Operating*Systems*and*Networks Networks*Part*2:*Physical*Layer · 2 Overview •...
Transcript of Operating*Systems*and*Networks Networks*Part*2:*Physical*Layer · 2 Overview •...
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Operating Systems and Networks
Networks Part 2: Physical Layer
Adrian PerrigNetwork Security GroupETH Zürich
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Overview• Important concepts from last lecture
– Statistical multiplexing, statistical multiplexing gain– OSI 7 layer model, interfaces, protocols– Encapsulation, demultiplexing
• This lecture– Socket programming overview– Physical layer
• Online lecture videos: http://computernetworks5e.org
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Network-‐Application Interface• Defines how apps use the network
– Lets apps talk to each other via hosts; hides the details of the network
host
appapp
host
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Motivating Application• Simple client-‐server connection setup
request
reply
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Motivating Application (2)• Simple client-‐server connection setup
– Client app sends a request to server app– Server app returns a (longer) reply
• This is the basis for many apps!– File transfer: send name, get file (§6.1.4)– Web browsing: send URL, get page– Echo: send message, get it back
• Let’s see how to write this app …
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Socket API• Simple abstraction to use the network
– The network service API used to write all Internet applications– Part of all major OSes and languages; originally Berkeley (Unix) ~1983
• Supports two kinds of network services– Streams: reliably send a stream of bytes– Datagrams: unreliably send separate messages. (Ignore for now.)
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Socket API (2)• Sockets let applications attach to the local network at
different ports
Socket,Port #1
Socket,Port #2
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Socket API (3)
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Primitive MeaningSOCKET Create a new communication endpointBIND Associate a local address with a socketLISTEN Announce willingness to accept connections; give queue sizeACCEPT Passively wait for an incoming connectionCONNECT Actively attempt to establish a connectionSEND Send some data over the connectionRECEIVE Receive some data from the connectionCLOSE Release the connection
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Using SocketsClient (host 1) Server (host 2)Time
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Using Sockets (2)Client (host 1) Server (host 2)Time
request
reply
disconnect
1 1
2
3
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connect
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Using Sockets (3)Client (host 1) Server (host 2)Time
5: connect*
1: socket 2: bind1: socket
3: listen
9: send
6: recv*
4: accept*
7: send8: recv*
10: close 10: close
request
reply
disconnect
connect
*= call blocks
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Client Program (outline)socket() // make socketgetaddrinfo() // server and port name
// www.example.com:80connect() // connect to server [block]…send() // send requestrecv() // await reply [block]… // do something with data!close() // done, disconnect
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Server Program (outline)socket() // make socketgetaddrinfo() // for port on this hostbind() // associate port with socketlisten() // prepare to accept connectionsaccept() // wait for a connection [block]…recv() // wait for request…send() // send the replyclose() // eventually disconnect
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Where we are in the Course• Beginning to work our way up starting with the Physical layer
PhysicalLink
NetworkTransportApplication
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Scope of the Physical Layer• Concerns how signals are used to transfer message bits over a link– Wires etc. carry analog signals– We want to send digital bits
…1011010110…
Signal
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Topics1. Properties of media– Wires, fiber optics, wireless
2. Simple signal propagation– Bandwidth, attenuation, noise
3. Modulation schemes– Representing bits, noise
4. Fundamental limits– Nyquist, Shannon
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Simple Link Model• We’ll end with an abstraction of a physical channel
– Rate (or bandwidth, capacity, speed) in bits/second– Delay or Latency in seconds, related to length
• Other important properties:– Whether the channel is broadcast, and its error rate
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Delay D, Rate R
Message
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Message Latency• Latency L: delay to send a message over a link
– Transmission delay: time to put M-‐bit message “on the wire”
T-‐delay = M (bits) / Rate (bits/sec) = M/R seconds
– Propagation delay: time for bits to propagate across the wire
P-‐delay = Length / speed of signals = Length / ⅔c = D seconds
– Combining the two terms we have: L = M/R + D
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Metric Units• The main prefixes we use:
• Use powers of 10 for rates, 2 for storage or data size– 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps, 1 KB = 210 bytes
• “B” is for bytes, “b” is for bits
Prefix Exp. prefix exp.K(ilo) 103 m(illi) 10-3
M(ega) 106 μ(micro) 10-6
G(iga) 109 n(ano) 10-9
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Latency Examples• “Dialup” with a telephone modem:
– D = 5 ms, R = 56 kbps, M = 1250 bytes
• Broadband cross-‐country link:– D = 50 ms, R = 10 Mbps, M = 1250 bytes
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Latency Examples (2)• “Dialup” with a telephone modem:
D = 5 ms, R = 56 kbps, M = 1250 bytesL = 5 ms + (1250x8)/(56 x 103) sec = 184 ms!
• Broadband cross-‐country link:D = 50 ms, R = 10 Mbps, M = 1250 bytesL = 50 ms + (1250x8) / (10 x 106) sec = 51 ms
• A long link or a slow rate means high latency– Often, one delay component dominates
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Bandwidth-‐Delay Product• Messages take space on the wire!
• The amount of data in flight is the bandwidth-‐delay (BD) product
BD = R x D– Measure in bits, or in messages– Small for LANs, big for “long fat” pipes
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Bandwidth-‐Delay Example• Fiber at home, cross-‐country
R=40 Mbps, D=50 msBD = 40 x 106 x 50 x 10-‐3 bits
= 2000 Kbit= 250 KB
• That’s quite a lot of data“in the network”!
110101000010111010101001011
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How “Long” is a Bit?• Interesting trivia: how “long” is the representation of a bit on a wire?
• Considering a fiber optic cable– Signal propagation speed: 200’000’000 m/s– Sending rate: 1Gbps à duration of sending one bit: 1ns– Bit “length”: 1ns * 200’000’000 m/s = 0.2 m– “Length” of a 1Kb packet: 0.2m * 8 * 210 = 1.6km
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Types of Media (§2.2, 2.3)• Media propagate signals that carry bits of information• We’ll look at some common types:
– Wires– Fiber (fiber optic cables)– Wireless
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Wires – Twisted Pair• Very common; used in LANs and telephone lines
– Twists can reduce radiated signal or reduce effect of external interference signal
Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs
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Wires – Coaxial Cable• Also common. Better shielding for better performance
• Other kinds of wires too: e.g., electrical power (§2.2.4)
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Fiber• Long, thin, pure strands of glass
– Enormous bandwidth (high speed) over long distances
Light source(LED, laser)
Photo-‐detector
Light trapped bytotal internal reflection
Optical fiber
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Fiber (2)• Two varieties: multi-‐mode (shorter links, cheaper) and single-‐mode (up to ~100 km)
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Fiber bundle in a cableOne fiber
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Wireless• Sender radiates signal over a region
– In many directions, unlike a wire, to potentially many receivers– Nearby signals (same freq.) interfere at a receiver; need to coordinate use
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WiFi
WiFi
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Wireless (2)• Microwave, e.g., 3G, and unlicensed (ISM: Industry Science Medicine) frequencies, e.g., WiFi, are widely used for computer networking
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802.11b/g/n
802.11a/g/n
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Signals (§2.2, 2.3)• Analog signals encode digital bits. We want to know what happens as signals propagate over media
…1011010110…
Signal
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weights of harmonic frequenciesSignal over time
=
Frequency Representation• A signal over time can be represented by its frequency components (called Fourier analysis)
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amplitu
de
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Lost!
Effect of Less Bandwidth• Fewer frequencies (=less bandwidth) degrades signal
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Lost!
Lost!Bandwidth
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Signals over a Wire• What happens to a signal as it passes over a wire?
1. The signal is delayed (propagates at ⅔c)2. The signal is attenuated3. Frequencies above a cutoff are highly attenuated4. Noise is added to the signal (later, causes errors)
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EE: Bandwidth = width of frequency band, measured in HzCS: Bandwidth = information carrying capacity, in bits/sec
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Signals over Fiber• Light propagates with very low loss in three very wide frequency bands– Use a carrier to send information
Wavelength (μm)
Attenuation(dB/km
1,5 um=0,2 dB/km
By SVG: Sassospicco Raster: Alexwind, CC-‐BY-‐SA-‐3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
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Signals over Wireless• Travel at speed of light, spread out and attenuate faster than 1/dist2
Signalstrength
DistanceA B
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Signals over Wireless (2)• Multiple signals on the same frequency interfere at a receiver
Signalstrength
DistanceA BC
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Signals over Wireless (3)• Interference leads to notion of spatial reuse (of same freq.)
Signalstrength
DistanceA BC
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Signals over Wireless (4)• Various other effects too!
– Wireless propagation is complex, depends on environment
• Some key effects are highly frequency dependent– E.g., multipath at microwave frequencies
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Wireless Multipath• Signals bounce off objects and take multiple paths
– Some frequencies attenuated at receiver, varies with location– Messes up signal; handled with sophisticated methods (§2.5.3)
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Modulation (§2.5)• We’ve talked about signals representing bits. How, exactly?– This is the topic of modulation
…1011010110…
Signal
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A Simple Modulation• Let a high voltage (+V) represent a 1, and low voltage (-‐V) represent a 0– This is called NRZ (Non-‐Return to Zero)
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Bits
NRZ
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
+V
-‐V
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Many Other Schemes• Can use more signal levels, e.g., 4 levels is 2 bits per symbol
• Practical schemes are driven by engineering considerations– E.g., clock recovery
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Clock Recovery• Um, how many zeros was that?
– Receiver needs frequent signal transitions to decode bits
• Several possible designs– E.g., Manchester coding and scrambling (§2.5.1)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 … 0
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Clock Recovery – 4B/5B• Map every 4 data bits into 5 code bits without long runs of zeros– 0000 à 11110, 0001 à 01001,1110 à 11100, … 1111 à 11101
– Has at most 3 zeros in a row– Also invert signal level on a 1 to break up long runs of 1s (called NRZI, §2.5.1)
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Clock Recovery – 4B/5B (2)• 4B/5B code for reference:
– 0000à11110, 0001à01001, 1110à11100, … 1111à11101
• Message bits: 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
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Coded Bits:
Signal:
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
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Passband Modulation• What we have seen so far is basebandmodulation for wires– Signal is sent directly on a wire
• These signals do not propagate well on fiber / wireless– Need to send at higher frequencies
• Passbandmodulation carries a signal by modulating a carrier
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Passband Modulation (2)• Carrier is simply a signal oscillating at a desired frequency:
• We can modulate it by changing:– Amplitude, frequency, or phase
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Passband Modulation (3)
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NRZ signal of bits
Amplitude shift keying
Frequency shift keying
Phase shift keying
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Fundamental Limits (§2.1)• How rapidly can we send information over a link?
– Nyquist limit (~1924)– Shannon capacity (1948)
• Practical systems are devised to approach these limits
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Key Channel Properties• The bandwidth (B), signal strength (S), and noise strength (N)– B limits the rate of transitions– S and N limit how many signal levels we can distinguish
Bandwidth B Signal S,Noise N
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Nyquist Limit• The maximum symbol rate is 2B
• Thus if there are V signal levels, ignoring noise, the maximum bit rate is:
R = 2B log2V bits/sec
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
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Claude Shannon (1916-‐2001)• Father of information theory
– “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”, 1948
• Fundamental contributions to digital computers, security, and communications
Credit: Courtesy MIT Museum
Electromechanical mouse that “solves” mazes!
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Shannon Capacity• How many levels we can distinguish depends on S/N
– Or SNR, the Signal-‐to-‐Noise Ratio– Note noise is random, hence some errors
• SNR given on a log-‐scale in deciBels:– SNRdB = 10log10(S/N)
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0
1
2
3
N
S+N
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Shannon Capacity (2)• Shannon limit is for capacity (C), the maximum information carrying rate of the channel:
C = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec
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Wired/Wireless Perspective• Wires and Fiber– Engineer link to have requisite SNR and B→Can fix data rate
• Wireless– Given B, but SNR varies greatly, e.g., up to 60 dB!→Can’t design for worst case, must adapt data rate
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Engineer SNR for data rate
Adapt data rate to SNR
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Putting it all together – DSL • DSL (Digital Subscriber Line, see §2.6.3) is widely used for broadband; many variants offer 10s of Mbps– Reuses twisted pair telephone line to the home; it has up to ~2 MHz of bandwidth but uses only the lowest ~4 kHz
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DSL (2) • DSL uses passbandmodulation (called OFDM §2.5.1)
– Separate bands for upstream and downstream (larger)– Modulation varies both amplitude and phase (called QAM)– High SNR, up to 15 bits/symbol, low SNR only 1 bit/symbol
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Upstream Downstream
26 – 138kHz
0-‐4kHz 143 kHz to 1.1 MHz
Telephone
Freq.
Voice Up to 1 Mbps Up to 12 Mbps
ADSL2: