches th e v i c i n i t y o f th e moon, a b rak ing maneuver which p laces th es p ace c r a f t i n o r b i t a ro un d t h e moon w i l l be performed.the crew w i l l t r an s f e r t o t h e l u n a r ex cu r s io n mod ule wh ich w i l l t h en b ew i l l t h e n b e p l a c ed i n d i f f e r e n t , b u t e q u a l p e r i o d o r b i t s . The o r b i to f t he lu na r l and ing module w i l l r e s u l t i n a l u n a r l a nd i n g, a nd t h eorbit of the command and service module w i l l a l l o w co n s t an t o b s e r v a t i o no f t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module d u ri n g t h i s c r i t i c a l l a n d i n g man euv er. Thel a n d i n g w i l l m os t pr o b ably t ak e p l ace d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f e a r t h s h in e ;t h a t i s , wi th t he sun behind t he moon, and wi th in a 10" band of the lunareq u a to r .r e q u i r e d s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t s - probab ly a per io d o f s e ve ra l hours .The launch countdown w i l l then begin and a rendezvous maneuver w i l l beperformed us ing the propuls ion sys tem on the lunar excursion module.The crew and certain equipment w i l l be t r an sf er re d t o the command andservice module and the lunar excurs ion module w i l l ag a i n b e s ep a r a t ed .An in jec t ion maneuver w i l l then be performed and the vehicle w i l l bep l ac e d i n t o t h e t r a n s e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y . T h is t r a j e c t o r y w i l l be shapeds o t h a t it w i l l g iv e a f r ee r e t u r n t o t h e r e q u i r e d l a n d i n g p o i n t o n t h ee a r t h .us ing the spa cec ra f t p ropu ls ion system. The se r v i ce module w i l l bes ep a r a t ed fr om th e command module j u s t p r i o r t o r e en t r y i n to t h e e a r t h ' sa tmosphere , a t approx imate ly 36,000 f e e t per second. The command modulehas a l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y which i s c o n t r o ll e d by r o l l i n g t h e l i f t v e c t o r .Range v a r i a t i o n s o f s e v e r a l t ho us an d m i l e s a r e p o s s i b l e , a nd t h i s c o n t r o lc a p a b i l i t y w i l l b e u t i l i z e d t o l an d t h e v e h i c l e a t t h e r e q u i re d p o s i t i o non t h e e a r t h . It i s mos t l i k e l y th a t more than one p lanned land ing a reaw i l l b e ar ra n ge d t o p r ov id e f l e x i b i l i t y s o t h a t mis s ions can be launchedon most days of the month.co n t in g en cy a r ea s w i l l be s e t up s imi la r t o thos e i n Mercury and Gemini ,a n d p r e s e n t p l a n s i n d i c a t e t h a t a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n gl o c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e w i l l be used f o r t h e s e a r e a s .

Two members ofsepsrzted f rm t h e csmaId-seY-:.izc mcd.;lc zo;r;l-,instlon. %e tw o -;ehizles

S u f f i c i e n t t i m e w i l l be allowed on the moon t o perform t he

M o di fi c at i on s t o t h i s t r a j e c t o r y w i l l be made as required by

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p la nn ed r e co v er y a r e a s ,

POSSIBLE FUTURE PRKFUMSTwo pos s ib le fu tu re manned programs which a re b e ing inv es t iga ted

b y t h e N a t io n a l A e r o n au t i c s an d S p ace A d m in i s t r a t i o n a r e i n t e r e s t i n gt o examine f rom the ope ra t ion a l po in t o f v iew. The o r b i t i n g e a r t hl ab o r a to r y w h ich r em a in s a lo f t for many months or even year s p rov idesa n i n t e r e s t i n g o p e r a t i o na l l o g i s t i c s problem . Vehicles must be launcheda t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o r e p l a c e co nsu mab le s, t o r o t a t e t h e c re ws , a nd t ochange experiments i f n eces s a r y . I n ad d i t i o n , a co nt i n uo u s e s cape capa -b i l i t y must be p r o vi d ed t h e crew i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y may r e e n t e r s a f e l yt o t h e e a r t h sh ou ld d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e on the space s t a t io n . Anotherin t e r e s t i n g p r o g r am i s r e l a t e d t o i n t er p l a n e ta r y f l i g h t s .problem i n th es e programs w i l l probab ly be the des ign o f the s p a c e c r a f t

The major


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i t s e l f s i n c e m i s s i o ns of many months durat ion are probable and nol o g i s t i c o pe ra ti on for r e su p p l y i s p o s s i b l e .

CONCLUSIONS

I n t h i s p a p e r , t h e o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h were n e c e s s ar y t o s u pp o rt t h eAlso , p l ans which a r e be ing fo r -Mercury program have been discussed.

mulated f o r th e Gemini and Apoll o mi ss ion s have been examined. Althoughi t was not p o ss i bl e t o d e s c ri b e t he s e p la ns i n d e t a i l , i t i s hoped thatsome ins i gh t i n t o th e opera t ions p lan s and p rocedures r equ i r ed formanned space f l i g h t has been provided.


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TABT;E I. - OPEFiATIONS P W I N GMiss ion planning

P r e f l i g h t p l an ni ngF l ig h t o p e r a t i o n s p l an n in gRecovery planning

Ground suppor t p lann ingV eh ic le c h ec ko ut f a c i l i t i e sNetwork f a c i l i t i e sGround support equipment

Tra in ingF1igh t c rewGround suppor t per sonne l

M iss io n p r ep a r a t i o nSchedul ingDocumentationOpera t ions coord ina t ion


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Operational Plans and Procedures for Manned Space Flight

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Transcript of Operational Plans and Procedures for Manned Space Flight