One Giant Leap: The Apollo Program - Owain Bates

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One Giant Leap Preface 1 The Apollo Program ONE GIANT LEAP

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Transcript of One Giant Leap: The Apollo Program - Owain Bates

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One Giant Leap Preface

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The Apollo Program

ONE GIANT LEAP

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0. “Earthrise” – William Anders: Apollo 8 - 1968

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Owain Bates

ONE GIANT LEAP

The Apollo Program: 1961 – 1975

And how it changed the World

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1. The first human steps on The Moon

Preface

In August 2012, Neil Armstrong, the first

man to walk on The Moon, passed away.

He had been part of the crew of Apollo 11,

the first manned vessel to land on The

Moon, now a whole lifetime ago. That

landing was the result of decades of work

and research by thousands of people, all

with one common vision: to free ourselves

from the bounds of our planet.

NASA wants to return to the Moon someday soon. Not to collect samples, but

to see if we could survive there for long periods. And after that, they want to

use it as a stepping-stone to Mars, and beyond. Without the Apollo Program,

these plans would simply be dreams, but thanks to what we learned in the

1960s, they could become reality.

In this book, I am going to explore how the Apollo Program was devised, how it

was carried out, and how it changed the world. I will see what problems faced

NASA and how they overcame them to reach their ultimate goal.

Strap in and prepare for launch!

Owain Bates

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Contents PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................. 4

CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 5

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 11

AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA.................................................................................................... 13

Early Aeronautics ........................................................................................................................................... 14

Hot Air Travel ................................................................................................................................................... 14

The First Planes ................................................................................................................................................ 15

Controlled and Powered Flight ........................................................................................................................ 17

The World at War .......................................................................................................................................... 18

The First World War ......................................................................................................................................... 18

Between the Wars ............................................................................................................................................ 19

The Second World War .................................................................................................................................... 21

THE CREATION OF NASA ............................................................................................................. 22

NACA ............................................................................................................................................................. 23

The Cold War ................................................................................................................................................. 24

The Space Race .............................................................................................................................................. 25

Space Race Milestones ..................................................................................................................................... 25

The Establishment of NASA ........................................................................................................................... 27

EARLY NASA PROGRAMS ............................................................................................................ 28

X-Plane Program ............................................................................................................................................ 29

Notable Early X-Planes ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Project Mercury ............................................................................................................................................. 30

Project Gemini ............................................................................................................................................... 31

THE MOON ....................................................................................................................................... 33

Formation ......................................................................................................................................................... 34

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Physical Features .............................................................................................................................................. 35

Geography .................................................................................................................................................... 35

Internal Structure and Composition ............................................................................................................ 36

Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 36

Gravitational Field ........................................................................................................................................ 36

ROCKETS ........................................................................................................................................... 37

What is a rocket? ........................................................................................................................................... 38

Solid-Fuel Rockets ............................................................................................................................................ 38

Liquid-Fuel Rockets .......................................................................................................................................... 39

The History of the Rocket .............................................................................................................................. 41

Early Rocketry................................................................................................................................................... 41

Early Manned Rocketry .................................................................................................................................... 42

Modern Rocketry ............................................................................................................................................. 43

APOLLO HARDWARE .................................................................................................................... 44

Apollo Rockets ............................................................................................................................................... 45

Little Joe II ........................................................................................................................................................ 46

Saturn I ............................................................................................................................................................. 47

Saturn IB ........................................................................................................................................................... 48

Saturn V ............................................................................................................................................................ 49

Apollo Spacecraft .......................................................................................................................................... 51

Launch Escape System ..................................................................................................................................... 51

CSM .................................................................................................................................................................. 52

Lunar Module ................................................................................................................................................... 53

Terrestrial Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 54

Crawler-Transporter ......................................................................................................................................... 54

Mobile Launcher Platform................................................................................................................................ 55

Mobile Quarantine Facility ............................................................................................................................... 55

Lunar Equipment ........................................................................................................................................... 56

ALSEP ................................................................................................................................................................ 56

Lunar Flag Assembly ......................................................................................................................................... 57

Apollo TV Camera ............................................................................................................................................. 57

Modular Equipment Transporter ..................................................................................................................... 58

Lunar Roving Vehicle ........................................................................................................................................ 58

Apollo A7L ........................................................................................................................................................ 59

Fallen Astronaut ............................................................................................................................................... 60

APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION ................................................................................................. 61

Saturn I Missions ........................................................................................................................................... 62

SA-1 .................................................................................................................................................................. 62

SA-2 .................................................................................................................................................................. 63

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SA-3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 64

SA-4 .................................................................................................................................................................. 65

SA-5 .................................................................................................................................................................. 66

A-101 ................................................................................................................................................................ 67

A-102 ................................................................................................................................................................ 68

A-103 ................................................................................................................................................................ 69

The Pegasus Satellite Program ..................................................................................................................... 69

A-104 ................................................................................................................................................................ 70

A-105 ................................................................................................................................................................ 71

Launchpad LES Abort Tests ............................................................................................................................ 72

Pad Abort Test 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 72

Pad Abort Test 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 73

Little Joe II LES Abort Tests ............................................................................................................................ 74

QTV ................................................................................................................................................................... 74

A-001 ................................................................................................................................................................ 75

A-002 ................................................................................................................................................................ 76

A-003 ................................................................................................................................................................ 77

A-004 ................................................................................................................................................................ 78

Unmanned Missions ...................................................................................................................................... 79

AS-201 .............................................................................................................................................................. 79

AS-203 .............................................................................................................................................................. 80

AS-202 .............................................................................................................................................................. 81

Apollo 1 ............................................................................................................................................................ 82

Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 82

Mission Background ..................................................................................................................................... 83

Accident ....................................................................................................................................................... 83

Investigations ............................................................................................................................................... 85

Apollo 4 ............................................................................................................................................................ 86

Apollo 5 ............................................................................................................................................................ 87

Apollo 6 ............................................................................................................................................................ 88

Manned Missions .......................................................................................................................................... 89

Apollo 7 ............................................................................................................................................................ 89

Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 89

Mission Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 90

Flight ............................................................................................................................................................ 90

Issues in Space ............................................................................................................................................. 91

After the Flight ............................................................................................................................................. 93

Apollo 8 ............................................................................................................................................................ 95

Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 95

Before the Flight .......................................................................................................................................... 96

The Outbound Trip ....................................................................................................................................... 96

Lunar Orbit ................................................................................................................................................... 97

Apollo 9 ............................................................................................................................................................ 99

Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 99

Mission Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 100

Apollo 10 ........................................................................................................................................................ 101

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Crew ........................................................................................................................................................... 101

Mission Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 102

Apollo 11 ........................................................................................................................................................ 104

Launch and TLI ........................................................................................................................................... 105

Lunar Descent and Landing ........................................................................................................................ 105

Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 109

“In Event of Moon Disaster” ...................................................................................................................... 112

Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 113

Apollo 12 ........................................................................................................................................................ 115

Launch, TLI and Lunar Landing ................................................................................................................... 116

Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 117

Return ........................................................................................................................................................ 118

Apollo 13 ........................................................................................................................................................ 119

Launch and TLI ........................................................................................................................................... 120

Oxygen tank explosion ............................................................................................................................... 120

Crew survival and return journey .............................................................................................................. 121

Re-entry and splashdown .......................................................................................................................... 122

Apollo 14 ........................................................................................................................................................ 124

Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 125

Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 126

Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 127

Apollo 15 ........................................................................................................................................................ 128

Pre-Mission Training .................................................................................................................................. 129

Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 129

Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 130

Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 131

Apollo 16 ........................................................................................................................................................ 132

Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 133

Lunar Operations ....................................................................................................................................... 133

Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 135

Apollo 17 ........................................................................................................................................................ 136

Launch, TLI and Descent ................................................................................................................................. 137

Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 137

Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 140

APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT ............................................................................................................. 141

Legacy of Apollo .......................................................................................................................................... 142

Later Missions ................................................................................................................................................ 142

Skylab ......................................................................................................................................................... 142

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project .......................................................................................................................... 143

Apollo Spin-off Technologies: ............................................................................................................................. 143

Medical Technology ................................................................................................................................... 143

Safety Equipment ....................................................................................................................................... 143

Industrial Technology ................................................................................................................................. 143

Cultural Legacy……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….144

Conspiracy Theories ....................................................................................................................................... 146

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 147

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 150

Websites ......................................................................................................................................................... 150

Media ............................................................................................................................................................. 152

Books .............................................................................................................................................................. 152

GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................................... 154

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................. 158

TABLE OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... 159

INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 163

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2b. The patch of the Apollo Program

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One Giant Leap Introduction

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Introduction “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for Mankind”

Neil Armstrong – 21st July 1969

The Apollo Program was one of the most

inspirational human achievements in

history. During its fifteen years,

humanity’s first cautious steps on another

celestial body were made, and, in doing

so, history was made too.

The program was first conceived during

Dwight Eisenhower’s presidency. It was to

be a three-man spacecraft to follow the

one-man Project Mercury, which put the

first American in space, Alan Shepard.

Following his assassination, Apollo was

later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of "landing a man

on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" which he wanted to

achieve before 1970.

Apollo was the third Human

Spaceflight Program, preceded by

Project Mercury (mentioned above)

which ran from

In total, six manned crafts have landed

on The Moon’s surface, and twelve

men have walked there. All of these

astronauts were participants in the

Apollo program, which was, and still is,

the most successful lunar exploration

3. Apollo 12 launches from the Kennedy Space Center

4. Buzz Aldrin near a solar wind experiment

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5. Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee, the Apollo 1 crew who died in a launchpad fire and became the first astronauts to die in service.

project in the history of our species.

In today’s money, the program cost around $170 billion. Around 450,000

people were directly involved with the program, with countless other millions

building rockets, computer systems and equipment. Every person in America

paid extra tax to fund the launches. The result? The most amazing journeys

ever made by humans. 382kg of moon rock was brought back to Earth,

providing us with valuable information about the composition of our only

moon. The six space flights returned 2200 separate rock samples from six

different exploration sites on the Moon. On top of this, the astronauts took

hundreds of photographs and many pieces of video footage.

The quotation at the head of this introduction is so very apt: for indeed it was a

single step that brought humankind into the future.

Many sacrifices were made during the

Apollo Program. Most notable of these were

the deaths of three astronauts, Virgil “Gus”

Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee.

They were the Apollo 1 crew whom were

tragically killed when their capsule was

destroyed in a fire during a launchpad test.

There were also several failed missions and

therefore millions of dollars lost.

But what we have gained surely outweighs

the losses. All children know about

Armstrong’s moonwalk. Most people have

heard of Alan Shephard’s famous round of

golf on the Apollo 14 mission. And the

famous film “Apollo 13” was hugely popular

among everyone, winning 13 awards.

Whether in the field of geology, aeronautics or popular culture, it is

indisputable that the Apollo Program has changed humanity forever.

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA

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AERONAUTICS

BEFORE NASA

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics Hot Air Travel

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Early Aeronautics

Hot Air Travel

On 19 October 1783, the

Montgolfier brothers launched the

first manned flight, a tethered

balloon with humans on board, at

the Folie Titon in Paris. The

aviators were the scientist Jean-

François Pilâtre de Rozier, the

manufacture manager Jean-

Baptiste Réveillon, and Giroud de

Villette. They were the world’s first

aeronauts. On the 23rd of

November in the same year, they launched the first free, untethered flight of a

balloon, with humans onboard. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that

condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de

Rozier and the Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully asked for the honour.

They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered by a wood fire.

On 1 December, Jacques Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert launched their

manned hydrogen balloon from the Jardin des

Tuileries in Paris, amid a crowd of 400,000. This

was an early ancestor of the zeppelin. They

ascended to a height of about 500m and

landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a

flight of 2 hours that covered 36km. After

6. An artist's impression of the first Montgolfier flight in Paris.

7. Henri Giffard's airship

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics The First Planes

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Robert alighted, Charles decided to ascend alone. This time he ascended

rapidly to an altitude of about 3,000 metres, where he suffered extreme pain

in his ears, and never flew again.

Ballooning became a fashion in Europe in the late 1700’s, providing the first

detailed understanding of the atmosphere.

Work on developing a steerable balloon (now dubbed an “airship”) continued

slowly through the 19th century. The first powered, controlled and sustained

flight is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 24km in

France, with a steam engine driven craft.

Another major advance was made in 1884, when

the first fully controllable flight was made in a

French Army electric airship. It was named “La

France”, and was flown Charles Renard and Arthur

Krebs. The 52m long airship covered 8 km in 23

minutes with the help of an 8½ horsepower

electric motor.

The First Planes

The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the

Air" by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. His “plane” was made of a

light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large wings

moving up and down, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance

while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the

machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the

problem would be solved.

8. "La France": the first fully controllable airship

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics

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During the last years of the 18th century, Sir

George Cayley experimented with planes that used

both internal and external combustion engines,

sometimes fuelled by gunpowder. Later Cayley

turned his research to building a full-scale version,

first flying it unmanned in 1849. In 1853, his

coachman made a short unpowered gliding flight.

In 1848, John Stringfellow made a successful indoor

test flight of a steam-powered model, in Chard,

Somerset, England.

In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made a big

jump forward by making the first flight higher than

his point of departure, by having his glider

"L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a

height of 100 metres, over a distance of 200 metres.

In 1874, Félix du Temple built the "Monoplane", which was a large plane made

of aluminium with a wingspan of

13 metres. Several trials were

made with the plane, and it

achieved lift off under its own

power after a ski-jump run, glided

for a short time and returned

safely to the ground, making it the

first successful powered flight in

history, however short and quick. This flight was still not controlled: this was

the next thing to be developed.

9. Sir George Cayley’s design for a "governable parachute"

10. Felix du Temple's "Monoplane"

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics Controlled and Powered Flight

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Controlled and Powered Flight Some of the greatest advances in human flight occurred at the beginning of the

20th century. Balloons, known as “blimps” had already been used for controlled

powered flights, but they were all unmanned, and therefore lighter than air.

The first flight that was heavier than air was reputed to have been made by a

man known as Gustave Weißkopf

Gustave Weißkopf was a

German who emigrated to

the U.S. On August 14th,

1901, two and a half years

before the Wright Brothers'

flight, he claimed to have

carried out a controlled,

powered flight in his

“Number 21” monoplane

at Fairfield, Connecticut.

Many people do not accept

his flight as the first

controlled and powered

flight, instead giving the honour to the Wright Brothers.

The Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air

manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty

Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903.

The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was

recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur

Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds.

11. The Wright Brothers' First Flight

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War

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The World at War The First World War

In 1914, the First World War began. This

was the first major military event that

involved planes. They were extensively

used for reconnaissance, helping generals

to spot enemy artillery and map enemy

trenches. Later, they were used as

bombers. Typically, however, 1914

aircraft could carry only very small loads –

the bombs themselves, and their

stowage, were still very basic, and effective bomb sights were still to be

developed. Nonetheless, the beginnings of strategic and tactical bombing date

from the beginnings of the war.

One problem that faced commanders

was the lack of weaponry on planes.

This was solved by a Frenchman called

Roland Garros in late 1914. He needed

to make sure that the machinegun did

not hit the propeller: he did this using

a cam attached to the propeller shaft.

Adolphe Pegoud became the first “ace” (killing at least five enemies) and the

first pilot to be shot down in action. The German aviator, Lieutenant Kurt

Wintgens was first to shoot down an enemy plane from his own plane, on the

1st July 1915. Manfred von Richthofen, famously known as “The Red Baron”

(and subject of many books and films) managed to shoot down 80 planes in

air-to-air combat before he was killed in 1918.

12. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied fighter plane in the First World War

13. A Fokker plane, similar to the one used by The Red Baron

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War Between the Wars

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Between the Wars The years between World War I and World

War II saw great advancements in aircraft

technology. Airplanes evolved from low-

powered biplanes made from wood and fabric

to sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of

aluminium. The age of the great, rigid,

hydrogen and helium airships came and went.

After the First World War, pilots who had been

fighting were eager to show off their new

talents. Some American pilots became known

as “barnstormers”. They would tour the

country, doing performances and taking

passengers for rides. Eventually the

barnstormers grouped into more organized displays, sometimes known as a

“flying circus”. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races,

acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the

most famous air show pilots. She was also the first female pilot to successfully

cross both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. High prizes were offered at these

shows, which encouraged plane manufacturers to build faster and stronger

planes.

Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development

forwards. The first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic was made by the

Portuguese naval aviators Gago Coutinho

and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from

Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Five years later Charles Lindbergh took

the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for the first

solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic.

By 1929, airship technology had

advanced to the point that the first

14. Amelia Earhart, a famous barnstormer

15. The Hindenburg Disaster

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War Between the Wars

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round-the-world flight was

completed by the Graf

Zeppelin in September and in

October, the same aircraft

inaugurated the first

commercial transatlantic

service. However , this period

ended following the

destruction by fire of the

zeppelin Hindenburg just

before landing in New Jersey

on May 6th, 1937, killing 35

of the 97 people aboard.

Meanwhile in Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles

(instated after WW1) in its development of powered aircraft, instead

developed gliding as a sport, which now has over 400,000 participants across

the world.

1929 saw the first flight of, by far, the largest plane ever built until then: the

Dornier DO X with a wingspan of 48 m, sometimes referred to as a “flying

boat”. On its 70th test flight on October 21st, there were 169 people on board,

a record that was not broken for 20 years.

Less than a decade after

the development of the

first rotorcraft was

created, in the Soviet

Union, Boris N. Yuriev and

Alexei M. Cheremukhin,

two engineers ,

constructed and flew the

TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a

four blade main rotor.

In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain –

both countries would go on to develop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.

16. The gigantic Dornier DO X seaplane.

17. The TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter

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One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War The Second World War

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The Second World War World War II saw a drastic increase

in aircraft development. All

countries involved in the war

constructed aeroplanes, and new

types of aircraft went into

production such as the long distance

bomber. New technologies like

radar allowed more coordinated

and controlled deployment of air

defence. The main differences

between the aircraft of the inter-

war period and the aircraft of WW2

were a massive increase in speed and range.

Helicopters also underwent massive development in the Second World War,

but these are less relevant to the age of space exploration.

The first functional jet plane was the “Heinkel He 178”, flown in August 1939

for the first time along with the first (and to date the only) operational rocket-

powered combat aircraft the “Me 163” was a major development that led

towards space exploration. However, jet fighters had only limited impact due

to their late introduction and hunger for fuel.

18. The Me 163, the first and only rocket-powered combat plane.

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA

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THE CREATION OF

NASA

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA NACA

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NACA The NACA (The National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics) was a U.S. Government agency

found in March 1915 to undertake and

promote aeronautical research and the

predecessor of NASA. It was pronounced as

individual letters, not an acronym. The

agency was dissolved on October 1st, 1958

and its staff and assets were transferred to

NASA.

NACA made several notable achievements: they

claimed credit for having the first aircraft to break

the sound barrier (although the aircraft, the Bell X-1,

was controlled by the Air Force). They also claim credit for the first aircraft (the

Bell X-15) that eventually flew to the "edge of space". NACA aerofoils are still

used on modern aircraft, and their research with air tunnels was invaluable

during The Second World War.

The main difference between the NACA and NASA is that the NACA was strictly

federal and military based, whereas NASA was more public and designed for

peaceful operations.

19. The NACA's logo

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Cold War

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The Cold War

The Cold War was the tense

relationship between the United

States (and its allies) and the Soviet

Union (USSR) (and its allies) between

the end of World War II and the

collapse of the Soviet Union. This war

was unlike other wars in that the two

sides never clashed directly in battle.

There was considerable fear that the

relationship would end in nuclear

war, but fortunately, this did not

happen.

America’s allies consisted mainly of NATO members, and Russia’s allies were

mainly Asian and Eastern European.

This intense showdown between the US and the USSR lead to “The Space

Race”, which was a race to put a man in orbit, and then to put a man on the

Moon. This is explored on the next page.

After the United States tried to invade Cuba and, the Soviet Union attempted

to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles. These missiles in Cuba would have

allowed the Soviet Union to effectively target almost the entire United States.

In response, the United States sent a large number of ships to blockade Cuba

thus preventing the Soviet Union from delivering these weapons. This was the

highest period of tension during the Cold War and it was the closest the world

came to a nuclear war, with possible global conflict to follow.

20. A map of European Cold War Alliances

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Space Race

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The Space Race The Space Race was the competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the

United States (US) for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and

1975, the Cold War rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining

“firsts” in space exploration.

The Space Race had its origins in

the missile-based arms race that

occurred just after the end of

the World War II, when both the

Soviet Union and the United

States captured advanced

German rocket technology and

personnel.

It ultimately led to the race to

the Moon and thus the Apollo

Program.

Space Race Milestones Below is a list of all the major achievements of the Space Race. U.S. Victories

are marked in blue and Soviet victories are marked in red. The Nazis achieved

the first milestone.

On October the 23th 1942, the German V2 was the first rocket to reach

the boundary of space.

On the 20th of February 1947, the first animals were launched into space.

Fruit flies were used to study the effects of space travel on animals.

21. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Space Race Space Race Milestones

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Albert II, a rhesus monkey, was the first mammal in space. Albert went

into space on 14th June 1949 in a specially adapted American V2 rocket

that flew to a height of 83 miles.

On the 4th of October 1957, Russia launched the first satellite into space:

Sputnik 1. Sputnik means "Satellite" in Russian.

On the 3rd of November 1957, the Russian “space dog” Laika became

the first animal to orbit the earth (as opposed to reaching space) in

Sputnik 2.

On September the 14th 1959, Russian Space-probe Luna 2 crash-landed

into the moon, becoming the first craft to reach it.

On 12th April 1961, Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first

man in space. Gagarin's spacecraft, Vostok 1, completed one orbit of the

earth, and landed about two hours after launch.

The first woman in space was Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova

on the 16th of June 1963.

On the 3rd of February 1966, the Russian Luna 9 spacecraft was the first

spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, and to transmit

photos back to Earth.

On the 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong, and then Buzz Aldrin took "one

small step" and became the first men on the moon. The first words said

on the moon were "the Eagle has landed".

As we can see, the majority of the Space Race victories were taken by the

Russians. The U.S. had an early and successful start, launching the first large

mammal into space over a decade before the Russians put their first

cosmonaut into orbit. Also, the U.S. achieved perhaps the greatest milestone:

getting a man to land safely on the Moon and returning them to Earth. The

Soviets took all the other achievements, including all the ones relating to

Earth-orbit.

While the Soviets successfully completed more goals, the Americans

undoubtedly did a better job of capturing our imaginations in 1969.

Perhaps the reason that the U.S.S.R. was not given as much credit as it

deserved during the Space Race was the secrecy that surrounded Soviet

operations during the Cold War.

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One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Establishment of NASA Space Race Milestones

27

The Establishment

of NASA After the Russians launched the world's first

artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October the

4th, 1957, the attention of the United States

turned toward its own space exploration

efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the

threat to national security and technological

leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"),

urged immediate and swift action. This led

to an agreement that a new federal agency

mainly based on NACA was needed to

conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects

Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for

military application.

On July 29, 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower

signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act,

establishing NASA. When it began operations on

October the 1st, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-

old NACA intact: its 8,000 employees, an annual

budget of $100 million, three major research

laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory,

Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight

Propulsion Laboratory). An official NASA seal was

approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.

23. NASA's logo

22. President Dwight Eisenhower

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One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS

28

EARLY NASA

PROGRAMS

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One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS X-Plane Program Notable Early X-Planes

29

X-Plane Program The X-plane program is a

series of experimental

planes, helicopters and

rockets used to test new

technologies and

concepts. Testing was

started by the NACA in

1946, and has continued

to the present day under

NASA and the US Air

Force. As of now, there

have been 55 X-plane designs.

Some X-planes were well publicized, while others were developed in secrecy.

The first, the Bell X-1, became well known after it became the first aircraft to

break the sound barrier in level flight (see page 23).

Most X-planes did not go into major production, with one exception being the

Lockheed Martin X-35, which has entered production as the F-35 fighter jet.

Notable Early X-Planes X-1 – The first plane to break Mach 1

X-2 – The first plane to break Mach 2

X-5 – First plane to fly with variable geometry (moveable) wings

X-15 – Fastest manned, powered aircraft in history (7,274km/h); First

space plane (pilot Joe Walker became first man to enter space twice)

24. The X-15, the fastest manned aircraft in history

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One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS Project Mercury

30

Project Mercury Project Mercury was the first human

spaceflight program of the US. It ran

from 1959 to 1963 with the goal of

putting a human in orbit around the

Earth, and doing it before the Soviet

Union. It involved seven astronauts,

although only six flew. On May 5th

1961, Alan Shepard became the first

American in space, one month after

Yuri Gagarin’s first flight. John Glenn

became the first American to reach

orbit on February 20th 1962.

From a slow start with many

mistakes, the Mercury Project

became popular worldwide and the

manned flights were followed by

millions on radio and TV not only in

United States, but also around the world. As well as the six manned missions,

Mercury had a total of 20 unmanned launches as a part of the development of

the project. This also involved test animals, most famously the chimpanzees

Ham and Enos. Mercury laid the groundwork for Project Gemini and in turn the

Apollo Program, which was announced a few weeks after the first manned

flight. The program cost around $1.73 billion in current prices and involved 2

million people.

25. The "Mercury Seven". Back row: Shepard, Grissom, Cooper; front row: Schirra, Slayton, Glenn, Carpenter

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One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS Project Gemini

31

Project Gemini Project Gemini was the

second human spaceflight

program of NASA. It was

conducted between

Projects Mercury and

Apollo, and had sixteen

astronauts fly ten manned

flights occurring in 1965

and 1966. All the Gemini

Spacecraft were launch on

Titan II GLVs.

Its objective was to develop space travel techniques in support of Apollo,

which had the goal of landing men on the Moon. Gemini achieved missions

long enough for a trip to the Moon

and back, perfected extra-vehicular

activity and orbital manoeuvres.

Rendezvous in orbit is not a

straightforward manoeuvre. If a

spacecraft increases its speed to

catch up with another, it would go

to a higher and slower orbit and the

distance would increase. The right

procedure is actually to slow down

and go to a lower orbit first and

later to increase speed and go to

the same orbit as the other c raft.

These manoeuvres required a lot of

practice.

26. The Gemini Spacecraft

27. The launch of Gemini VIII

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One Giant Leap Project Gemini

32

Highlights of the Gemini program included:

Edward H. White

became the first

American to make an

EVA, on June 3rd 1965,

during Gemini 4.

Gemini 5 demonstrated

the 8-day endurance

necessary for an Apollo

lunar mission with the

first use of fuel cells to

generate its electrical

power.

Gemini 6A and 7 accomplished the first space rendezvous in December

1965, and Gemini 7 set a 14-day endurance record.

Gemini 8 achieved the first space docking with an unmanned Agena

Target Vehicle.

Gemini 11 set a manned Earth orbital altitude record of 1,369.0 km in

September 1966. This record still stands.

Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin on Gemini 12 became the first space traveller to

prove that useful work could be done outside a spacecraft without life-

threatening exhaustion.

The program cost $7.3 billion in today’s money.

28. Ed White performing the first U.S. spacewalk

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One Giant Leap THE MOON

33

THE MOON

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One Giant Leap THE MOON Formation

34

The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth and the fifth largest and

second densest moon in the Solar System. It is the most luminous object in the

sky after the Sun. Unusually, the Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth,

which means we always see only one side. It is the only celestial body other

than Earth on which humans have set foot.

Future manned missions to the Moon have been planned, including

government as well as privately funded efforts. The Moon remains, under the

Outer Space Treaty, free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.

Formation The Moon was formed around 4.53

billion years ago, although some people

suggest that around 4.4 billion is more

accurate.

The most commonly accepted

explanation for its formation is that the

Earth and Moon formed because of a

giant impact, where a Mars-sized

“planet” (named Theia, after the Greek

goddess who was mother of Selene, the

Moon goddess) collided with the newly formed Earth, shooting material into

orbit, which accumulated to form the Moon. This would make sense, as the

Earth was constantly being bombarded during the formation of the Solar

System.

Using computer simulations, we would think that most of the Moon came from

Theia, not from Earth, but rocks collected during the Apollo Program suggest

otherwise, as the rocks found on the Moon are so similar to the ones found on

the Earth (one exception might be the three rocks found on Apollo 11 (See

page 104). Perhaps Earth rock collected towards the Moon’s crust and Theian

rock towards the core, or maybe both Earth and Theia had similar

compositions.

29. An artist's impression of the collision of Earth and Theia

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One Giant Leap THE MOON Physical Features

35

The energy released during this collision would have caused both the Earth and

the Moon to contain massive magma oceans.

Physical Features

Geography The lunar surface is divided into two distinct areas: the darker maria (seas) and

the lighter terrae (highlands). The maria are composed of solidified basalt lava.

The terrae are possibly the remnants of “islands” in the magma ocean created

during the Moon’s formation (see page 34). There are also hundreds of

thousands of craters on the lunar surface, the largest being the 2,240km South

Pole-Aitken Basin, which is one of the biggest impact sites ever discovered.

30. A Soviet map of the Moon's near side

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One Giant Leap THE MOON Physical Features

36

Internal Structure and Composition The Moon has a solid and iron-rich inner core with a radius

of 240km and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid

iron with a radius of roughly 300km. Around the core is a

molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500km,

surrounded by a large solid mantle.

The crust is an average of 50km

thick.

Atmosphere The Moon has an atmosphere so small that it is nearly a

vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10 tons. Its

sources include the release of trapped particles and the

release of atoms from the bombardment of lunar soil by

solar wind ions. Elements include sodium; potassium; helium-4; argon-40;

radon-222; polonium-210. The absence of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen

and magnesium is not understood. Water vapour has been detected, but there

is very little.

Gravitational Field The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of

the Moon is 1.6249 m/s2, about 16.6% that on

Earth's surface. Because weight is directly

dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things

on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% of what they

weigh on the Earth.

The major characteristic of the Moon's

gravitational field is the presence of mascons (mass concentrations), which are

large gravity anomalies around some impact basins. It has been speculated

that these are something to do with volcanic activity, although this is unlikely.

These anomalies greatly influence the orbit of lunar satellites, and caused

several difficulties during tests for the Apollo Program.

31. The Moon's interior structure

32. Lunar surface composition

33. John Young jumping on the Moon

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS

37

ROCKETS

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Solid-Fuel Rockets

38

What is a rocket? “A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that

obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is

formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before

use. Rocket engines work by

action and reaction.” – Wiktionary

Definition

A rocket differs from other types of

aircraft, as detailed above. While

propellers and jet engines push planes

forward by the movement of air, rockets can move forwards simply using

Newton’s Third Law of motion: “To every action there is always an equal and

opposite reaction: or the forces of two bodies on each other are always equal

and are directed in opposite directions.” In other words, as the rocket engine

pushes propellant in one direction, the engine itself is forced in the opposite

direction, carrying the rocket forward. This allows it to function in the vacuum

of space, where no air is present. In fact, rockets are considerably more

efficient when travelling in vacuums, as air causes drag, slowing the rocket. The

same effect can be achieved if one were to sit on a supermarket trolley and

throw tennis balls, although it would be nearly undetectable.

There are two different types of rockets, solid-fuel and liquid-fuel.

Solid-Fuel Rockets These rockets contain a large stock of solid propellant, which is a mixture of

fuel and an oxidiser. There are various different types of solid propellant. One

common option is a compound containing 72% nitrate, 24% carbon and 4%

sulphur. This compound is very much like gunpowder, but due to the different

proportions of the materials, it burns rapidly rather than exploding. When

34. A diagram showing how a rocket can move in a vacuum

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Liquid-Fuel Rockets

39

loaded into the rocket, the fuel is shaped as a cylinder with a tube drilled down

the middle. After ignition, the fuel burns along the walls of this tube, gradually

being consuming until there is none left.

There are several advantages to using a solid-fuel rocket: They are very simple,

the fuel is relatively inexpensive and (assuming the fuel and the tank were

produced properly) they are very safe, as the fuel will simply burn until it is

gone, and then stop. They are no moving parts.

The disadvantages of using a solid-fuel

rocket make them impractical for

movement in space. They are most

useful for initially leaving the

atmosphere. This is because the thrust

cannot be controlled at all: Once lit, it

will burn only at one steady rate,

which is defined by the fuel

composition. Also, the engine cannot

be stopped without destroying the

remaining fuel, making it a single use

booster.

Liquid-Fuel Rockets

Liquid Fuel rocket propulsion systems are much more complex than Solid fuel

systems. The first Liquid propellant rocket system was tested in 1926 by Robert

Goddard.

In the most basic sense, a liquid fuel rocket works by pumping a fuel (such as

gasoline) and an oxidizer (such as Liquid Oxygen) into a combustion chamber.

There, the fuel is ignited, creating a high-pressure and high-velocity stream of

gases. These gases are then directed through a nozzle and out of the craft, like

in a solid-fuel rocket.

In order to overcome the high pressures created in the combustion chamber

when the fuel is ignited, the pumps have to be very powerful. Both the fuel

35. A comparison between liquid-fuel and solid-fuel rockets

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Liquid-Fuel Rockets

40

and the oxidiser are stored in a

compressed liquid form, hence

the name of the rocket. In order

to counteract the large

amounts of heat produced in

the combustion chamber, the cool gases are often circulated around the

combustion chamber before being pumped in. A real Liquid propulsion system

can get very complicated and extremely expensive compared to a solid fuel

rocket. There are various types of fuel commonly used in Liquid Propulsion

systems. For example, liquid hydrogen was used in the space shuttle main

engines, gasoline was the basic fuel in Goddard’s early rockets and kerosene

was used in the many of the Saturn V boosters in the Apollo Program.

Liquid propulsion rockets have many advantages over solid propulsion

systems: one can control the amount of thrust by regulating the flow of the

fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber and one can stop and restart the

engines by simply stopping the flow of fuel and restarting it. However, as I

mentioned above, Liquid systems are very complicated and expensive. In

addition, they are not as safe, because an incorrect mixture of propellant and

oxidiser could cause an explosion. Liquid fuel rockets are not normally used

where a solid fuel booster would suffice, such as in the initial stages of a

rocket.

36. The engine of a liquid-fuel rocket

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Early Rocketry

41

The History of the

Rocket Early Rocketry

In the ninth century, Chinese

Taoist alchemists invented

gunpowder while searching for

the “Elixir of life”. This

invention led to bombs,

cannons – and rockets.

One of the earliest devices

recorded that used rocket

propulsion was the “ground-

rat”, a type of firework, recorded in 1264 as having frightened the Empress-

Mother Kung Sheng at a feast held in her honour

One of the earliest texts to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing,

written by the Chinese artillery officer Jiao Yu in the mid-14th century. This

text also mentioned the use of the first known multistage rocket, the 'fire-

dragon issuing from the water', used mostly by the Chinese navy. This multi-

stage rocket was the distant ancestor of the space rockets used today.

Rocket technology first became known to Europeans following their use by the

Mongols when they conquered parts of Eastern Europe. The Mongolians had

acquired the Chinese technology by conquest of the northern part of China and

37. A depiction of an early Chinese rocket

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Early Manned Rocketry

42

also by the subsequent employment of Chinese rocketry experts as

mercenaries for the Mongol military. Also, the spread of rockets into Europe

was influenced by the Ottomans at the siege of Constantinople in 1453.

Roger Bacon made one of the earliest mentions of gunpowder in Europe in

1267, in his work “Epistola de secretis operibus artiis et naturae”. His studies of

gunpowder greatly improved the range of

rockets. Bacon has been credited by some

authors as the inventor of gunpowder

(although the first to use it were Chinese),

because around 1261 he developed the

correct formula for gunpowder (75%

saltpetre (potassium nitrate), 15% carbon

and 10% sulphur). Jean Froissart had the idea

of launching rockets through tubes, so that

they could make flights that are more

accurate. Froissart's idea is a forerunner of

the modern bazooka.

Early Manned Rocketry

There are several legends of manned rocket flight that come from Ancient

China. No evidence has ever been found to prove any of these are true.

In Ottoman Turkey in 1633, according to one account, Lagari Hasan Çelebi

launched in a seven-winged rocket using 64kg of gunpowder from and made a

successful landing – winning him a position in the Ottoman army. The flight

was estimated to have lasted about 200 seconds and the maximum height

reached around 300 meters. This flight was not controlled in any way.

38. A portrait of Roger Bacon

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One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Modern Rocketry

43

Modern Rocketry

In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the world's first

liquid-fuelled rocket in Auburn, Massachusetts.

During the 1920s, a number of rocket research

organizations appeared in the United States,

Austria, Britain, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy,

Germany, and Russia. Eventually, this lead to the

development of rockets used in World War Two.

After this, the attention of the World turned not

only to more advanced weaponry (which I will not

delve into), but also to the exploration of space.

39. Robert Goddard with his rocket

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE

44

APOLLO HARDWARE

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets

45

Apollo Rockets Four different boosters were used in the Apollo Program:

Little Joe II – This flew purely on unmanned sub-orbital test missions.

Saturn I – This flew unmanned sub-orbital and orbital test missions.

Saturn IB – This flew preparatory unmanned missions, and Apollo 7, the

first successful manned flight in the Apollo Program.

Saturn V – This flew several unmanned tests and then all other manned

Apollo missions

The height, mass, length and diameter of all boosters does not include

the payload. The speed and thrust are the maximum ever achieved by

that rocket during the Apollo Program. In the “Apollo Launches”

parameter, italics indicate a failure or partial failure during the mission

and underlined text indicates a cancellation or a planned mission which

never took place due to issues on the ground

40. A comparison of the four Apollo rockets

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Little Joe II

46

Little Joe II Little Joe II was used for five unmanned tests of

the launch escape system (LES) and to test the

command module parachutes for the Apollo

spacecraft from 1963–66. They were launched

from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico.

The booster's predecessor, Little Joe, was used

to test the LES for the Mercury spacecraft (see

page 30).

Manufacturer: Algol/Recruit

Apollo Launches (5): QTV, A-001 , A-002, A-003, A-004

Length: 26.2m

Mass: 25,900kg

Diameter: 3.9m

Total Burn Time: ~50s

Max Speed: ~800m/s

Max Thrust: 1,766,000N

Stages: 2 (+ Booster)

Booster Stage: Engines: 5xRecruit

Thrust: 167,000N

Burn Time: 1.53s

Fuel: Solid

First Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol

Thrust: 465,000N each

Burn Time: 40s

Fuel: Solid

Second Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol

Thrust: 465,000N each

Burn Time: 40s

Fuel: Solid

41. Little Joe II

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn I

47

Saturn I The Saturn I was the United States' first rocket

designed specifically to launch large payloads into

low Earth orbit. Most of the rocket's power came

from a cluster of Rocketdyne H-1 engines. One of

its major successes was the flight verification of the

Apollo Command and Service Module

aerodynamics in the launch phase. It served only

for a brief period and only with NASA; ten of these

were flown before it was replaced by the derivative

Saturn IB, which featured a more powerful upper

stage and improved instrumentation.

Manufacturer: Chrysler, Douglas, Convair

Apollo Launches (10): SA1, SA2, SA3, SA4, SA5, A-101, A-102, A-103, A-104, A-105

Length: 43.2m

Mass: 510,000kg

Diameter: 6.52m

Total Burn Time: 632s (1062s with 3rd stage)

Max Speed: unmeasured

Max Thrust: 53,600,000N

Stages: 3

First Stage: Engines: 8xRocketdyne H-1

Thrust: 6,700,000N each

Burn Time: ~150s

Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen

Second Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol

Thrust: 400,000N each

Burn Time: 482s

Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen

Third Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol

(Never Flown) Thrust: 133,000N each

Burn Time: 430s

Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen

42. Saturn I

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn IB

48

Saturn IB The Saturn IB (also known as the Uprated Saturn I)

it replaced the S-IV second stage of the Saturn I

with the much more powerful S-IVB. The third

stage was evidently not present in the Saturn IB.

The Saturn IB launched two unmanned CSM

suborbital flights, one unmanned LM orbital flight,

and the first manned CSM orbital mission, Apollo

7. It was planned to launch Apollo 2, but this was

cancelled after the launch pad disaster (see page

82). It also launched one orbital mission, AS-203,

without a payload to observe the behaviour of the

liquid hydrogen fuel in weightlessness.

The Saturn IB also took part in several Skylab missions (See page 142).

Manufacturer: Chrysler, Douglas

Apollo Launches (5)+(1): AS-201, AS-203, AS-202, Apollo 1, Apollo 6, Apollo 7

Length: 55m

Mass: 589,770kg

Diameter: 6.61m

Total Burn Time: 630s

Max Speed: unmeasured

Max Thrust: 56,800,000N

Stages: 2

First Stage: Engines: 8xRocketdyne H-1

Thrust: 7,100,000N each

Burn Time: ~150s

Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen

Second Stage: Engines: 1xRocketdyne J-2

Thrust: 890,000N each

Burn Time: 480s

Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen

Third Stage: Engines:

(Not used) Thrust:

Burn Time:

Fuel:

43. Saturn IB

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn V

49

Saturn V 13 Saturn Vs were launched from the Kennedy Space

Center, Florida with no loss of crew or payload. It remains

the tallest, heaviest, and most powerful rocket ever

brought to operational status and still holds the record for

heaviest payload launched and heaviest payload capacity

(120,000kg). The largest production model of the Saturn

family of rockets, the Saturn V was designed under the

direction of Wernher von Braun and Arthur Rudolph at the

Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.

To date, the Saturn V is the only launch vehicle to

transport human beings beyond low Earth orbit. A total of

24 astronauts were launched to the Moon, (three of them

more than once) from 1968 to 1972

Manufacturer: Boeing, North American Aviation, Douglas

Apollo Launches (12): Apollo 4, Apollo 6, Apollo 8, Apollo 9, Apollo 10, Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 13, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17, Apollo 18 - 20

Length: 110.6m

Mass: 2,800,000kg

Diameter: 10.1m

Total Burn Time: 630s

Max Speed: 7,793m/s

Max Thrust: 34,020,000N

Stages: 3

First Stage: Engines: 5xRocketdyne F-1

Thrust: 6,804,000 each

Burn Time: 150s

Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen

Second Stage: Engines: 5xRocketdyne J-2

Thrust: 890,000N each

Burn Time: 421s

Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen

Third Stage: Engines: 1xRocketdyne J-2

Thrust: 1,000,000N

Burn Time: 165+335s (2 burns)

Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen

44. Saturn V

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn V

50

45. A diagram of the Saturn V rocket

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft Launch Escape System

51

Apollo Spacecraft

Launch Escape System The Launch Escape System (LES) was simply a way to

quickly remove the astronauts and the Command

Module from the rest of the rocket in the event of an

emergency, either on the launchpad or during launch

and the early stages of flight. It would then be released

along with the second stage of the main rocket. It was

never used in the Apollo Program. The Russian Soyuz T-

10-1 is the only mission in which a LES successfully saved

a crew’s life during launch. They landed 4km from the

46. A diagram of the Apollo spacecraft

47. The LES tower

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft CSM

52

launch site following the explosion of the main stages of the rocket.

CSM Along with the Lunar Module, the

Command/Service Module (CSM)

was the main spacecraft used

once the rocket reached space. It

was built by North American

Aviation. After the Apollo

program, the CSM was used as a

shuttle for the Skylab program,

and later in the Apollo-Soyuz Test

Project.

The CSM consisted of two

segments: the Command Module,

which was designed to hold a

crew of three and equipment for

re-entry; and a Service Module

that provided propulsion,

electricity and storage for various

consumables required during a

mission. The Service Module rockets used dimethylhydrazine,

monomethylhydrazine or hydrazine with nitrogen tetroxide as the oxidiser.

The Service Module was released and allowed to burn up in the atmosphere

before the Command Module re-entered to bring the crew back to Earth.

The tip of the Command Module housed

parachutes, which allowed for a safe

splashdown. It was also coated in heat

resistant tiles, which prevented it from burning

up on re-entry, unlike the service module.

48. The Apollo CSM

49. The CSM above the Moon

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft Lunar Module

53

Lunar Module The Apollo Lunar Module

(LM), also known as the

Lunar Excursion Module

was built by Grumman, and

designed to carry two of

the three Apollo astronauts

to the lunar surface. It has

successfully landed there

six times. The LM was the

most reliable and

successful component of

the Apollo Program: It

never failed on a single

mission, and it helped save

the lives of all three Apollo

13 astronauts following the

CSM malfunction (see page

119).

The LM, consisting of an

ascent stage and descent stage, and was abandoned after the two-man crew

had successfully re-entered the CSM following their moon landing, as it was

structurally incapable of flight through

Earth’s atmosphere.

It was fitted with both an ascent propulsion

system and a descent propulsion system,

which allowed it not only to take off from

the Moon, but also gave the crew time to

hover and select a landing site.

50. A detailed diagram of the LM

51. The Apollo 11 LM descending

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Terrestrial Equipment Crawler-Transporter

54

Terrestrial

Equipment In addition to the headquarters buildings, offices and construction facilities,

NASA also used three pieces of more specialized equipment.

Crawler-Transporter The crawler-transporters are a pair of

tracked vehicles used to transport

spacecraft from NASA's Vehicle

Assembly Building (VAB) along the

Crawler-way to Launch Complex 39.

They were built at a cost of $14 million

to transport the Saturn IB and Saturn V

rockets (and their mobile launcher

platforms) during the Apollo Program.

They are the largest self-powered land

vehicles ever created.

The crawler-transporter has a mass of

2,721,000 kilograms and has eight

tracks, having 57 900kg shoes on each.

The vehicle measures 40 by 35 metres .The height from ground level to the

platform is adjustable from 6.1 to 7.9 m (with each side independently

moveable) and it uses laser guidance systems to keep the rocket upright as it

52. The crawler-transporter on the crawlerway

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Terrestrial Equipment Mobile Launcher Platform

55

traverses the incline leading up to the launchpad. They have a maximum speed

of merely 1.6km/h.

Mobile Launcher Platform The Mobile Launcher Platform was one of three

two-story structures, which supported the rocket

during assembly at the Vehicle Assembly Building,

while being transported to Launch Pads, and during

launch.

Each MLP originally had a single exhaust vent for

the Saturn V's engines. The MLPs also featured a

120 m Launch Umbilical Tower (LUT) with nine arms

that permitted servicing of the vehicle on the

launch pad, and swung away from it at launch.

Mobile Quarantine Facility The Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF)

was a converted trailer used by NASA

to quarantine astronauts returning

from lunar missions. Its purpose was to

prevent the spread of any contagions

from the moon. The presence of these

contagions was considered unlikely,

and following Apollo 14’s confirmation

that no life existed on the Moon, MQFs

were no longer used.

The MQF contained living and sleeping facilities as well as communications

which the astronauts used to converse with their families. The Apollo 11 crew

also used this to speak with President Nixon who personally welcomed them

back to Earth aboard the recovery ship after splashdown.

53. The Mobile Launcher Platform

54. The Apollo 11 MQF in a museum

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment ALSEP

56

Lunar Equipment ALSEP

The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments

Package was a set of scientific instruments

placed at the landing site of each mission

to land on the Moon from Apollo 12

onwards (Apollo 11 carried a much more

primitive version, known as the EASEP –

Early Apollo Surface Experiments

Package).

The experiments that would comprise

ALSEP were decided in February 1966:

Passive Lunar Seismic Experiment

Lunar Tri-axis Magnetometer

Medium-Energy Solar Wind

Suprathermal Ion Detection

Lunar Heat Flow Management

Low-Energy Solar Wind

Active Lunar Seismic Experiment

All of these complex experiments were carried out using the vast array of

equipment in the ALSEP. The whole thing was arranged around a Central

Station (which communicated with Earth and linked power to all components)

and the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (which supplied power from a

Plutonium Core).

55. The Apollo 16 ALSEP setup

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Lunar Flag Assembly

57

Lunar Flag Assembly The Lunar Flag Assembly (LFA) was a 3-by-

5-foot flag of the United States and

flagpole planted on the Moon by the

Apollo astronauts.

The LFA was specially designed with a

horizontal pole to support the flag on the

airless Moon to make it appear to flutter

as it would in the wind on Earth. The LFA

presented a range of technical challenges

regarding storage and environmental

resistance, but all were overcome.

As of 2012, the Apollo 12, 16 and 17 LFAs

are still standing. The Apollo 11 flag was

blown over during lift-off. The colours will

have turned white due to sunlight and radiation exposure.

Apollo TV Camera The Apollo TV Cameras varied in design, with image quality improving

significantly with each successive model. Two companies made these various

camera systems: RCA and Westinghouse. Originally, these cameras, running at

10 frames-per-second, produced only black and white pictures. A colour

camera (which ran at 30 fps) flew on the Apollo 10 mission in May 1969, and

every subsequent launch.

By far the most famous of all Apollo cameras

was the Hasselblad EDC. Theses 70mm

cameras took almost all of the photographic

images brought back from the lunar surface.

They took a lot of practise to use correctly,

56. Alan Shepard planting the U.S. Flag

57. An Apollo Television camera

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Modular Equipment Transporter

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as they were worn on the chest.

Modular Equipment Transporter The Modular Equipment Transporter

was a two-wheel cart used for

transporting equipment and rock

samples on the surface of the Moon

during Apollo 14. Designed after Apollo

12 astronauts Pete Conrad and Alan

Bean had difficulties lugging their

equipment over a large distance to and

from the Lunar Module, the MET also functioned as a portable workbench. It

was carried on Apollo 13 and Apollo 14, but was only used on Apollo 14

because Apollo 13 never landed on the Moon.

During one of the traverses, both astronauts had to carry the MET together,

because it was too difficult to pull it through the rough lunar terrain. After

Apollo 14, the Lunar Rover was used as a replacement.

The MET weighed 8.2 kg and could carry 63kg.

Lunar Roving Vehicle The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV, more

commonly known as the Lunar Rover or Moon

Buggy) was a battery-powered vehicle used on

Apollo 15, 16 and 17 during 1971 and 1972. It

was transported to the Moon on the LM and

was left behind on the lunar surface to cut

down on weight on the return journey. It could

carry up to two astronauts along with their equipment and any lunar samples.

The longest Lunar Rover journey made lasted 4 hours and 26 minutes and

travelled a total distance of 22.3 miles. At the time of writing, the only vehicle

58. The MET during testing on Earth

59. The Apollo 15 LRV

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Apollo A7L

59

that has travelled further on the lunar surface is the Lunokhod 2, a Russian

Rover that landed in 1972 and has since stopped operations.

Apollo A7L The A7L Apollo & Skylab spacesuit was the primary

spacesuit worn during the Apollo Program. The "A7L"

was the seventh Apollo spacesuit designed and built

by ILC Dover.

The basic design of the A7L suit was a one piece, five-

layer suit with joints made of rubber. Metal rings at

the neck and forearms allowed for the connection of

the pressure gloves and the famous Apollo "fishbowl

helmet" (adopted by NASA as it allowed an

unrestricted view, as well as eliminating the need for

a visor seal). A cover layer, which was designed to be

fireproof

after the

deadly Apollo 1 fire, was attached to

the pressure garment assembly and

was removable for repairs and

inspection.

They had many specialised features.

On the Apollo 15-17 missions, energy

bars and drinking water were built in

to the suit to allow longer journeys

from the Lunar Module. Also, there

were many pockets on the torso and

limbs for carrying certain pieces of

equipment.

The suit provided life support for six

60. Buzz Aldrin wearing the A7L

61. A diagram of the A7L

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One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Fallen Astronaut

60

hours, with an additional 30-minute backup life support system. The air tank

contains a mixture of oxygen and lithium hydroxide, which reacted with

exhaled carbon dioxide and removed it from the air.

Fallen Astronaut Fallen Astronaut is an 8.5 cm

aluminium sculpture of a figurine

(designed to look like an astronaut

in a spacesuit), which remembers

astronauts and cosmonauts who

have died in the advancement of

space exploration. It was placed

next to a plaque at Hadley Rille on

the Moon, by the crew of Apollo 15

on August 1, 1971. It was designed

by Belgian artist Paul Van

Hoeydonck.

62. "Fallen Astronaut" and memorial plaque

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION

61

APOLLO: MISSION

BY MISSION

N.B. These are not ordered completely chronologically: They are first sorted by type and then by launch date.

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-1

62

Saturn I Missions SA-1

SA-1 was the first launch

of a Saturn I rocket and the

opening mission in the

Apollo Program. It was

launched in October 1961

and lasted just 15 minutes.

The mission was designed

to test only the first stage

of the rocket. Dummy

stages were used for the

second and third stages to

reduce weight.

Engineers had given the rocket a 75% chance of

lifting off and only a 30% chance of completing

the flight.

The flight itself was nearly perfect. The rocket

reached a height of 136.2 km and crashed down

into the Atlantic Ocean. The only real problem

was the rocket cut off 1.6 seconds ahead of

schedule. This was traced to a fuel imbalance.

Designation SA-1

Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Serial Number S-101 Callsign N/A

Crew Unmanned Launch Date October 27th 1961, 15:06UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Landing Date N/A Decay Date October 27th 1961, 15:21UTC

Duration 15 minutes Distance Travelled 331.5km

Apogee 136.2km

63. SA-1

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-2

63

SA-2 Saturn-Apollo 2 launched

at 14:00 on April 25th,

1962, from Launch

Complex 34 at Cape

Canaveral. The only delay

was for 30 minutes due to

a vessel, which entered

the flight safety zone 60

miles (96 km) down range.

The objectives of SA-2

were much the same as

those of SA-1. It was designed to test the Saturn I rocket. NASA declared all

objectives as successful. A second

objective of both this mission and SA-3

was Project Highwater, which involved the

release of water at high altitudes, which

allowed scientists to investigate the

nature of Earth's ionosphere.

The H-1 engines shut down at an altitude

of 56km after firing for 1 minute 55

seconds. 45 seconds later, officials sent a

terminate command to the rocket, setting

off several charges which caused the

vehicle to destruct.

Designation SA-2 Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation S-102 Callsign N/A

Crew Unmanned

Launch Date April 25th 1962, 14:00UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Landing Date N/A Decay Date April 25th 1962, 14:03UTC

Duration 2 minutes, 40 seconds Distance Travelled 80km

Apogee 105.3km

64. SA-2

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-3

64

SA-3 Like the two missions

before it, SA-3 was

designed to continue

tests on the first stage of

the Saturn I rocket. It

also continued Project

Highwater, which was a

project allowing

scientists to investigate

the Earth’s ionosphere.

Saturn-Apollo 3 launched at 17:45 on

November 16th, 1962, from Launch Complex

34. There was a 45-minute delay at launch

due to power failures on the ground. This

mission was the first time the Saturn I

rocket was launched with a full load of

propellant, carrying approximately 750,000

pounds (340,000 kg) of fuel

All objectives were declared successful;

however, there were some telemetry issues.

Designation SA-3

Launch Vehicle Saturn I LV Designation S-103

Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date November 16th 1962, 17:45UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34 Landing Date N/A

Decay Date November 16th 1962, 17.49UTC Duration 4 minutes 52 seconds

Distance Travelled 211.41km Apogee 167.22km

65. SA-3

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-4

65

SA-4 SA-4 was the last flight to test

only the first stage of the

Saturn I rocket. As with the

first three launches, this

would be a suborbital flight

and would test the structure

of the rocket.

The main addition to this flight was that, in order

to test the rocket's ability to deal with an engine

failure, one of the engines would be

programmed to shut down about 100 seconds

after launch. If all went well the rocket would

reroute the fuel for this engine to the other

engines and have the rocket burn longer to

compensate for the loss of acceleration. The test

succeeded, and this was used on the Apollo 6

and Apollo 13 flights.

Designation SA-4 Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation S-104 Callsign N/A

Crew Unmanned Launch Date March 28th 1963, 20:11

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Landing Date N/A Decay Date March 28th 1963, 20:26

Duration 15 minutes Distance Travelled 400km

Apogee 129km

66. SA-4

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-5

66

SA-5 The major changes that

occurred on SA-5 were that

for the first time the Saturn I

would fly with two stages -

the S-I first stage and the S-

IV second stage. The second

stage featured six engines

burning liquid hydrogen. It

also positioned the guide

and control computer in the

location it would sit in for

the manned missions.

The mission was considered a success, as it

met its objectives.

This spacecraft became the largest craft to

achieve earth orbit at the time. It maintained

orbit for over 2 years and made around 12,000

orbits.

Designation SA-5 Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation S-105

Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date January 29th 1964, 16:25UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Landing Date N/A Decay Date April 30th, 1966

Duration 791 days

Distance Travelled 519,463,719km Apogee 741km

67. SA-5

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-101

67

A-101 A-101 was the sixth flight of

the Apollo Program. It

carried a boilerplate

(dummy) Apollo spacecraft

into low Earth orbit. The

spacecraft made 4 orbits

before communication was

lost, and then made 50 more

before the spacecraft and its

upper stage re-entered the

atmosphere.

The flight experienced only one problem: one

of the eight first-stage Saturn I engines shut

down early. This was not a major issue,

however, because the guidance computer re-

routed the fuel to the other seven engines to

compensate.

The first five launches of the Saturn I had

carried standard nosecones, which allowed

engineers to focus on development of the

rocket. The Apollo CSM would provide

different aerodynamics. Therefore A-101

carried BP-13, a boilerplate spacecraft that

weighed 7,700 kg and duplicated the size and shape of the CSM, and a dummy

Launch Escape System (LES) tower.

The boilerplate spacecraft carried 116 sensors, which monitored strain,

pressure and acceleration.

Designation A-101 (SA-6) Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation S-106

Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date May 28th 1964, 17:07UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B

Decay Date June 1st, 1964 (Mission ended 23:00 on May 28th due to communication loss)

Duration 5 hours, 53 minutes

Distance Travelled ~2,229,500km Apogee 199km

68. A-101

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-102

68

A-102 A-102 carried the boilerplate

Apollo spacecraft BP-15 into

low Earth orbit.

A-102 was designed to

repeat the flight of A-101. It

would once again carry a

boilerplate Apollo CSM.

However, the major change on A-102 was that for

the first time a Saturn rocket would carry a

programmable guidance computer. Previous

launches had used an onboard "black box" that was

preprogramed. On A-102, it would be possible to

reprogram the computer during flight so that any

strange behaviour could be corrected.

The mission was deemed a success.

Designation A-102 (SA-7) Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation S-107

Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date September 18th 1964, 16:22UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B

Decay Date September 22nd 1964 Duration 7 hours, 30 minutes

Distance Travelled ~2,457,000km

Apogee 206km

69. A-102

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-103

69

A-103 A-103 was another

boilerplate CSM mission.

It was, however, the first

operational mission of

the Saturn I, and no

longer a test flight. One

of the primary objectives

of this mission was to put

the Pegasus 1 satellite in

orbit.

The launch was normal,

and the spacecraft was inserted into orbit approximately 10.5 minutes after

launch. The launch escape system was jettisoned during launch and the

command module was jettisoned when orbit was

achieved. The mission delivered the Pegasus I satellite,

and was a success.

The Pegasus Satellite Program The Pegasus satellite program was a series of three

satellites launched in 1965 to study the frequency of

micrometeorite impacts on spacecraft. They were

launched on A-103, A-104 and A-105. It got its name

from the large

wing-like arrays that it hosted. All three

Pegasus missions provided more than data

on micrometeoroid penetration: Scientists

also were able to gather data regarding

orbital characteristics of satellites,

lifetimes of electronic components and

thermal control in space.

Designation A-103

Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation AS-109 / SA-9 Callsign N/A

Crew Unmanned Launch Date February 16th 1965, 14:37UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Decay Date July 10th 1985

(Decommissioned August 29th 1968) Duration 3 years, 6 months, 13 days

Distance Travelled 3,114,579,139km

Apogee 736km

70. A-103

71. The Pegasus I satellite

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-104

70

A-104 A-104 carried the fourth

boilerplate test of the Apollo

spacecraft, along with the

Pegasus 2 satellite (See page

69). The primary mission

objective was to

demonstrate the launch

vehicle guidance mode. The

launch trajectory was very

similar to that of mission A-

103, with a final orbital

apogee difference of just 3km.

Several minor malfunctions occurred in the S-I

stage propulsion system; however, all mission

objectives were achieved. Pegasus 2 was safely

released into orbit.

Notably, this was the first night-time launch in

the Apollo Program.

Designation A-104 Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation AS-108 / SA-8

Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date May 25th 1965, 7:35UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B

Decay Date June 8th 1989 Duration 5275 days

Distance Travelled 3,282,050,195km

Apogee 739km

72. A-104

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-105

71

A-105 A-105 was the final

boilerplate test of an

Apollo spacecraft,

launched by the final

flight of the Saturn I

rocket. It also carried the

Pegasus 3 satellite (See

page 69).

The primary flight

objective was to continue demonstration of the launch vehicle's interactive

guidance mode. A planned thirty-minute hold before launch ensured that the

Apollo launch coincided with the opening of the Pegasus launch window,

meaning the rocket lifted off at exactly

13:00:00UTC.

Designation A-105 Launch Vehicle Saturn I

LV Designation AS-110 / SA-10

Crew Unmanned Launch Date July 30th 1965, 13:00UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Decay Date August 4th 1969

Duration 1466 days Distance Travelled 912,064,090km

Apogee 536km

73. A-105

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Launchpad LES Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 1

72

Launchpad LES

Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 1

Pad Abort Test 1 was a

mission to investigate the

effects on the Apollo

spacecraft during an

abort from the pad. It

took place between SA-4

and 5.

The flight featured a

production model LES

and a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, the first mission

to feature one. The spacecraft carried no

instruments for measuring structural loads, as the

capsule's boilerplate structure did not represent

that of a real spacecraft.

The LES separated after fifteen seconds with the

spacecraft now on a ballistic trajectory. The

parachute system worked perfectly with the drogue

chute stabilizing the spacecraft, followed by the

three main parachutes that slowed the descent to

26 kilometres per hour.

Designation Pad Abort Test 1

Launch Vehicle LES Rocket only LV Designation N/A

Crew Unmanned

Launch Date November 7th 1963, 16:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date November 7th 1963, 16:02UTC Duration 2 minutes 45 seconds

Distance Travelled 2.51km Apogee 2.82km

74. The LES firing in Pad Abort Test 1

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Launchpad LES Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 2

73

Pad Abort Test 2

Apollo Pad Abort Test 2

was another mission

that flight-tested the

capability of the launch

escape system (LES) to

provide a safe recovery

of the Apollo crew in an

emergency. This flight

was the second test of

the launch escape system with the abort initiated from the launch pad.

Although one of the parachute cables was

kinked, the Earth landing system functioned

properly.

The test was fully successful and all planned

objectives were fulfilled.

Designation Pad Abort Test 2

Launch Vehicle LES Rocket only LV Designation N/A

Crew Unmanned

Launch Date June 29th 1965, 13:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date June 29th 1965, 13:02UTC

Duration 1 minute 52 seconds

Distance Travelled 2.32km Apogee 2.82km

75. Pad Abort Test 2

76. The LES from the Little Joe II QTV (See overleaf)

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests QTV

74

Little Joe II LES

Abort Tests QTV

QTV (Qualification

Test Vehicle) of the

Apollo Little Joe II

rocket was the first

test flight in 1963.

The Little Joe II

Qualification Test

Vehicle was launched

on its first flight from

White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The

mission objectives were to prove that Little Joe

II was a suitable rocket for Apollo tests. It met

all the mission objectives.

Designation Little Joe II QTV

Launch Vehicle Little Joe II LV Designation N/A

Crew Unmanned Launch Date August 28th 1963, 16:00UTC

Launch Site White Sands LC-36 Landing Date August 28th 1963, 16:05UTC

Duration ~5 minutes

Distance Travelled ~14km Apogee 7.32km

77. The Little Joe II QTV

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-001

75

A-001 Mission A-001 was the

second in the series of

tests conducted to

demonstrate that the

launch escape system

could safely remove

the command module

under emergency

abort conditions. This

mission occurred after

Pad Abort Test 1 (See Page 72).

The launch vehicle was the second in the series of

Little Joe II vehicles, which had been developed to

test the LES. The spacecraft consisted of a launch

escape system and a boilerplate command and

service module (BP-12).

The launch was delayed 24 hours due to weather

conditions. Launch was successful, but there were

two issues. Firstly, the CSM sustained damage

following re-contact with the rocket, and secondly

the third landing parachute failed to open. Other

than this, the mission was a success.

Designation A-001 Launch Vehicle Little Joe II

LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date May 13th 1964 13:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date May 13th 1964 13:06UTC

Duration 5 minutes 50 seconds Distance Travelled 6.82km

Apogee 9.08km

78. A-001

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-002

76

A-002 Mission A-002 was

another abort test to

demonstrate that the

launch system would

perform satisfactorily

under selected critical

abort conditions. The

main objective of this

mission was to test the

abort capability of the

LES during the maximum dynamic pressure region of the launch trajectory

As before, the Apollo spacecraft was

simulated by a boilerplate command and

service module. The earth landing system was

modified from the previous configuration by

the installation of two parachutes instead of a

single parachute.

However, an incorrect sum was used in the

data system, resulting in the manoeuvre being

initiated 2.4 seconds early. Although the

planned test point was not achieved, this

actually caused a higher dynamic pressure

than intended.

The abort conditions obtained were more than adequate in verifying the abort

effectiveness at the maximum dynamic pressure.

Designation A-002

Launch Vehicle Little Joe II

LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date December 8th 1964, 15:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date December 8th 1964, 15:07UTC Duration 7 minutes 23 seconds

Distance Travelled 9.99km

Apogee 15.35km

79. A-002

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-003

77

A-003 Apollo mission A-003

was the fourth mission

to demonstrate the

abort capability of the

Apollo launch escape

system. This flight was

designed to test the LES

from a very high

altitude.

Several minor changes were made to the boilerplate spacecraft to make it

more similar to the one that would actually be used during the Apollo

Program.

Within 2.5 seconds after lift-

off, a launch malfunction

caused the vehicle to go out

of control, rolling at a rate of

260 degrees per second. The

LES deployed and survived the

severe environment, and

safely pulled the boilerplate

spacecraft away from the

rocket as it exploded.

Because of the early launch

vehicle breakup, the desired

altitude of 37 km was not

reached. However, the

spacecraft did demonstrate a

successful low-altitude abort.

The mission was a failure, but

it was still extremely useful.

Designation A-003

Launch Vehicle Little Joe II

LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date May 19th 1965, 13:01UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date May 19th 1965, 13:06UTC Duration 5 minutes 3 seconds

Distance Travelled 5.55km

Apogee 6.04km

80. The breakup of A-003

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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-004

78

A-004 Mission A-004 was

designed to

demonstrate that the

launch escape vehicle

would satisfactorily

orient and stabilize itself

after being subjected to

a high rate of tumbling.

The vehicle was launched after several

postponements due to technical

difficulties and adverse weather

conditions. The pitch-up manoeuvre was

commanded from the ground when

telemetry showed that the desired

altitude and velocity conditions had been

reached.

All systems performed satisfactorily, and

the mission was a success.

Designation A-004

Launch Vehicle Little Joe II

LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned

Launch Date January 20th 1966, 15:17UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36

Landing Date January 20th 1966, 15:24UTC Duration 6 minutes 50 seconds

Distance Travelled 34.63km

Apogee 23.83km

81. A-004

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Unmanned Missions AS-201

AS-201 was the first

unmanned test flight of

an entire Apollo

Command/Service

Module and the Saturn

IB launch vehicle.

The key objectives were

to verify the Saturn IB’s

electrical and propulsion

systems, to test structural compatibility between the CSM and the rocket, to

demonstrate the life support in the

CSM (and to test heat shields) and to

test mission control and recovery.

Following the first launch attempt,

the onboard computer aborted the

launch with 4 seconds left due to a

drop in fuel pressure. A day later, the

launch was successfully completed.

There were several failures regarding

the landing: The steering control and

telemetry malfunctioned. This was

easily fixed, however.

Designation AS-201 Launch Vehicle Saturn IB

LV Designation SA-201 Crew Unmanned

Launch Date February 26th 1966, 16:12UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34 Landing Date February 26th 1966, 16:49UTC

Duration 37 minutes 19 seconds Distance Travelled 8477km

Apogee 492.1km

82. AS-201

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AS-203 AS-203 carried no Apollo

Command/Service

Module spacecraft, as its

purpose was to test the

S-IVB’s restart capability

that would later be used

in the Apollo program to

boost astronauts from

their Earth orbit to the

Moon. Another purpose

of the flight was to investigate the effects of weightlessness on the liquid

hydrogen fuel in the second-stage tank. It successfully achieved its objectives,

but the rocket was accidentally destroyed after four orbits.

In 1966, it was decided that AS-

203 would be launched before

AS-202, as the CSM that was to be

flown on AS-202 was delayed.

The explosion cause was

unknown, but it was probably a

leak in the fuel tank ignited by a

spark. The rocket was seen in

several pieces following a loss in

communication.

Despite the destruction of the

stage, the mission was classified

as a success

Designation AS-203

Launch Vehicle Saturn IB

LV Designation SA-203 Crew Unmanned

Launch Date July 5th 1966, 14:53UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B

Decay Date July 5th 1966 ~21:00UTC Landing Date N/A

Duration ~6 Hours

Apogee 190km

83. AS-203

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AS-202 AS-202 was the first

flight that included the

spacecraft Guidance and

Navigation system and

fuel cells. The flight’s

success enabled NASA to

judge the Block I Apollo

Spacecraft as fit to carry

humans.

The flight was also designed to

test out the heat shield by

subjecting it to 260 megajoules

per square meter. Over the

course of the re-entry, it

reportedly generated enough

energy to power Los Angeles for

a minute.

The whole flight was fully

successful.

Designation AS-202

Launch Vehicle Saturn IB

LV Designation SA-202 Crew Unmanned

Launch Date August 25th 1966, 17:15UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Landing Date August 25th 1966, 18:48UTC Duration 1 hour, 33 minutes

Apogee 1,142.9km

84. AS-202

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Apollo 1 Apollo 1 was the first

manned mission of the

Apollo Program. The

planned LEO test of the

Apollo CSM was never

made, because a cabin fire

during a rehearsal at Cape

Canaveral LC-34 killed all

three crewmembers and

destroyed the CM. The

name Apollo 1, coined by

the crew, was officially

retired by NASA in

memoriam. The unused

Saturn IB launch vehicle

was later used on Apollo 5.

Crew Primary Crew:

Command Pilot Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom

Senior Pilot Edward H. White II

Pilot Roger B. Chaffee

Backup Crew:

Command Pilot James A. McDivitt

Senior Pilot David R. Scott

Pilot Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart

Designation Apollo 1 (AS-204) Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn IB LV Designation SA-204 (unused)

Crew Virgil "Gus" Grissom - Cmdr. Edward H. White - Senior Pilot Roger Chaffee -Pilot

Planned Launch February 21st 1967

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Destroyed January 27th 1967, 23:31UTC

Planned Duration ~2 weeks

85. The crew of Apollo 1

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Mission Background AS-204 was to be the first manned test flight of the Apollo CSM to LEO,

launched on a Saturn IB rocket. The mission was designed to test launch

operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the

rocket and spacecraft. It should have lasted up to two weeks, depending on

the performance of the spacecraft.

On March 21st 1966, NASA stated that Grissom, White and Chaffee had been

selected to fly the first manned mission of the Apollo Program.

At the time, NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission

as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission, Gemini 12 in

November 1966 (See page 31).

Accident The launch simulation on

January 27th 1967 was known

as a "plugs-out". It was

designed to test whether the

spacecraft would be able to

run on its own power when

disconnected from other

sources. The test was very

important if the launch

window was to be met. The

test was considered non-

hazardous because there was no fuel present and no cryogenics were engaged.

There were several immediately noticeable problems during the test. One of

these problems was with the communications loop connecting the crew, the

Operations Building and the LC-34 Control Room. The problems led Grissom to

remark: "How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between three

buildings?" These problems led to several long pauses.

The crewmembers were using one of these said pauses to run through their

checklists, when a voltage transient was recorded at 23:30:54UTC. Ten seconds

86. The Apollo 1 burnt-out capsule interior

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later at 23:31:04UTC, Chaffee exclaimed

"Hey!", and scuffling was heard through his

microphone. White then exclaimed, "I've

got a fire in the cockpit!” Flames were seen

licking camera lenses as White attempted to

open the hatch. The final voice transmission

is believed to have come from Chaffee at

23:31:12UTC. A voice cried, "Fire in the

cockpit! There's a bad fire!" The sound of

the craft’s hull rupturing was heard

immediately afterwards, followed by "I'm

burning up!" and a scream. The

transmission then ended abruptly at

6:31:21, only 17 seconds after the first report of fire. The cabin had ruptured

due to rapidly expanding gases from the blaze.

Flames and gases then rushed outside the CM through open access panels to

two levels of the pad service structure. Intense heat, dense smoke, and

ineffective gas masks designed for toxic

fumes rather than heavy smoke hampered

the ground crew's attempts to rescue the

men. There were fears that the fire might

ignite the solid fuel rockets in the LES above

the Command Module, which would have

killed all nearby ground personnel. It took

five minutes to open the three hatch layers,

by which time it was much too late.

As the smoke cleared, ground workers

found the bodies but were not able to

remove them. The fire had partly welded

together Grissom and White's space suits

and the hoses connecting them to the life

support system. Grissom had removed his

restraints and was lying on the floor of the

87. The remains of Grissom's pressure suit

88. The burnt capsule

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spacecraft. White's restraints were burned through, and he was found lying

sideways just below the hatch. It took over 90 minutes to free their bodies due

to the melted strands of nylon. It was determined that White had tried to open

the hatch, but was not able to do so against the internal pressure. Chaffee was

found strapped into his right-hand seat, as procedure called for him to

maintain communication until the hatch was open.

All three astronauts were awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor

posthumously. Ed White had been the first American to perform a spacewalk

(EVA) in the earlier Gemini Program.

Investigations There were many investigations

and reviews carried out by the

U.S. Senate and by NASA, but the

ignition source could not be

conclusively identified. Even so,

the astronauts' deaths were

attributed to a wide range of

lethal design and construction

flaws in the early Apollo

Command Module. Manned

Apollo flights were suspended for

20 months while these problems

were corrected.

This included the removal of many flammable materials, and the installation of

explosive bolts and a different air mixture was suggested. NASA declined both

suggestions, citing excess weight and accidental opening respectively.

Outwards opening hatches were also suggested, although NASA argued that

this could lead to accidents in space.

89. NASA directors testify before a Senate hearing

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Apollo 4 Apollo 4 was the first

test flight for the Saturn

V, the most advanced

rocket in the Saturn line.

Apollo 4 flew without a

crew, and was called an

"all-up test", meaning all

rocket stages and

spacecraft would be

fully functional.

The launch, on November 9, 1967, was

the first from the John F. Kennedy

Space Center in Florida. The mission

lasted almost nine hours, splashing

down in the Pacific Ocean, achieving all

mission goals. NASA deemed the

mission a complete success, simply

because it proved the Saturn V worked.

Many pictures were taken by the

spacecraft, including the one below.

Designation Apollo 4 (AS-501)

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-501 Crew Unmanned

Launch Date November 9th1967, 12:00UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Landing Date November 9th 1967, 20:37UTC Duration 8 hours, 37 minutes

Apogee 18,092km

90. The launch of Apollo 4

91. The Earth, as seen by Apollo 4

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Apollo 5 Apollo 5 was the first

unmanned flight of the

Apollo Lunar Module.

The Apollo 5 mission

tested the Lunar Module

in a space environment,

in particular its descent

and ascent engine

systems.

The mission also

performed a "fire in the

hole" test (as depicted in

the mission's insignia) in

which the ascent stage

engine would be fired

while still attached to

the descent stage. This

was intended to simulate a landing

abort during descent to the lunar

surface.

The Saturn IB worked perfectly. After

two orbits, the first planned 39 second

descent engine burn was started, but

aborted by the onboard guidance

computer after only 4 seconds. The

decision was taken to run the test

manually instead.

Despite the programming errors, the

mission was deemed a success.

Designation Apollo 5

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn IB

LV Designation SA-204 Crew Unmanned

Launch Date January 22nd 1968, 22:48UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Deactivated January 23rd 1968, 9:58 UTC

Duration 11 hours, 10 minutes Orbits Completed 7

Apogee 222km

92. The launch of Apollo 5

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Apollo 6 Apollo 6 was originally intended

to send a CSM plus a Lunar

Module Test craft towards the

Moon. However, the Moon

would not be in position for a

translunar flight, so instead the

Service Module engines would

fire, to simulate a return at the

velocity of a translunar flight.

Two minutes into the flight, the rocket experienced severe pogo oscillations

(see Glossary) for about 30 seconds. Several

components fell from the rocket. Due to the

errors at launch, the CSM and rocket were

inserted into an orbit 17km below where

intended. Just before the Translunar Injection

(TLI), the rocket failed to restart.

It was decided to use the Service Module

engine to raise the spacecraft into a high orbit,

in order to complete some of the mission

objectives by simulating re-entry at the speed

of a lunar return. The craft was unable to reach

the required speed of 11,000m/s, but managed

10,000m/s. This was not an issue, as Apollo 4

had already shown re-entry capabilities.

Designation Apollo 6 Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-502

Crew Unmanned Launch Date April 4th 1968, 12:00UTC

Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Landing Date April 4th 1968, 21:57UTC

Duration 9 hours, 57 minutes

Orbits Completed 3

Apogee 22,204km

93. The launch of Apollo 6

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Manned Missions Apollo 7

“Dedication and commitment to yourself, your family, your

country and your life’s goals… will ensure that you… be the

one who determines the path you will travel…”

R. Walter Cunningham

Apollo 7 was the first

mission in the United

States' Apollo program

to carry a crew into

space. It was also the

first American space

flight to carry astronauts

into LEO. It carried out

the mission that Apollo 1

was originally designed

to do.

Crew Primary Crew:

Commander Walter M. Schirra

CSM Pilot Don F. Eisele

LM Pilot R. Walter Cunningham

Designation Apollo 7

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn IB LV Designation AS-205

Callsign “Apollo 7” Launch Date October 11th 1968, 15:02UTC

Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34

Launch Mass 16,519kg Landing Date October 22nd 1968, 11:11UTC

Landing Site North Atlantic Ocean Duration 10 days, 20 hours, 9 minutes

Orbits Completed 163

Apogee 300km

94. The crew of Apollo 7

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Backup Crew:

Commander Thomas P. Stafford

CSM Pilot John W. Young

LM Pilot Eugene A. Cernan

Mission Objectives Apollo 7 was effectively a test flight. After the

January 1967 Apollo 1 fire, the CSM had been

overhauled and redesigned, and the crew would

test the new systems. This was an "open-

mission", meaning it would be extended as it

passed each test, and remain in orbit up to 11

days. No Lunar Module was attached.

Flight The launch was fully successful. Once orbit was

reached, the crew practiced a simulated LM

rendezvous and docking. One of the adapter

panels on the S-IVB failed to open to its 45 degree position. Had this been an

actual lunar mission, the astronauts would have found severe difficulty in

removing the LM. Because of this, an option

was added to completely jettison panels on

future flights.

The CSM hardware worked well, and the SPS

on the Service Module made eight firings.

Interestingly, as the Saturn IB had performed

very smoothly during launch, the astronauts

were completely unprepared for the sudden

violent jolt they received when they activated

the SPS.

95. The launch of Apollo 7

96. The S-IVB with partially closed panel on right

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To combat the effects of space on muscle cramps, an exercise device known as

an “Exer-Genie” was provided.

Another event was the first live

television broadcast from an American

spacecraft

Issues in Space Although the astronauts’ cabin was

larger than that of the Gemini

program, a mission of nearly two

weeks tested them severely. Right

from the launch, when mission control chose a particularly risky abort plan,

there was tension between the crew and the ground staff. Once in orbit, the

large cabin caused some motion sickness, which had not been an issue in the

earlier, smaller spacecraft. The crew was also unhappy with their food

selections, particularly their high-energy

sweets. They found 30 minutes to use a

toilet unreasonable (and very smelly).

Undoubtedly, the worst problem

occurred when Schirra developed a

severe cold. As a result, he became

irritable and uncooperative regarding

requests from Mission Control and all

three astronauts began talking

aggressively to the CAPCOM. One

example (quoted from NASA) is when

the crew was asked to turn a TV camera

on. CAPCOM is Jack Swigert (who later

flew on Apollo 13) and CAPCOM 1 is

Derek Kent “Deke” Slayton (who later

flew in the Apollo-Soyuz program):

SCHIRRA: You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've

97. A still from the first live TV broadcast

98. The cramped CM interior

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added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I

can tell you at this point TV will be delayed without any further

discussion until after the rendezvous.

CAPCOM: Roger. Copy.

SCHIRRA: Roger.

CAPCOM 1: Apollo 7, this is CAPCOM number 1.

SCHIRRA: Roger.

CAPCOM 1: All we've agreed to do on this is flip it -

SCHIRRA: ... with two commanders, Apollo 7

CAPCOM 1: All we have agreed to on this particular pass is to flip

the switch on. No other activity is associated with TV; I think we

are still obligated to do that.

SCHIRRA: We do not have the equipment out; we have not had an

opportunity to follow setting; we have not eaten at this point. At

this point, I have a cold. I refuse to foul up our time lines this

way.

Another issue was that Schirra wanted to conduct re-entry and landing with

their helmets off, which had never been done before. This was because he

thought that there was a risk that their eardrums might burst due to sinus

pressure from their illness, and he wanted them to be able to pinch their noses

to equalize the increasing pressure as their altitude decreased. This would

have been impossible wearing them, as the new Apollo helmets did not have a

moveable visor, unlike previous helmets. However, on repeated occasions

during the mission, Schirra was told that the helmets should be worn for safety

reasons. In the final

conversation on the

topic, the CAPCOMs

made it very clear to

Schirra that he would be

expected to explain why

he had disobeyed

instructions:

99. Part of the original transmission logs, showing the conflict between crew and mission control

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CAPCOM 1: Okay. I think you ought to clearly understand there is

absolutely no experience at all with landing without the helmet on.

SCHIRRA: And there no experience with the helmet either on that one.

CAPCOM: That one we've got a lot of experience with, yes.

SCHIRRA: If we had an open visor, I might go along with that.

CAPCOM: Okay. I guess you better be prepared to discuss in some

detail when we land why we haven't got them on. I think you're too

late now to do much about it.

SCHIRRA: That's affirmative. I don't think anybody down there has

worn the helmets as much as we have.

CAPCOM: Yes.

SCHIRRA: We tried them on this morning.

CAPCOM: Understand that. The only thing we're concerned about is the

landing. We couldn't care less about the re-entry. But it's your

neck, and I hope you don't break it.

SCHIRRA: Thank you, babe.

CAPCOM: Over and out.

Terse conversations such as this led to Eisele and Cunningham being rejected

for future missions; Schirra had already announced his retirement from NASA.

After the Flight Despite the difficulties between the crew and

Mission Control, the mission successfully met

all objectives, clearing Apollo 8 for its moon

mission two months later. Apollo 7 was Project

Apollo's only human spaceflight mission to

launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station's

Launch Complex 34, as all following missions

were launched from LC- 39 at the Kennedy

Space Center. LC-34 was declared redundant

and decommissioned in 1969. As of 2014, Cunningham is the only surviving

member of the crew. Eisele died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007. They were all

100. R. Walter Cunningham

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awarded NASA’s Distinguished Service Medal in October 2008. Former Flight

Director Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., who was in conflict with the crew during the

mission, said to Cunningham: "We gave you a hard time once but you certainly

survived that and have done extremely well since... I am frankly, very proud to

call you a friend."

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Apollo 8 “We came all this way to explore the moon, and the most

important thing is that we discovered the earth.”

William Anders

Apollo 8 was the second

manned mission in the

Apollo program. It became

the first manned spacecraft

to leave Earth orbit, reach

the Moon and orbit it. The

crew became the first to

see the whole planet, and

then the first to see the far

side of the Moon. This was

also the first manned

launch from the John F.

Kennedy Space Center.

Crew Primary Crew:

Commander Frank F. Borman, II

CSM Pilot James A. Lovell, Jr.

LM Pilot William A. Anders

Backup Crew:

Commander Neil A. Armstrong

CSM Pilot Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin

LM Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr.

Designation Apollo 8

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-503 Callsign “Apollo 8”

Launch Date December 21st 1968, 12:51UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Launch Mass 28,870kg

Landing Date December 27th 1968, 15:51UTC Landing Site Mid Pacific Ocean

Duration 6 days, 3 hours, 42 seconds Orbits Completed 10

Apogee 112.4km

101. The crew of Apollo 8

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Before the Flight Apollo 8 was originally planned as a

second Lunar Module/Command Module

test. In August 1968, the mission was

changed to a more challenging Command

Module-only lunar-orbital flight, because

the Lunar Module (LM) was not yet ready

to make its first flight. This meant that the

crew had three months less training than

originally intended. On September 9, the

crew entered the simulators to begin

their preparation for the flight. By the

time the mission flew, the crew had spent

seven hours training for every actual hour

of flight

The Outbound Trip The launch experienced only a

couple of minor problems: The

engines of the first stage, S-IC,

burned for 2.45 seconds longer than

planned, and towards the end of the

second stage burn, the rocket

experienced pogo oscillations.

Apollo 8 was launched into an initial

orbit with an apogee of 185.18km.

This was followed by a Trans-Lunar

Injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third

stage for 318 seconds, accelerating

the spacecraft from an orbital

velocity of 7,793 m/s to the injection

velocity of 10,822 m/s,] which set a

record for the highest speed, that

102. Apollo 8 on the launchpad

103. The launch of Apollo 8

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humans had ever travelled.

The third stage of the rocket, S-IVB, assisted in

driving the craft into Earth orbit but remained

attached to later perform the TLI burn that

would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the

Moon.

After the S-IVB had performed its required

tasks, it was jettisoned. As the crew rotated the

spacecraft, they had their first views of the

Earth as they moved away from it. This marked

the first time humans could view the whole

Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to

the Command/Service Module and asked Mission Control if they could

perform a separating manoeuvre. Discussions led to the missions dropping an

hour behind schedule.

11 hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours. Borman

was given clearance to sleep, however he found it difficult. About an hour after

starting his sleep shift, Borman requested clearance to take a sleeping pill. The

pill had little effect, and possibly caused an allergic reaction, demonstrating to

NASA the difficulties of cleaning up in space! This illness was later attributed to

Space Adaption Syndrome, which affects a lot of astronauts. The larger cabin

space did not help.

Lunar Orbit The SPS ignited 69 hours after launch and

burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds,

placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit

around the Moon. The crew described the

burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives, because if the burn had

not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended

up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too

long they could have struck the Moon.

104. The Earth seen from Apollo 8

105. The jettisoned SIV-B

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After reporting on the status of the

spacecraft, Lovell gave the first

description of the Moon’s surface:

“The Moon is essentially grey, no

colour; looks like plaster of Paris or sort of

a greyish beach sand. We can see quite a

bit of detail. The Sea of Fertility doesn't

stand out as well here as it does back on

Earth. There's not as much contrast

between that and the surrounding craters.

The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are

newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by

meteorites or projectiles of some sort. Langrenus is quite a huge crater; it's got

a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven

different terraces on the way down.”

One of the crew's major tasks was to check future landing sites, especially one

in Mare Tranquillitatis that would be where Armstrong and Aldrin would land

in Apollo 11. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows

to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of

the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of

interest. Perhaps most famously he took a picture of the Earth appearing over

the Moon’s horizon, known as “Earthrise” (which appears inside the cover of

this book.

As they rounded the Moon on Christmas Eve, each man on board read a

section from Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a

Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. It became the most watched TV

broadcast of all time.

After this, the crew performed a Trans-Earth Injection. The TEI was the most

critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS would strand the crew in

lunar orbit, with no chance of escape. The burn occurred perfectly.

The crew then spent 2 days returning to Earth, before successfully landing in

the Pacific Ocean.

106. The lunar surface, seen from Apollo 8

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Apollo 9 “As you pass from sunlight into darkness and back again…

for the first time in your life you feel the precious unity of

the Earth and all the living things it supports.”

Russell 'Rusty' Schweikart

Apollo 9 was the third

manned mission Apollo

Program and the first

flight of the CSM with

the LM. The crew spent

ten days in low Earth

orbit. They performed

the first manned flight

of a LM, the first

docking and extraction

of a LM, two

spacewalks (EVA

Crew Primary Crew:

Commander James A. McDivitt

CSM Pilot David R. Scott

LM Pilot Russell L. Schweickart

Backup Crew:

Commander Charles Conrad Jr.

CSM Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr.

LM Pilot Clifton C. Williams

Designation Apollo 9

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-504 Callsign CSM: “Gumdrop” LM: “Spider”

Launch Date March 3rd 1969, 16:00UTC

Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 26,801kg

Landing Date March 13th 1969, 17:00UTC Landing Site North Atlantic Ocean

Duration 10 days, 1 hours, 54 seconds Apogee 192.4km

107. The Apollo 9 crew

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Mission Overview Apollo 9 was the first space test of

the complete Apollo spacecraft,

including the Lunar Module. It was

also the first space docking of two

vehicles with a crew transfer. This

showed that the Apollo spacecraft

were up to this critical task, on which

the lives of lunar landing crews

would depend.

Notably, this was the first Apollo

flight in which the crew was allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly

LM was named Spider, and the CSM was labelled Gumdrop because of the

Command Module's shape, and also the blue wrapping in which the craft

arrived at Kennedy Space Center. These names were required as radio call

signs when the vehicles flew independently.

During the mission, Schweickart and Scott performed an EVA—Schweickart

tested the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system

rather than being attached to the

spacecraft, while Scott filmed him

from the Command Module hatch.

McDivitt and Schweickart later

test-flew the LM, and practiced

separation and docking

manoeuvers in Earth orbit. This

was fully successful.

The splashdown point was 290km

east of the Bahamas, in the

Atlantic Ocean.

108. Russell Schweickart during the EVA

109. The LM during practice manoeuvers

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Apollo 10 “Another hundred years may pass before we understand

the true significance of Apollo. Lunar exploration was… a

key to unlocking dreams as yet undreamed...”

Eugene Cernan, “The Last Man on the Moon”, 2000

This was the fourth

Apollo mission. Its

purpose was to be a dress

rehearsal for the Apollo

11 moon landing, testing

all the relevant apparatus

without actually landing.

The LM came to within

15.6 km of the lunar

surface. Apollo 10 set the

world record for the

highest speed attained by

a manned vehicle at

39,897 km/h during the

return from the Moon.

Crew Commander Thomas P. Stafford

CSM Pilot John W. Young

LM Pilot Eugene A. Cernan

Backup Crew:

Commander L. Gordon Cooper Jr.

CSM Pilot Donn F. Eisele

LM Pilot Clifton C. Williams

Designation Apollo 10

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-505 Callsign C: “Charlie Brown” L: “Snoopy”

Launch Date May 18th 1969, 16:49UTC

Launch Site Kennedy LC-39B Launch Mass 42,775kg

Landing Date May 26th 1969, 16:52UTC Landing Site Mid Pacific Ocean

Duration 8 days, 3 minutes, 23 seconds Lunar Orbits 4

110. The crew of Apollo 9

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Mission Overview Apollo 10 brought Stafford and

Cernan's Lunar Module Snoopy to

15.6 km from the lunar surface. This

was where the powered descent

would begin on the actual landing.

Practicing this approach orbit would

refine knowledge of the lunar

gravity. Except for that final stretch,

the mission went exactly as a

landing would have gone, both in

the spacecraft and on the ground,

providing valuable training to

mission control crews.

Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit,

the Command/Service Module

separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top

of the Lunar Module still nestled in the S-IVB. The CSM/LM stack then

separated from the S-IVB for

the trip to the Moon.

Apollo 10 also carried a

colour TV camera, and made

the first live, colour

broadcasts from space.

When they had reached the

Moon, Young remained in the

Command Module (CM) while

Stafford and Cernan flew

separately in the LM. The LM

crew checked out their craft's

radar and ascent engine, rode

111. The launch of Apollo 9

112. Earthrise from Apollo 9

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out a momentary gyration in

the lunar lander's motion

(due to a faulty switch

setting), and surveyed the

Apollo 11 landing site in the

Sea of Tranquillity. The

ascent engine was loaded

with less fuel than normal,

to account for the fact that

the LM had not descended

fully.

When testing the Abort

Guidance System, the Lunar

Module began to roll violently due to the crew accidentally duplicating

commands into the flight computer. Cernan explained in an interview that he

saw the lunar horizon rotate “eight or so times in fifteen seconds” through the

window, before Thomas Stafford shut the whole computer down and switched

to manual control. It was later calculated that if the roll had been stopped just

a few seconds later, orbital inertia would have been lost and the LM would

have crashed into the lunar surface. The live network broadcasts caught

Cernan and Stafford swearing, much to the outrage of several TV viewers!

NASA downplayed the incident, but the astronauts were five seconds away

from being killed.

The return journey was the fastest ever travelled by human beings, at 39,897

km/h. The CM landed in the South Pacific Ocean, near Samoa.

113. The Apollo 10 LM descending

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Apollo 11 “Houston, Apollo 11 . . . I've got the world in my window.”

Michael Collins

Apollo 11 was the

spaceflight that landed

the first humans on the

Moon (Neil Armstrong

and Buzz Aldrin), making

it perhaps the most

famous space mission in

history.

Apollo 11 ended the

Space Race (See page 25)

and fulfilled assassinated

president John F.

Kennedy’s promise that

the US would land a man

on the moon “before this

decade is out”.

Primary Crew:

Commander Neil A. Armstrong

CSM Pilot Michael Collins

LM Pilot Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr.

Backup Crew:

Commander James A. Lovell, Jr.

CSM Pilot William A. Anders

LM Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr.

Designation Apollo 11

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-506 Callsign CSM: “Columbia” LM: “Eagle”

Moon: “Tranquillity Base” Launch Date July 16th 1969, 13:32UTC

Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 43,898kg

Landing Date July 24th 1969, 16:50UTC Landing Site North Pacific Ocean

Duration 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes

Lunar Orbits 30

114. The Apollo 11 crew

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Launch and TLI Several million people watched the launch across the world.

Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A at the Kennedy

Space Center. It entered orbit twelve minutes later. During the second orbit,

the S-IVB pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the

TLI burn. Half an hour later, the CSM pair separated from the Saturn V and

docked with the Lunar Module, which was stored behind the SM. After the

Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon.

Once the crew had reached the Moon, they made thirty orbits around it, and

they were able to see their landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity (Mare

Tranquillitatis. It had been chosen because of how flat it was.

On July 20, 1969, the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command

Module Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it

pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged

Lunar Descent and Landing As the descent began, the crew noted that they

were passing landmarks four seconds early. This

meant that they actually landed several miles

west of their intended landing site.

Five minutes into the descent burn, the LM

navigation and guidance computer returned

"1202" and "1201" program alarms. The program

alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning

the guidance computer could not complete all

tasks in time and needed to postpone some of

them. Computer engineer Jack Garman said to Mission Control that it was safe

to continue the descent, and the crew was told this. The cause of these errors

was later identified as a mistakenly placed rendezvous radar switch, which

bombarded the computer with incorrect signals. This meant that it was being

forced to work at 115% of its processing capacity.

115. The Apollo 11 LM descending

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11

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The guidance computers used

during the Apollo Program only

had 2KB of RAM (1 three-

millionth of the RAM of my

computer) and a 36KB hard drive

(1 thirty-millionth of the ROM of

my computer).

They landed with around 25

seconds of fuel left, less than for

other missions.

Charles Duke, CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged the landing by

saying "We copy you down, Eagle." Armstrong replied: "Houston, Tranquility

Base here. The Eagle has landed." This change of call sign was actually

unrehearsed, and Duke tripped up on the name as he replied: "Roger, Twan-

Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn

blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."

Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA,

Aldrin broadcast that:

"This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person

listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment

and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in

his or her own way."

He then took communion privately. At this time, NASA was still under legal

attack after broadcasting a reading from the Book of Genesis on Apollo 8 from

Madalyn Murray O'Hair, the founder of American Atheists. NASA’s actions

were seen as state endorsement of religion, which violates their constitution.

As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on

the Moon. Aldrin’s church holds possession of the chalice used.

117. The Apollo Guidance Computer

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Lunar Surface Operations The astronauts had a

limited 60o view

through their

windows, but they

were still able to

plan the locations of

the EASEP and the

Flag Assembly.

At 02:39UTC on

Monday July 21st

1969, Armstrong

opened the hatch,

and at 02:51UTC

began his descent to

the lunar surface. He

wore the A7L

spacesuit and his

PLSS (Portable Life Support System). While climbing down the nine-rung

ladder, Armstrong opened the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA)

folded against Eagle's side and activated the TV camera, and at exactly

02:56:15UTC he set his left foot on the surface of the Moon. This was the first

time in several billion years of

existence that any creature

from Earth set foot on another

celestial body. Despite some

technical and weather

difficulties, ethereal black and

white images of the first lunar

EVA were received and

broadcast to at least 600 million

people on Earth, approximately

one-sixth of the human race.

118. A map of Tranquility Base, showing craters and photographs

119. Neil Armstrong descending the LM's ladder

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Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved, the original

recordings were accidentally destroyed.

The Lunar dust was

described as "very fine-

grained" and "almost like a

powder," by Armstrong as

he first saw it. Then he

stepped off the Eagle's

footpad and said perhaps

one of the most famous

lines in history: "That's one

small step for man, one

giant leap for mankind".

Aldrin then joined him,

describing the view as "Magnificent desolation." Armstrong actually said:

"That's one small step for a man", but the “a” was not clear in any recordings,

perhaps due to static.

About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong

collected a small soil sample, which he tucked into a pocket on his right thigh.

This was to guarantee there would be at least one sample of lunar soil

returned in the event of the EVA being aborted in an emergency.

Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even

perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk

around.” They tested various methods for moving around, including two-

footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS

backpack caused the astronauts to tip

backwards, but neither astronaut had

any major problems maintaining

balance. Walking/jumping with large

strides became the preferred method of

movement. The astronauts reported that

they needed to plan their movements six

or seven steps ahead because of the

120. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon

121. Neil Armstrong saluting the flag

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Moon’s weak gravity and the slippery soil.

The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. Flag on the lunar surface (see

page 57), in front of the TV camera. Later in the mission, US President Richard

Nixon spoke to them in a conversation, which he called "the most historic

phone call ever made from the White House.” Nixon originally had a much

long speech prepared to read

during the phone call, but Frank

Borman, who was at the White

House as a NASA liaison convinced

Nixon to keep his words brief, to

respect the lunar landing as

President Kennedy's legacy rather

than his own.

They deployed the EASEP, (see

page 56), and then Armstrong

walked 60 m from the LM to snap

photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes.

The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on

extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected.

Three new minerals were discovered

when the rock samples were brought

back: armalcolite (named after the three

astronauts), tranquillityite, and

pyroxferroite. All three of these minerals

have since been found on Earth (but

tranquillityite only very recently in 2011).

The astronauts brought back 22kg of

samples.

As mementos, they also left an American flag, an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a

plaque bearing two drawings of Earth, an inscription, and signatures of the

astronauts and the President. The inscription read:

122. The Apollo 11 EASEP being deployed

123. An armalcolite sample, first discovered on the Moon

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“Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969

A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.”

They left behind a memorial bag

containing a gold replica of an olive

branch as a traditional symbol of

peace and a silicon message disk. The

disk carried goodwill statements by

Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy,

Johnson, and Nixon and messages

from 73 different world leaders. The

disc carried a listing of various US

politicians involved in the mission.

Aldrin said that the items also included Soviet medals commemorating Soviet

Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin.

Neil Armstrong also carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers'

airplane's left propeller (see page 17) and a piece of fabric from its wing, along

with a pin badge which had been intended to be worn on Apollo 1. Following

the fire, the astronauts’ widows gave it to Armstrong.

“In Event of Moon

Disaster” A poignant speech called “In

Event of Moon Disaster” was

written by journalist William

Safire for President Nixon to

read on television if the Apollo

11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. According to the plans, Mission

Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman

would have commended the astronauts’ souls to "the deepest of the deep”,

124. The plaque left on the Moon

125. Part of the original text of the speech

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similar to burial at sea. The president would also telephone the astronauts’

widows. This is an extract from that speech:

“Fate has ordained that the men who went to the moon to explore in

peace will stay on the moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil

Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their

recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their

sacrifice. These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most

noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be

mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by the

nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be

mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the

unknown. In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to

feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of

man. In ancient days, men looked at the stars and saw their heroes in

the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our

heroes are epic men of flesh and blood. Others will follow, and surely

find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men

were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts. For every

human being who looks up at the moon in the nights to come will know

that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind.”

Both astronauts later stated that, faced with this scenario, they would not have

stopped trying to fix the LM. Contrary to popular belief, they did not carry

cyanide pills, so the alternative would have been slow suffocation. Collins

would have been forced to return on his own. Fortunately, not a single

astronaut has ever been lost in space, and the speech was never needed.

Return to Earth Once they had transferred to the LM’s life

support system, the astronauts lightened

the LM for return to lunar orbit by throwing

out their PLSSs and boots, along with a

camera and other equipment. They then re-

pressurized the LM, and went to sleep.

126. The lunar flag being blown over during ascent

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Aldrin accidentally broke a circuit breaker that would arm the ascent engine

while he was moving about. There was concern this would prevent firing the

engine, stranding them on the Moon. Fortunately, they were able to reactivate

it with a felt-tip pen. Had this not worked, the LM circuitry could instead have

been reconfigured to allow for take-off.

At 17:54UTC, the crew lifted off in Eagle's ascent

stage to re-join Michael Collins aboard the

Columbia. During the launch, Aldrin s aw the

exhaust from the ascent module's engine knock

over the American flag they had planted. Future

Apollo missions planted the flag at least 30m away

from the LM to prevent this happening again.

After rendezvous with Columbia, Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar

orbit. NASA worked out that the orbit would have decayed in several months,

and that it had impacted on the lunar surface.

On July 24, the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module

Columbia just before dawn. They were immediately placed in BIGs (Biological

Isolation Garments) and transported to the aircraft carrier the USS Hornet,

where they were placed into the MQF (See page 55). This was to prevent the

spread of any pathogens from the Moon. Quarantine was discontinued

following Apollo 14 when it was proven that there was no life on the Moon.

President Richard Nixon was aboard the USS

Hornet to welcome the astronauts back to Earth.

After Nixon departed, the Hornet was brought

alongside the CM and the ship’s crane lifted it

aboard. The Hornet sailed for Pearl Harbor. From

here, the CM and MQF were flown to the Johnson

Space Center. On August 10th, 1969, the astronauts

exited quarantine. They soon went on a tour of the

US.

127. The CM being recovered

128. The astronauts under quarantine

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Apollo 12 “This is the Moon; that is the Earth. I'm really here!”

Alan Bean

Apollo 12 was the sixth

manned flight in the

Apollo Program. It

followed Apollo 11 in

landing on the Moon,

four months after

Armstrong and Aldrin’s

first steps on the lunar

surface. The crew

undertook around 31

hours of lunar surface

activity in the Oceanus

Procellarum (Ocean of

Storms). They visited the

wreckage of the Surveyor

3 probe.

Primary Crew:

Commander Charles “Pete” Conrad Jr.

CSM Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr.

LM Pilot Alan L. Bean

Backup Crew:

Commander David R. Scott

CSM Pilot Alfred M. Worden

LM Pilot James B. Irwin

Designation Apollo 12

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-507 Callsign CSM: “Yankee Clipper” LM:

“Intrepid” Launch Date November 14th 1969, 16:22UTC

Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 44,073kg

Landing Date November 24th 1969, 20:58UTC

Landing Site South Pacific Ocean Duration 10 days, 4 hours, 36 minutes

Lunar Orbits 45

129. The Apollo 12 crew

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Launch, TLI and Lunar Landing Apollo 12 launched on schedule from Kennedy

Space Center, during a rain shower. 36.5

seconds after lift-off, lightning struck the

vehicle and was conducted down to the earth

through the Saturn V’s ionized exhaust plume.

This caused protective circuits on the SM’s fuel

cell to detect and overload, bringing them

offline along with much of the CSM

instrumentation. A second strike at 52 seconds

after launch disabled the attitude indicator.

This also led to multiple power failures,

lighting up the majority of warning lights on

the control panel. Mission Control lost

telemetry from the rocket. The vehicle still

continued to fly correctly, however.

EECOM John Aaron remembered this telemetry failure pattern from an earlier

test, when a “power supply malfunctioned in the CSM Signal Conditioning

Equipment (SCE)”. The SCE converts signal instrumentation signals to standard

voltages for the spacecraft instrument displays and telemetry transmitters.

Aaron said, "Try SCE to aux." This would switch the SCE to a backup power

supply. The switch was obscure and neither FLIGHT Gerald Griffin, nor

CAPCOM Gerald Carr, nor Commander Conrad immediately recognized it. Alan

Bean, however, remembered the SCE switch from a training incident a year

earlier, and he put the fuel cells back online. The launch continued

successfully. Once in earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their

spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The

lightning strikes had caused no serious permanent damage.

Initially, it was feared that the lightning strike could have caused the Command

Module's (CM) parachute mechanism to prematurely fire, disabling the

explosive bolts that open the parachute compartment to deploy them. This

would have killed the crew upon re-entry. Since there was no way to test the

parachutes without landing, ground controllers decided not to tell the

130. The Apollo 12 launch

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astronauts about the possibility. Fortunately, the parachutes deployed as

normal at the end of the mission.

The CSM/LM stack separated from the S-IVB and continued on to the Moon.

The Apollo 12 mission landed in an area of the Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of

Storms) that had previously been visited by several unmanned missions (Luna

5, Surveyor 3, and Ranger 7). Because of this, some named the area Mare

Cognitum (Literally “the known sea”).

The landing site would be listed as

Statio Cognitum on lunar maps.

Unlike Apollo 11, where Neil

Armstrong had to use the manual

control to direct his lander (quite

inaccurately), Apollo 12 succeeded in

landing within walking distance of the

Surveyor 3 probe, which had landed

on the Moon 17 months earlier. This is

the only occasion in which humans

have recovered a probe sent to land on another world.

Lunar Surface Operations Conrad’s first words as he

stepped onto the Moon

were, "Whoopie! Man,

that may have been a

small one for Neil, but

that's a long one for me”.

He was considerably

shorter than Armstrong

was, and had made a $500

bet with reporter Oriana

Fallaci that he would say

these words. He never

received the money!

131. The Surveyor 3 probe

132. The Apollo 12 LM

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A colour TV camera was carried to the Moon, to improve upon the quality of

Apollo 11’s black and white footage. Unfortunately, when Bean carried the

camera to where it should have been set up, he accidentally directed it at the

Sun, destroying part of it and ending TV coverage.

Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the Surveyor 3 probe to be taken back to

Earth for analysis. It is also claimed that bacteria known as Streptococcus mitis

were found to have inadvertently contaminated the spacecraft's camera prior

to launch and survived dormant in the near-vacuum of space for 2 years.

However, this finding has since been disputed, as there were many other

opportunities for contamination.

Conrad and Bean also collected 34.35kg of rocks and set up the ALSEP station

(See page 56). The astronauts also took many photographs, although Bean

accidentally left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.

Return The crew stayed in orbit for a day,

taking photographs, before

heading back to Earth. On the way

back, they witnessed a solar

eclipse, as the Earth was blocking

the Sun.

They landed around 500km east

of American Samoa. During

splashdown, a 16mm film camera

dislodged from storage and struck

Bean in the forehead, rendering

him briefly unconscious. He

suffered a mild concussion and

needed six stitches. They were

recovered by the USS Hornet.

133. The solar eclipse seen by Apollo 12

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Apollo 13 “Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here….”

Jack Swigert

“It looks to me… that we are venting something. We are

venting something into the — into the space…” Jim Lovell

Apollo 13 was one of the

most famous Apollo

missions. It launched

normally, but an oxygen

tank exploded two days

into the mission, crippling

the SM and forcing the

crew to travel in the LM,

making a Moon landing

impossible. Despite

serious difficulties, the

crew returned safely four

days later, in one of the

most famous recovery

missions in history.

Primary Crew:

Commander James A. Lovell Jr.

CSM Pilot John L. Swigert

LM Pilot Fred w. Haise Jr.

Backup Crew:

Commander John W. Young

CSM Pilot T. Kenneth Mattingly (ex-1st CSMP)

LM Pilot James B. Irwin

Designation Apollo 13

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V LV Designation AS-508

Callsign CSM: “Odyssey” LM: “Aquarius”

Launch Date April 11th 1970, 19:13UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Launch Mass 43,982kg Landing Date April 17th 1970, 18:07UTC

Landing Site South Pacific Ocean

Duration 5 days, 22 hours, 54 minutes Lunar Orbits 1

134. The Apollo 13 crew

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Launch and TLI The mission was launched at 19:13UTC on

April 11th. The central second stage engine

shut down about 2 minutes early. The

outer four engines and the third-stage

engine burned longer to compensate for

the loss in thrust, and the vehicle still

achieved its 190km orbit, followed by a

TLI an hour later that went successfully.

The cause of the engine shutdown was

severe pogo oscillations (68 g) happening

16 times per second over three inches or

frame. The computer turned off the

engine for safety. The crew removed the

LM from the S-IVB and continued towards the

Moon.

Oxygen tank explosion Approximately 320,000km into

the flight, Mission Control

asked Swigert to turn on the

hydrogen and oxygen tank

stirring fans, which were

designed to keep the tanks

tidy. Ninety-three seconds

later, a very loud noise was

heard, accompanied by

fluctuations in electrical

power. The crew initially thought that a piece of debris or rock might have

struck the Lunar Module. In actual fact, the number 2 oxygen tank had

exploded. This was caused by damaged electrical insulation. The resulting

pressure inside the compartment damaged the bolts attaching the outer

aluminium covering. Over the next 130 minutes, the oxygen leaked into space,

entirely depleting the SM's supply.

135. The launch of Apollo 13

136. The damage on the SM (seen after jettison)

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The fuel cells require oxygen to generate power, so they shut down and left

the Command Module on limited-duration battery power. The crew was forced

to shut down the CM completely and use the LM as a "lifeboat.”

Crew survival and return journey The damage to the Service Module made

safe return from a lunar landing

impossible, so FLIGHT Gene Kranz

ordered an abort of the mission. There

were three possible abort options:

1. Turn the ship around immediately,

and head back to Earth. This would

require a 1,853 m/s change in

velocity, and was considered

dangerous and impractical. This would also require the LM to be

jettisoned, which the crew was relying on for oxygen.

2. Burn the SM’s SPS fuel to depletion, and jettison it, using the LM’s fuel

to complete the burn. This would take a longer route, but would keep

the LM. It was decided, however, that the SM provided protection to the

CM’s heat shield (which would be needed for re-entry) and it was not

jettisoned.

3. Continue a flight around the Moon, using its gravity as a slingshot and

lining the ship up for a return to Earth. Although this would take longer,

it was the safest option of the three.

Kranz chose option 3. Apollo

13 lined itself up to orbit the

Moon again, as it had gone

off course during the

accident.

Considerable ingenuity

under extreme pressure was

required from the crew,

flight controllers, and

137. The rescue options for Apollo 13

138. Mission Control staff trying to make a replacement air filter

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support personnel for the safe return. The developing drama was shown on

television, but because electrical power was limited, no more live TV

broadcasts were made.

The Lunar Module consumables were intended to sustain two people for a day

and a half, not three people for four days. Oxygen was the least critical

consumable because the LM carried enough to re-pressurize the LM after each

surface EVA. Unlike the CSM, which was powered by fuel cells (generating

electricity and water), the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries, so

electrical power and water

(used for equipment cooling as

well as drinking) were critical

consumables. The LM was

powered down to the lowest

levels possible. In particular, the

LM's Abort Guidance System

was used instead of the primary

guidance system, as it used less

power and water.

Availability of lithium hydroxide

for removing carbon dioxide

presented a serious problem.

The LM's internal stock of LiOH

canisters was not sufficient to

support the crew until return,

and the remainder was stored in the descent stage, out of reach. The CM had

an adequate supply of canisters, but these were incompatible with the LM.

Engineers on the ground improvised a way to join the cube-shaped CM

canisters to the LM's cylindrical canister-sockets by drawing air through them

with a hose.

Re-entry and splashdown As Apollo 13 neared Earth, the crew first jettisoned the Service Module so

pictures could be taken for later analysis. It was then that the crew were

surprised to see for the first time that the outer panel had been blown off.

139. The replacement air scrubber being fitted

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According to the analysts, these pictures also showed the antenna damage and

possibly an upward tilt to the fuel cell

shelf above the oxygen tank

compartment.

Finally, the crew jettisoned the Lunar

and continued in the CM. The re-entry

on a lunar mission normally was

accompanied by about four minutes of

typical communications blackout

caused by ionization of the air around

the Command Module. The blackout in

Apollo 13's re-entry lasted six minutes,

which caused serious concern. The

possibility of heat-shield damage from

the O2 tank rupture was distressing for ground crews.

However, Odyssey regained radio contact and splashed down safely just

southwest of American Samoa and

close to the recovery ship USS Iwo

Jima. The crew was in good condition

except for Haise, who was suffering

from a serious urinary tract infection

because of insufficient water intake.

As a joke following the successful

splashdown, Grumman pilot Sam

Greenberg (whose company built the

LM) issued a jovial invoice for

$400,540.05 to North American

Rockwell (who built the CSM), for

"towing" the crippled ship most of the

way to the Moon and back. He charged

$1.00 per mile, plus $4.00 for the first mile. An extra $536.05 was included for

battery charging, oxygen, and an "additional guest in room" (the CSM pilot).

140. Apollo 13 splashdown

141. The Apollo 13 crew being recovered

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Apollo 14 “When I first looked back at the Earth, standing on the

Moon, I cried.” Alan Shepard

Apollo 14 was the third

mission to land on the

Moon.

Alan Shepard and Edgar

Mitchell made their lunar

landing on February 5 in

the Fra Mauro formation;

this had originally been

the target of the aborted

Apollo 13 mission. During

the two lunar EVAs, 42kg

of samples were

collected. Shepard

famously hit two golf

balls on the lunar surface,

which travelled for miles,

as there was little gravity

and no air resistance.

Primary Crew:

Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr.

CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa

LM Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell

Backup Crew:

Commander Eugene A. Cernan

CSM Pilot Ronald E. Evans Jr.

LM Pilot Joe H. Engle

Designation Apollo 14

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-509

Callsign CSM “Kitty Hawk” LM “Antares” Moon “Fra Mauro Base”

Launch Date January 31st 1971, 21:03UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Launch Mass 44,504kg Landing Date February 9th 1971, 21:05UTC

Landing Site South Pacific Ocean

Duration 9 days, 2 minutes Lunar Orbits 34

142. The Apollo 14 crew

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Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 14 launched during heavy cloud

cover, but NASA had long range cameras,

which allowed them to see what

happened. Prince Juan Carlos of Spain

and the US Vice President Spiro T. Agnew

both visited Mission Control afterwards.

There were major issues in docking the

CSM with the LM. The crew spent 1 hour

and 42 minutes attempting the

manoeuvre, before they finally

succeeded.

The LM then had two major problems.

Firstly, the LM computer continually sent ABORT signals. This would have

aborted any attempt at a lunar landing had it not been fixed. Mission Control

determined that this was caused by a piece of solder floating around. They

decided to reprogram the computer to ignore the command, which involved

dictating over 80 keystrokes to Mitchell. He succeeded just in the nick of time

for the descent.

A second problem occurred during the powered descent, when the LM radar

altimeter failed to lock automatically onto the Moon's surface, depriving the

navigation computer of vital information on the vehicle altitude and

groundspeed. Eventually the radar re-acquired a signal at 5,500m, again just in

time. Shepard then manually landed the LM, the closest a landing in the Apollo

Program. Even if the radar hadn’t turned back on, Shepard would still have

attempted to land manually, although NASA later said that this would have an

extremely low success chance.

143. The Apollo 14 launch

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Lunar Surface Operations Shepard and Mitchell named

their landing site Fra Mauro

Base. Shepard's first words,

after stepping onto the lunar

surface were, "And it's been a

long way, but we're here."

Unlike the previous two

landing, Shepard had taken

several steps before speaking.

Shepard's A7L was the first to

have red stripes on the arms

and legs and on the top of the

lunar helmet. This avoided the confusion between the Commander and the LM

Pilot that there had been on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12. This feature is still in use

today on the ISS, and was used in every subsequent NASA mission.

Shepard and Mitchell took two moonwalks on the Moon, planting the ALSEP

(with new seismic experiments) and using the Modular Equipment Transporter

(See page 58) to transport samples. Altogether, they collected 45kg of rock.

Shepard famously took a golf club and two balls to the moon. He had to make

one-armed swings. He said that

the second ball went "miles and

miles and miles" although later

estimated the distance to be

between 180m and 370m).

On the second EVA, they tried to

reach the rim of the 300 m wide

Cone Crater. The two astronauts

had great difficulty finding it, as

Mitchell had a good mental map

144. Alan Shepard with the flag

145. The tracks left by the MET

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of the area in his head, but

Shepard thought that they

were much further north.

The Commander’s decision

was final, and they ended

up turning around just 20m

short of the rim. This was

the longest distance on

foot ever made on the

lunar surface (although the

Lunar Rover (See page 58)

in later missions allowed

them to travel further by

vehicle.)

Return to Earth The Command Module Kitty

Hawk splashed down in the

South Pacific Ocean,

approximately 1,410 km south

of American Samoa. After

recovery by the ship USS New

Orleans, the crew were the last

mission to be quarantined.

Roosa, who worked in forestry

in his youth, took several

hundred tree seeds on the

flight. These were germinated after the return to Earth, and widely distributed

around the world as commemorative Moon trees.

146. Shepard with his makeshift golf club

147. The Apollo 14 splashdown

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Apollo 15 “There's a fundamental truth to our nature, Man must

explore… and this is exploration at its greatest.” Dave Scott

Apollo 15 was the fourth

mission to land on the

Moon. It was the first of

the “long stay” missions

on the Moon, with a

greater focus on science

than on previous

missions.

The mission was the first

use of the famous Lunar

Rover (See page 58).

At the time, NASA called

it the most successful

manned flight ever

achieved.

Primary Crew:

Commander David R. Scott

CSM Pilot Alfred M. Worden

LM Pilot James B. Irwin

Backup Crew:

Commander Richard F. Gordon Jr.

CSM Pilot Vance D. Brand

LM Pilot Harrison Schmitt

Designation Apollo 15

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-510 Callsign CSM “Endeavour” LM “Falcon”

Launch Date July 26th 1971, 13:34UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Launch Mass 46,989kg Landing Date August 7th 1971, 20:45UTC

Landing Site North Pacific Ocean

Duration 12 days, 7 hours, 11 minutes Lunar Orbits 74

148. The Apollo 15 crew

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Pre-Mission Training Originally, Apollo 15 would have

been similar in format to Apollo 14.

But on September 2, 1970, NASA

announced that, due to budget cuts,

Apollo 15 was now a longer stay on

the Moon. This was because Apollos

18-20 had been cancelled.

The crew were given training in

geology by Caltech geologist Leon

Silver, as it would become much

more important on the mission.

At first Silver would take the astronauts to various geological sites in Arizona

and New Mexico but later on crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks

they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a

tent.

CSM Pilot Alfred Worden did different training, as he would not actually land

on the Moon. He flew over areas in an airplane, simulating the speed at which

terrain would pass below him while in orbit.

The Site Selection Committees, backed by

Scott, decided that the mission would land at

Hadley Rille, near which were a group of low,

possibly volcanic, domes.

Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 15 launched from the Kennedy Space

Center, at Cape Canaveral. During the launch,

the S-IC did not completely shut off following

staging for four seconds, creating the

possibility of the spent stage banging into the

149. Scott and Irwin in training

150. The launch of Apollo 15

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S-II engines, damaging them and forcing an abort. Despite this, the third stage

and spacecraft reached its

planned Earth parking orbit. A

couple of hours into the mission,

the third stage performed the TLI

burn that sent the spacecraft out

of towards the Moon.

When un-docking from the CSM

was attempted; it did not occur,

because of a fault in the hatch

mechanism. The CSM Pilot, Alfred

Worden, fixed the hatch and the

LM then properly separated from

the CSM.

Scott and Irwin then began the descent. Several minutes after descent was

initiated, the LM was six kilometres east of the landing target. Scott altered the

flight path of the LM so that they touched down within a few hundred meters

of the planned landing site. Other than a “Stand-Up” EVA through the top

hatch to take photographs by Scott, the crew did not leave the capsule until

the next day.

Lunar Surface Operations While the astronauts slept, a steady

oxygen leak was detected.

Controllers could not determine the

exact cause of the leak without

awaking the crew. Scott and Irwin

eventually were awakened an hour

early, and the source of the leak

was found to be an open valve on

the urine transfer device.

151. Irwin saluting the flag

152. The LRV

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Four hours later, Scott and Irwin became the

seventh and eighth humans, to walk on the

Moon. The unloaded the LRV and drove to

Elbow Crater on a 6.5 hour EVA, along the edge

of Hadley Rille. They set up the ALSEP before

returning to the LM.

The target of the second EVA, the next day, was

the edge of Mount Hadley Delta. The astronauts

collected many samples, with one known as the

"Genesis Rock" being over 4 billion years old. The erected the US flag, finished

putting the ALSEP together and returned to the LM. This EVA lasted 7 hours

and 12 minutes.

On the third EVA, the crew northwest of the landing site to another part of

Hadley Rille, where they collected more samples. After returning to the LM's

location, Scott performed an experiment using a feather and hammer to

demonstrate Galileo's theory that all objects in the same gravity fall at the

same rate, regardless of mass. He dropped the hammer and feather at the

same time and because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag

on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer.

The Rover’s final function was to film the ascent from a short distance away.

Before leaving Shepard place the Fallen Astronaut statue. See page

In total, the two astronauts spent 18.5 hours outside collected

approximately 77kg of samples

Return to Earth A day after leaving the Moon, Worden performed a spacewalk

in deep space, the first of its kind, to retrieve some exposed

film. At a similar time, Apollo 15 became the longest Apollo

Mission of the Program so far.

Although one of the three parachutes on the CM failed to deploy properly

during re-entry, only two were required for a safe landing. The USS Okinawa

recovered the crew.

153. Scott demonstrating Galileo's theory with a hammer and a feather

154. Apollo 15 splashdown with only two chutes

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Apollo 16 “I'm proud to be an American, I'll tell you. What a program

and what a place and what an experience.” Charlie Duke

Apollo 16 was the

penultimate mission to

land on the Moon and the

first to land outside a

lunar mare.

The crew spent 71 hours

on the lunar surface, and

used the LRV (See page

58) for the second time.

They collected 95.8kg of

samples, most of which

were older than on other

missions due to the

landing site that was

chosen.

Primary Crew:

Commander John W. Young

CSM Pilot Thomas K. Mattingly II

LM Pilot Charlie M. Duke Jr.

Backup Crew:

Commander Fred W. Haise Jr.

CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa

LM Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell

Designation Apollo 16

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V LV Designation AS-511

Callsign CSM “Casper” LM “Orion”

Launch Date April 16th 1972, 17:54UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Landing Date April 27th 1972, 19:45UTC Landing Site South Pacific Ocean

Duration 11 days, 1 hours, 51 minutes

Lunar Orbits 64

155. The Apollo 16 crew

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Launch, TLI and Descent The launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month

from March 17 to April 16, due to a list of minor

technical issues.

The launch and TLI went exactly as in previous

missions, along with the CSM/LM docking. The

crew then noticed the exterior surface of the

Lunar Module was giving off particles from where

there appeared to be a tear. The problem was not

identified and did not seem serious.

The LM undocked and prepared to land. It was

noticed, however, that there was a malfunction in

the SM engines.. According to mission rules,

Orion would have then re-docked with Casper, in

case Mission Control decided to abort the landing

and use the Lunar Module's engines for the

return trip to Earth. After several hours of

analysis, though, mission controllers determined

that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could

proceed with the landing. They began their descent from 20.1km (the highest

ever) and the LM landed within 500m of the planned site.

Lunar Operations The morning after landing, Young climbed out onto the front of the LM. He

descended the ladder and, upon setting foot on the

lunar surface, became the ninth human to walk on

the Moon. Upon stepping onto the surface, Young

expressed his sentiments about being there: "There

you are: Mysterious and Unknown Descartes.

Highland plains. Apollo 16 is gonna change your

image”. Duke soon descended the ladder and

joined Young on the surface, becoming the tenth

and youngest human to walk on the Moon, at age

156. The launch of Apollo 16

157. The LRV

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36. After setting foot on the lunar surface, Duke expressed his excitement,

commenting: "Fantastic! Oh, that first foot on the lunar surface is super,

Tony!” They unloaded the

LRV and set up the ALSEP.

They spent four hours

collecting samples nearby

before driving to Plum

Crater, where they picked

up the biggest sample of the

whole program: “Big

Muley”. They then stopped

at Buster Crater, did a small

film demonstration of the

LRV, and returned to the

LM.

On the next EVA, the day

after, they drove to the Cinco Craters, 3.8 km from the LM, at the top of Stone

Mountain. At 152m above the valley floor, the pair were at the highest

elevation above the LM of any Apollo mission. They looked at the view, and

then visited several other sites to find samples and look for evidence of

volcanic activity, before returning to the LM

During the third and final lunar excursion, they were to explore North Ray

Crater, the largest of any of the craters any Apollo expedition had visited. After

exiting Orion, the pair drove the

lunar rover 4.4 km to North Ray

Crater. After their arrival, the

duo took photographs of the 1

km wide and 230 m deep crater.

They visited a large boulder,

taller than a four-story building,

which became known as 'House

Rock'. Samples from this rock

disproved all theories of volcanic

158. Shadow Rock

159. The LM ascent stage firing

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activity. They also arrived at a 3 m high boulder, which they called 'Shadow

Rock'. Here, they sampled permanently shadowed soil. They set a lunar speed

record of 17.1km/h on their return to the LM. The rover was then parked to

film the lift-off.

Return to Earth After taking off, Young and Duke

reached lunar orbit and successfully

rendezvoused and re-docked with

Mattingly in the Command/Service

Module. They then jettisoned the

LM and the SPS performed a burn,

which sent them back towards

Earth. At a distance of about

310,000 km from Earth, Mattingly

performed spacewalk, during which he retrieved several film cassettes from

the CSM's SIM bay. A small biological experiment (known as MEED) was also

set up in the CSM.

They reached Earth, and splashed down near Christmas Island. The spacecraft

and its crew were retrieved by the USS Ticonderoga.

160. Mattingly performs a spacewalk

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Apollo 17 “I'd like to dedicate the first step of Apollo 17 to all those

who made it possible.” Gene Cernan

Apollo 17 was the final

mission of the Apollo

Program, and was the

sixth and final landing of

humans on the Moon.

The decision to land in

the Taurus-Littrow valley

was made to let the crew

sample very old lunar

highland material.

Apollo 17 broke several

records, including the

longest manned Apollo

flight; the longest total

EVA duration; the largest

sample haul, and the

longest lunar orbit time.

Primary Crew:

Commander Eugene A. Cernan

CSM Pilot Ronald E. Evans

LM Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt

Backup Crew:

Commander John Young

CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa

LM Pilot Charles Duke

Designation Apollo 17

Insignia

Launch Vehicle Saturn V

LV Designation AS-512 Callsign CSM“America” LM“Challenger”

Launch Date December 7th 1972, 05:33UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A

Launch Mass 46,980kg Landing Date December 19th 1972, 19:24UTC

Landing Site South Pacific Ocean

Duration 12 days, 13 hours, 52 minutes Lunar Orbits 75

161. The Apollo 17 crew

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137

Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 17 launched from launch pad 39-

A at the Kennedy Space Center. It was

the last manned Saturn V launch and the

only night launch. It was delayed by

nearly three hours due to a countdown

malfunction. A normal orbit was

achieved after the launch, which was

watched by half a million people nearby.

Because the sky was dark, people over

800km away saw the rocket as it flew

away from Earth. The CSM/LM docking,

TLI and flight to the Moon went

normally.

Cernan and Schmitt later began their descent to the Taurus-Littrow valley on

the lunar surface. Several minutes after the descent phase was initiated,

Cernan successfully began to guide the LM to a suitable landing site.

Lunar Surface Operations The first moonwalk of the mission began approximately four hours after

landing. The first task of EVA was to

offload the LRV (See page 58) and

other equipment from the Lunar

Module. Cernan accidentally broke

the fender on the Rover, which

caused them to be covered with dust

while driving. The crew then

deployed the ALSEP and then

departed on the first geologic

traverse of the mission, during which

they gathered 14kg of samples.

162. The jettisoned S-IVB

163. Schmitt near a large boulder

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138

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140

On the second EVA, the pair sampled several

different types of geologic deposits found in the

valley, including orange-coloured soil. They

collected 34kg of samples, and deployed three

explosive packages, which would later test

seismometers.

The third moonwalk, the last of the Apollo

program, began at 20:26UTC on December 13th.

During this excursion, the crew collected 66kg of lunar samples. Before ending

the moonwalk, the crew collected a rock and dedicated it to several different

nations that were represented in Mission Control Center in Houston at the

time. Gene Cernan said, before leaving the Moon for the final time:

“...I'm on the surface; and, as I take man's last step from the surface,

back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the

future - I'd like to just say what I believe history will record. That

America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow.

And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and,

God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind.

Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17."

Return to Earth Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt successfully lifted off from the lunar

surface on December 14th. They then docked with the CSM,

transferred samples over, and let the LM crash into the

Moon so its effects could be recorded by seismometers.

Ron Evans made a spacewalk on the way back, to collect

some film from the CSM’s instrument bay.

On the 19th of December, the SM was jettisoned and the CM

landed in the Pacific, where it was recovered by the USS

Ticonderoga.

165. Eugene Cernan near the flag and LRV

166. The Apollo 17 splashdown

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One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT

141

APOLLO IN

HINDSIGHT

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Legacy of Apollo “In my own view, the important achievement of Apollo was

a demonstration that humanity is not forever chained to

this planet, and our visions go rather further than that, and

our opportunities are unlimited.” Neil Armstrong

Apollo has been described as the “greatest

technological achievement in human history”.

Apollo helped advance many areas of technology. For

example, the flight computer design used in both the

lunar and command modules was the driving force

behind early research into integrated circuits. Every

computer we use today relies on these circuits:

without the Apollo Program, we would be decades

behind where we are now.

Later Missions

Skylab Skylab was the United States' first space station. it

orbited the Earth from 1973 to 1979, and included a

workshop and a solar observatory. It was launched

unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a mass of

77,000kg. Three manned missions to the station using

the Apollo CSM on a Saturn IB, each delivered a three-

astronaut crew. On the last two manned missions, an

additional Apollo/Saturn IB stood by ready to rescue the

crew if needed.

167. The Apollo flight computer

168. Skylab

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Apollo-Soyuz Test Project The Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (carried out

in July 1975) was the first joint U.S.–Soviet

space flight, and the last flight of an Apollo

spacecraft. It was designed as a peace

gesture between the two nations, and it

signalled the end of the Space Race (See

page 25).

The mission included both joint and

separate scientific experiments (including an engineered eclipse of the Sun by

the Apollo craft to allow Soyuz to view the solar corona).

ASTP was the last manned US space mission until the first Space Shuttle flight

in April 1981. It was also Deke Slayton's only space flight. He was one of the

original Mercury Astronauts (See page 30), but he had been grounded for over

a decade due to medical reasons.

Apollo Spin-off Technologies:

Medical Technology Scratch Resistant lenses

Infrared ear thermometers

Space blankets

Safety Equipment Fire-resistant coatings

Firefighting equipment

Industrial Technology Cordless tools

Freeze-drying

Powdered lubricants

169. An artist's impression of the Apollo-Soyuz docking

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Cultural Legacy Numerous films, books and TV shows have

been based on the events of the Apollo

Program. Most people have seen the film

“Apollo 13”, and maybe up to a fifth of the

world watched television footage of the

Apollo 11 landing. But as well as this kind

of culture, another was also changed by

Apollo: our perception of our existence.

Many astronauts and cosmonauts have

commented on the profound effects that

seeing Earth from space has had on them:

after the Apollo Program, the view of Earth

as a fragile, small planet became much

more apparent. The most famous, taken by

the Apollo 17 astronauts, is called The Blue

Marble, pictured on the next page. While

this photo is majestically

beautiful, I think an even better

example of humanity’s fragility

is the one pictured to the right,

taken by Michael Collins on

Apollo 11. In the frame of this

picture was every human who

had ever lived or died up to that

point, bar one. Indeed, if we

took that photo again today, the

same thing could still be said;

Apollo was the only time that

humans have left Earth orbit.

170. The cover of the film Apollo 13

171. Michael Collins' photo, containing every human bar himself

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172. The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 crew

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146

Conspiracy Theories According to various polls, between 6% and 20% of Americans doubt that the

Apollo Program actually landed men on the Moon. They are, quite frankly,

wrong. It is obvious that their opinions are not based on evidence, or are based

on erroneous evidence.

If there were a conspiracy, it would have involved over 400,000 people: it

would have been impossible to keep the secret. The extraordinary effort that

would have been required would have been harder than the landings

themselves! For this reason, I am mentioning a few of the conspiracy theories

for reference and entertainment, rather than because they hold any weight.

There are many theories regarding photographs, many involving visual oddities

and the lack of certain features (such as stars in the sky). These have all been

demonstrated to be a result of incorrect photo scanning, and the ignorance of

the theorists: The (obvious) reason why there are no stars in the photographs

is that they were taken during lunar daytime.

One amusing conspiracy theory was made by an Australian named Una Ronald,

who said that she saw a Coke bottle roll across her TV, showing the Apollo 11

EVA. Not a single other viewer saw this, and her account was riddled with

contradictions and inaccuracies.

There are numerous others, some talking of radiation, or sound, or wind.

However, not a single conspiracy theory has survived rebuttal and scrutiny

from people who actually know what they are talking about!

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Conclusion “The Lunar landing of the astronauts is more than a step in

history; it is a step in evolution.” NY Times, July 1969

The Apollo Program came and went in just four years. For millennia, humanity

had marvelled and looked up at the stars. But now, we look down from them,

back onto the Earth. We still marvel, but in a different way; we marvel at our

own achievements and our boundless imaginations.

In total, over 500 people have left the constraints of our planet and flown into

space. Twelve of those people walked on the Moon during the Apollo Program.

Without the visions of many people, this would never have happened. Of

course, exploration like this does not come without risk. Thirty people have

died in-flight and in training, and although they aren’t with us today, they

helped advance space exploration just as much as their colleagues who

outlived them. As mentioned in the first few words of this book, Neil

Armstrong, who was the commander of Apollo 11 and the first man to walk on

the Moon, died in 2012.

The journey to the Moon is undoubtedly the most epic ever made by a human

being. Ever since language was invented, we have marvelled at brave journeys

and expeditions into unexplored places. From Homer’s epic poem The Odyssey,

written around 800BCE, in which Odysseus ventured for ten years across the

Hellenic World, to Christopher Columbus’ journeys to America in the late 15th

century and Magellan’s global circumnavigation in the early 16th century. These

journeys lasted for many years, and the crews underwent extreme hardship,

with many not surviving. The Apollo Program’s astronauts were not faced with

such extreme tribulations, yet the sheer distances they covered and the

uniqueness of their expedition makes it the most amazing by far.

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After Apollo 17, the Program was cancelled. Three more mission had been

planned, but budget cuts meant that space exploration was the first to go.

Perhaps Apollo had already completed its goals. The views of many people in

the US were that the Program had nothing left to do, and was simply a waste

of money. Millions were dedicating their time to making the project a success,

at a cost of around £100 billion in today’s money. Perhaps those critics were

right: Apollo’s primary goal was to send men to the moon and return them,

along with samples. This was completed. But could other things have been

achieved? I am not too sure. Maybe we could have conducted even more

experiments. Maybe we could have attempted a much longer mission,

assessing the effects of living on the Moon for a week or more. But probably,

Apollo’s time had ended. With the limited technology of the 1970s, there was

not much else to be done, let alone safely.

NASA, other space agencies and private corporations have now turned their

attention to other places. Mars and passing asteroids are now the favourites

for manned missions. NASA is confident that it will have landed a man on the

Moon by 2035, but some private companies are suggesting a landing before

2020. There is a wide range in plausibility for these various plans! NASA also

wants to send a manned mission to an asteroid, although this is much further

in the future.

The imperative need for humans to spread out across the Cosmos has really

been hammered home because of the Apollo Program: our tiny, insignificant,

yet infinitely beautiful planet cannot sustain us forever. Indeed, within the next

few hundred years, our hydrocarbon fuel reserves will dry up. While solar

energy could sustain us temporarily, our only viable option is to expand our

frontiers into space. While this will not happen in our lifetimes, I am sure that

within the next few thousand years, humans will be spread far across the

galaxy. The Apollo Program has changed the future just as much as it has

changed the present. We will take not only knowledge from it, but also

inspiration, for many centuries to come.

“When old dreams die, new ones come to take their place.

God pity a one-dream man.” Robert Goddard

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2. The Patch of the Apollo Program

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites

www.airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/

www.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080413015131AAdzNgK

www.apolloarchive.com/

www.apollohq.com/

www.astronomytoday.com/exploration/apollo.html

www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/solarsystem/space_missions/apollo_program

www.computerweekly.com/feature/Apollo-11-The-computers-that-put-man-on-the-moon

www.csgnetwork.com/satorbdatacalc.html

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_1

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_10

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_12

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_14

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_15

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_16

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_17

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_4

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_5

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_6

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_7

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_9

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnstorming

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_controller

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rockets

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_escape_system

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Joe_II

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www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_(rocket_family)

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_I

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_IB

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_V

www.georgesrockets.com/GRP/Scale/DATA/LJoeMain.htm

www.google.co.uk/moon/#

www.history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/kippsphotos/apollo.html

www.honeysucklecreek.net/msfn_missions/Apollo_7_mission/hl_apollo7.html

www.honeysucklecreek.net/msfn_missions/Apollo_8_mission/hl_apollo8.html

www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-TEC.html

www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20II

www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS07_TEC.PDF

www.myspacemuseum.com/apollocams.htm

www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/a11_audio_db.html

www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/nato_countries.htm

www.nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo.html

www.nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo.html

www.reddit.com/r/Apollo

www.reddit.com/r/space

www.space.com/12771-nasa-apollo-missions-photo-countdown.html

www.space.com/18422-apollo-saturn-v-moon-rocket-nasa-infographic.html

www.spacechronology.com/1940s.html

www.spacekids.co.uk/spacehistory/

www.spacequotations.com/apollo.html

www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/09/moondoggle-the-forgotten-opposition-to-the-

apollo-program/262254/

www.vimeo.com/4366695

www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HrLdLgdhpI

www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqeJzItldSQ

www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsObsxU08ys

Among many others

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Media Apollo 13 Directed by Ron Howard, Starring Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton. Screenplay by William Broyles Jr. and Al Reinert. Based on the book “Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13” by Jim Lovell and J. Kluger

The Log of Apollo 7 Written and Produced by George Van Valkenburg

Apollo 11 Landing Footage (Houston/Eagle) Reproduced by NASA

Apollo 11 Saturn V Launch (HD) Camera E-8 Narrated by Mark Gray

Apollo Launch Abort System Test Footage courtesy of NASA, Narrated by oisiaa

Books Apollo 7 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

Apollo 11 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

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153

Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

Prominent Greeks of Antiquity

Written by George Papadogeorgos

First on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin

E. Aldrin, Jr.

Written by the crew of Apollo 11

Footprints on the Moon

Written by John Barbour

Apollo 12 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

Apollo 9 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

Apollo 10 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript

Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office

Scans courtesy Glen Swanson

A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts

Written by Andrew L. Chaiken

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GLOSSARY Abort Cancel a mission, and return quickly and safely to Earth

Aerofoil A curved structure used as the basic form of the wings, fins, and tails of most aircraft.

Aeronautics The study of flight and aviation

Apogee The point at which a spacecraft is furthest from the Earth.

Atmosphere The envelope of gases surrounding a celestial body

Biplane A plane whose wings are made of two parallel pieces

Boilerplate A fake spacecraft with similar dimensions

Capsule Communicator

The man, usually an astronaut, at Mission Control who was tasked with communicating with the astronauts. All radio traffic usually went through him.

Celestial Body Any discernable, natural object in space.

Command Module

The part of the Apollo Spacecraft in which the astronauts took off, lived and re-entered in.

Command/Service Module

The Apollo spacecraft, which carried astronauts to the Moon.

Conspiracy Theory A belief that there is a major cover-up or lie being endorsed by the government or other influential organisation.

Controlled Flight A flight whose destination can be decided

Crust The outer layer of a solid celestial body

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Cryogenic Using very low temperatures

Earthrise The view seen on the Moon as the Earth rises over the lunar horizon.

Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager

The Mission Control manager responsible for oxygen, food, water, electrical systems, heating and other components relating to the astronauts’ welfare.

Extra-Vehicular Activity

Activities outside the spacecraft, such as moonwalks or spacewalks

Fuel Cell A cell producing an electric current direct from a chemical reaction.

Geology The study of rocks and minerals

Gliding A type of unpowered but controlled flight

Integrated Circuit An electronic circuit formed on a small piece of semiconducting material, which performs the same function as a larger circuit made from discrete components.

Ionosphere An area of the Earth’s atmosphere above 80km

Life Support Equipment used to maintain one’s vital functions

Low Earth Orbit Orbit of the Earth at a relatively low apogee

Lunar Relating to the Moon

Lunar Module

The part of the Apollo Spacecraft that landed the astronauts on the lunar surface.

Mach The speed of sound (Mach 2 = Mach 1 x 2 etc.) Manned Describes a craft that holds astronauts.

maria Lower areas on the lunar surface

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Mars A nearby planet that is the target of future space missions.

Mascon An area of high mass concentration that causes gravity increases.

Monoplane A plane with only one wing on each side

Moon The Earth’s only natural satellite, and the target of the Apollo Program.

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

NASA’s predecessor, and a pioneering organisation in flight and spaceflight

National Aeronautics and Space Agency

The organisation which ran the Apollo Program

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

A group of politically allied countries in Europe and North America

Orbit The regularly repeated elliptical course of a celestial object or spacecraft around a celestial body.

Oxidiser A substance that causes another substance to burn in oxygen

Periselene The point at which a craft is furthest from the Moon

Pitch Up To oscillate about a lateral axis perpendicular to the Longitudinal axis and horizontal to the earth.

Planet A celestial body, which orbits a star or binary system.

Pogo Oscillation Pogo oscillation is a dangerous type movement in rockets. It results in variations of thrust from the engines, causing variations of acceleration on the rocket's structure, giving variations in fuel pressure and flow rate. It can damage the rocket considerably.

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Powered Flight A flight powered by some sort of onboard engine

Random Access Memory

The memory used by a computer to perform calculations

Read-Only Memory

The memory a computer uses for storage of information

Roll Rotating laterally around the direction of travel

Sample A piece/bag of rock/dust

Seismic Relating to the vibrations of a celestial body’s crust

Selene The Greek Moon goddess

Service Module

The part of the Apollo Spacecraft responsible for providing oxygen, water and electricity and holding food.

Service Propulsion System

The rocket on the Service Module

S-IVB The third stage of the Saturn V rocket

Solar System A system of a star(or two), planets, moon and other objects such as asteroids and comets

Soviet Union The name for Russia from 1922 to 1991

Soyuz The Soviet manned spacecraft program

Suborbital At an altitude below Earth orbit

Synchronous Rotation

A phenomenon in which a moon or planet rotates one degree for every degree it orbits its parent body

Telemetry The automatic transmission of data.

terrae Higher areas on the lunar surface

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Abbreviations SPS Service Propulsion System

CSM Command/Service Module

LM/LEM Lunar (Excursion) Module

SM Service Module

CM Command Module

CAPCOM Capsule Communicator

EECOM Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager

LES Launch Escape System

TLI Trans-lunar Injection

TEI Trans-Earth Injection

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Agency

MLP Mobile Launcher Platform

MQF Mobile Quarantine Facility

MET Modular Equipment Transporter

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

USSR United Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Union)

RAM Random Access Memory

ROM Read-Only Memory

PLSS Portable Life-Support System

EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity

NACA The National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics

USAF The United States Air Force

Theia The proto-planet with collided with Earth to form the Moon

Trans-Earth Injection

An engine blast designed to point a spacecraft towards Earth

Vacuum An area completely devoid of matter

Wingspan The distance from the tip of one wing to the other

Zeppelin A large, hydrogen filled balloon with a gondola for carrying passengers.

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TABLE OF FIGURES 0. “Earthrise” – taken by William Anders on Apollo 8 – 1968……………………..………………………………………..….2

1. The first human steps on The Moon ........................................................................................................... 4

2b. The patch of the Apollo Program ............................................................................................................10

3. Apollo 12 launches from the Kennedy Space Center ................................................................................11

4. Buzz Aldrin near a solar wind experiment ................................................................................................11

5. Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee, the Apollo 1 crew who died in a launchpad fire and

became the first astronauts to die in service. ..............................................................................................12

6. An artist's impression of the first Montgolfier flight in Paris. ...................................................................14

7. Henri Giffard's airship ...............................................................................................................................14

8. "La France": the first fully controllable airship .........................................................................................15

9. Sir George Cayley’s design for a "governable parachute" ........................................................................16

10. Felix du Temple's "Monoplane" ..............................................................................................................16

11. The Wright Brothers' First Flight .............................................................................................................17

12. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied fighter plane in the First World War ...........................18

13. A Fokker plane, similar to the one used by The Red Baron ....................................................................18

14. Amelia Earhart, a famous barnstormer ..................................................................................................19

15. The Hindenburg Disaster ........................................................................................................................19

16. The gigantic Dornier DO X seaplane. ......................................................................................................20

17. The TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter ...................................................................................................20

18. The Me 163, the first and only rocket-powered combat plane. .............................................................21

19. The NACA's logo ......................................................................................................................................23

20. A map of European Cold War Alliances ..................................................................................................24

21. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space ........................................................................................................25

22. President Dwight Eisenhower .................................................................................................................27

23. NASA's logo .............................................................................................................................................27

24. The X-15, the fastest manned aircraft in history ....................................................................................29

25. The "Mercury Seven". Back row: Shepard, Grissom, Cooper; front row: Schirra, Slayton, Glenn,

Carpenter ......................................................................................................................................................30

26. The Gemini Spacecraft ............................................................................................................................31

27. The launch of Gemini VIII ........................................................................................................................31

28. Ed White performing the first U.S. spacewalk ........................................................................................32

29. An artist's impression of the collision of Earth and Theia ......................................................................34

30. A Soviet map of the Moon's near side ....................................................................................................35

31. The Moon's interior structure .................................................................................................................36

32. Lunar surface composition......................................................................................................................36

33. John Young jumping on the Moon ..........................................................................................................36

34. A diagram showing how a rocket can move in a vacuum .......................................................................38

35. A comparison between liquid-fuel and solid-fuel rockets ......................................................................39

36. The engine of a liquid-fuel rocket ...........................................................................................................40

37. A depiction of an early Chinese rocket ...................................................................................................41

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38. A portrait of Roger Bacon .......................................................................................................................42

39. Robert Goddard with his rocket .............................................................................................................43

40. A comparison of the four Apollo rockets ................................................................................................45

41. Little Joe II ...............................................................................................................................................46

42. Saturn I ....................................................................................................................................................47

43. Saturn IB ..................................................................................................................................................48

44. Saturn V...................................................................................................................................................49

45. A diagram of the Saturn V rocket ...........................................................................................................50

46. A diagram of the Apollo spacecraft ........................................................................................................51

47. The LES tower .........................................................................................................................................51

48. The Apollo CSM .......................................................................................................................................52

49. The CSM above the Moon ......................................................................................................................52

50. A detailed diagram of the LM .................................................................................................................53

51. The Apollo 11 LM descending .................................................................................................................53

52. The crawler-transporter on the crawlerway ...........................................................................................54

53. The Mobile Launcher Platform ...............................................................................................................55

54. The Apollo 11 MQF in a museum ............................................................................................................55

55. The Apollo 16 ALSEP setup .....................................................................................................................56

56. Alan Shepard planting the U.S. Flag ........................................................................................................57

57. An Apollo Television camera ...................................................................................................................57

58. The MET during testing on Earth ............................................................................................................58

59. The Apollo 15 LRV ...................................................................................................................................58

60. Buzz Aldrin wearing the A7L ...................................................................................................................59

61. A diagram of the A7L ..............................................................................................................................59

62. "Fallen Astronaut" and memorial plaque ...............................................................................................60

63. SA-1 .........................................................................................................................................................62

64. SA-2 .........................................................................................................................................................63

65. SA-3 .........................................................................................................................................................64

66. SA-4 .........................................................................................................................................................65

67. SA-5 .........................................................................................................................................................66

68. A-101 .......................................................................................................................................................67

69. A-102 .......................................................................................................................................................68

70. A-103 .......................................................................................................................................................69

71. The Pegasus I satellite .............................................................................................................................69

72. A-104 .......................................................................................................................................................70

73. A-105 .......................................................................................................................................................71

74. The LES firing in Pad Abort Test 1 ...........................................................................................................72

75. Pad Abort Test 2......................................................................................................................................73

76. The LES from the Little Joe II QTV (See overleaf) ....................................................................................73

77. The Little Joe II QTV ................................................................................................................................74

78. A-001 .......................................................................................................................................................75

79. A-002 .......................................................................................................................................................76

80. The breakup of A-003 .............................................................................................................................77

81. A-004 .......................................................................................................................................................78

82. AS-201 .....................................................................................................................................................79

83. AS-203 .....................................................................................................................................................80

84. AS-202 .....................................................................................................................................................81

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85. The crew of Apollo 1 ...............................................................................................................................82

86. The Apollo 1 burnt-out capsule interior .................................................................................................83

87. The remains of Grissom's pressure suit ..................................................................................................84

88. The burnt capsule ...................................................................................................................................84

89. NASA directors testify before a Senate hearing .....................................................................................85

90. The launch of Apollo 4 ............................................................................................................................86

91. The Earth, as seen by Apollo 4 ................................................................................................................86

92. The launch of Apollo 5 ............................................................................................................................87

93. The launch of Apollo 6 ............................................................................................................................88

94. The crew of Apollo 7 ...............................................................................................................................89

95. The launch of Apollo 7 ............................................................................................................................90

96. The S-IVB with partially closed panel on right ........................................................................................90

97. A still from the first live TV broadcast .....................................................................................................91

98. The cramped CM interior ........................................................................................................................91

99. Part of the original transmission logs, showing the conflict between crew and mission control ..........92

100. R. Walter Cunningham ..........................................................................................................................93

101. The crew of Apollo 8 .............................................................................................................................95

102. Apollo 8 on the launchpad ....................................................................................................................96

103. The launch of Apollo 8 ..........................................................................................................................96

104. The Earth seen from Apollo 8 ...............................................................................................................97

105. The jettisoned SIV-B ..............................................................................................................................97

106. The lunar surface, seen from Apollo 8 ..................................................................................................98

107. The Apollo 9 crew .................................................................................................................................99

108. Russell Schweickart during the EVA ....................................................................................................100

109. The LM during practice manoeuvers ..................................................................................................100

110. The crew of Apollo 9 ...........................................................................................................................101

111. The launch of Apollo 9 ........................................................................................................................102

112. Earthrise from Apollo 9 .......................................................................................................................102

113. The Apollo 10 LM descending .............................................................................................................103

114. The Apollo 11 crew .............................................................................................................................104

115. The Apollo 11 LM descending .............................................................................................................105

116. The launch of Apollo 11, July 16th 1969 ..............................................................................................106

117. The Apollo Guidance Computer ..........................................................................................................108

118. A map of Tranquility Base, showing craters and photographs ...........................................................109

119. Neil Armstrong descending the LM's ladder .......................................................................................109

120. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon ....................................................................................................................110

121. Neil Armstrong saluting the flag .........................................................................................................110

122. The Apollo 11 EASEP being deployed .................................................................................................111

123. An armalcolite sample, first discovered on the Moon........................................................................111

124. The plaque left on the Moon ..............................................................................................................112

125. Part of the original text of the speech ................................................................................................112

126. The lunar flag being blown over during ascent ..................................................................................113

127. The CM being recovered .....................................................................................................................114

128. The astronauts under quarantine .......................................................................................................114

129. The Apollo 12 crew .............................................................................................................................115

130. The Apollo 12 launch ..........................................................................................................................116

131. The Surveyor 3 probe ..........................................................................................................................117

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132. The Apollo 12 LM ................................................................................................................................117

133. The solar eclipse seen by Apollo 12 ....................................................................................................118

134. The Apollo 13 crew .............................................................................................................................119

135. The launch of Apollo 13 ......................................................................................................................120

136. The damage on the SM (seen after jettison) ......................................................................................120

137. The rescue options for Apollo 13 ........................................................................................................121

138. Mission Control staff trying to make a replacement air filter ............................................................121

139. The replacement air scrubber being fitted .........................................................................................122

140. Apollo 13 splashdown .........................................................................................................................123

141. The Apollo 13 crew being recovered ..................................................................................................123

142. The Apollo 14 crew .............................................................................................................................124

143. The Apollo 14 launch ..........................................................................................................................125

144. Alan Shepard with the flag ..................................................................................................................126

145. The tracks left by the MET ..................................................................................................................126

146. Shepard with his makeshift golf club ..................................................................................................127

147. The Apollo 14 splashdown ..................................................................................................................127

148. The Apollo 15 crew .............................................................................................................................128

149. Scott and Irwin in training ...................................................................................................................129

150. The launch of Apollo 15 ......................................................................................................................129

151. Irwin saluting the flag .........................................................................................................................130

152. The LRV ...............................................................................................................................................130

153. Scott demonstrating Galileo's theory with a hammer and a feather .................................................131

154. Apollo 15 splashdown with only two chutes ......................................................................................131

155. The Apollo 16 crew .............................................................................................................................132

156. The launch of Apollo 16 ......................................................................................................................133

157. The LRV ...............................................................................................................................................133

158. Shadow Rock .......................................................................................................................................134

159. The LM ascent stage firing ..................................................................................................................134

160. Mattingly performs a spacewalk .........................................................................................................135

161. The Apollo 17 crew .............................................................................................................................136

162. The jettisoned S-IVB ............................................................................................................................137

163. Schmitt near a large boulder ..............................................................................................................137

164. The launch of Apollo 13, December 7th 1972: The final launch of the Apollo Program ....................138

165. Eugene Cernan near the flag and LRV.................................................................................................140

166. The Apollo 17 splashdown ..................................................................................................................140

167. The Apollo flight computer .................................................................................................................142

168. Skylab ..................................................................................................................................................142

169. An artist's impression of the Apollo-Soyuz docking ............................................................................143

170. The cover of the film Apollo 13 ...........................................................................................................144

171. Michael Collins' photo, containing every human bar himself ............................................................144

172. The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 crew ...................................................................................145

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INDEX A

A7L · 6, 59, 109, 126, 157

ABORT · 125

Abort Guidance System · 103, 122

aborted · 79, 87, 110, 124, 125

aeronautics · 12

Air Force · 23, 29, 93

aircraft · 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 29, 38, 114, 156

airship · 15, 19, 156

Albert II · 26

Aldrin · 26, 32, 95, 98, 104, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,

115, 153, 156, 157, 158

ALSEP · 6, 56, 118, 126, 131, 134, 137, 157

aluminium · 16, 19, 60, 120

America · 12, 24, 136, 140, 147

Anders · 95, 98, 104, 156

apogee · 70, 96

Apollo · 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 25, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 40, 45,

46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,

62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79,

80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95,

96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 111,

112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124,

125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 140,

142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156,

157, 158, 159

Apollo 1 · 12, 59, 82, 89, 90

Apollo 10 · 49, 57, 101

Apollo 11 · 4, 34, 49, 55, 56, 57, 98, 101, 103, 104, 105,

112, 115, 117, 118, 126, 144, 147, 152, 153

Apollo 12 · 49, 56, 58, 117, 126

Apollo 13 · 12, 49, 53, 58, 65, 144

Apollo 14 · 49, 58, 129

Apollo 15 · 49, 129

Apollo 16 · 49

Apollo 17 · 49, 144

Apollo 4 · 86

Apollo 5 · 7

Apollo 6 · 48, 49

Apollo 7 · 48, 93, 152

Apollo 8 · 49

Apollo 9 · 49

armalcolite · 111, 158

Armstrong · 4, 11, 12, 26, 95, 98, 104, 108, 109, 110,

111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 142, 147, 153, 158

ascent propulsion system · 53

asteroids · 148

astronaut · 60, 110, 113, 142

Atlantic · 19, 62, 89, 99, 100

B

Bacon · 42, 152, 156

balloon · 14, 15

barnstormer · 156

Bean · 58, 115, 116, 118

Blue Marble · 144, 159

bomber · 21

booster · 39, 40, 46

Borman · 95, 97, 98, 111

Brand · 128

Brazil · 19

Britain · 20, 43

broadcast · 91, 98, 108, 109, 158

C

Cabral · 19

Camera · 6, 57, 152

CAPCOM · 91, 92, 93, 108, 116, 129, 155

Cape Canaveral · 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,

79, 80, 81, 82, 87, 89, 129

carbon · 36, 38, 42, 60, 122

Casper · 132, 133

Cayley · 16, 156

Çelebi · 42

Cernan · 90, 101, 102, 103, 124, 136, 137, 140, 159

Chaffee · 12, 82, 83, 84, 85, 156

Cheremukhin · 20

chimpanzees · 30

Cold War · 5, 24, 25, 26, 156

Collins · 104, 105, 113, 114, 144, 153, 159

Columbia · 104, 105, 114

Columbus · 147, 150

combat · 18, 21, 91, 156

combustion · 16, 39, 40

Command Module · 51, 52, 84, 85, 96, 100, 102, 105,

114, 116, 121, 123, 127, 154, 155

Command/Service Module · 52, 79, 80, 97, 102, 135, 154

commercial · 20

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164

communion · 108

composition · 12, 39, 156

computer · 12, 34, 66, 67, 68, 79, 87, 103, 105, 108, 120,

125, 142, 159

Congress · 27

Conrad · 58, 99, 115, 116, 117, 118

conspiracy · 4, 146

Conspiracy · 9, 146

controlled · 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 39, 42

Cooper · 101, 156

countdown · 137, 151

Coutinho · 19

crater · 98, 134

Crawler-Transporter · 6, 54

crust · 34, 36

CSM · 6, 48, 52, 53, 67, 68, 69, 75, 79, 80, 82, 83, 88, 89,

90, 95, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 115, 116, 117,

119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135,

136, 137, 140, 142, 154, 157

Cuba · 24

culture · 12, 144

cyanide · 113

D

d'Arlandes · 14

de Villette · 14

descent · 53, 72, 87, 102, 105, 109, 122, 125, 130, 133,

137

descent propulsion system · 53

Distinguished Service Medal · 94

docking · 32, 90, 99, 100, 125, 130, 133, 137, 159

Dornier DO X · 20, 156

du Temple · 16, 156

Duke · 108, 132, 133, 135, 136

dust · 110, 137

E

Eagle · 26, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 114, 152

Earhart · 19, 156

Earth · 8, 11, 12, 26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56,

57, 63, 64, 67, 68, 73, 80, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102,

109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 121, 122, 124,

127, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137, 140, 142, 144, 147, 154,

156, 157, 158

Earthrise · 98, 156, 158

EASEP · 56, 109, 111, 158

EECOM · 116, 155

Eisele · 89, 93, 101

Eisenhower · 11, 27, 112, 156

electrical · 32, 79, 120, 122

England · 16

Engle · 124

equipment · 12, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 92, 113, 122, 137,

143

EVA · 32, 85, 99, 100, 108, 109, 110, 122, 126, 130, 131,

134, 136, 137, 140, 146, 158

Evans · 124, 136, 140

exhaust · 38, 55, 114, 116

experiment · 131, 135, 156

exploded · 77, 119, 120

F

F-35 · 29

Fallaci · 117

far side · 95

fire · 12, 14, 20, 41, 59, 82, 84, 87, 88, 90, 112, 116, 156

First World War · 5, 18, 19, 156

flag · 57, 111, 114, 131, 158, 159

flight · 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 29, 30, 42, 45, 47, 48, 51, 53,

62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 81,

83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103,

115, 120, 121, 127, 128, 130, 136, 137, 142, 143, 147,

156, 159

Folie Titon · 14

footage · 12, 118, 144

Fra Mauro · 124, 126

Froissart · 42

Fruit flies · 25

fuel · 21, 32, 38, 39, 40, 48, 62, 64, 65, 67, 79, 80, 81, 83,

84, 103, 108, 116, 121, 122, 123, 148, 154, 156

fuel cell · 116, 123

G

Gagarin · 26, 30, 112, 156

Galileo · 131, 159

Garros · 18

geology · 12, 129

Germany · 20, 43

Giffard · 15, 156

Glenn · 30, 156

glider · 16

Goddard · 39, 40, 43, 148, 157

golf · 12, 124, 126, 159

Gordon · 99, 101, 115, 128

Graf · 20

gravity · 36, 102, 110, 121, 124, 131

Grissom · 12, 82, 83, 84, 156, 158

Grumman · 53, 123

gunpowder · 16, 38, 41, 42

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H

Hadley · 60, 129, 131

Hadley Rille · 60, 129, 131

Haise · 95, 104, 119, 123, 132

Hasselblad · 57

hatch · 84, 85, 100, 109, 130

helicopter · 20, 156

helmet · 59, 93, 126

Hoeydonck · 60

Homer · 147

Hot Air · 5, 14

Houston · 104, 108, 119, 140, 152

Human Spaceflight · 11

hydrogen · 14, 19, 36, 40, 48, 66, 80, 120

I

ignition · 39, 85

impact · 21, 34, 35, 36

injection · 96, 116

insignia · 87

integrated circuits · 142

iron · 36

Irwin · 115, 119, 128, 130, 131, 159

J

Jardin des Tuileries · 14

Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier · 14

jet · 20, 21, 29, 38

jettison · 90, 121, 159

K

Kennedy · 11, 49, 86, 88, 93, 95, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105,

111, 112, 115, 116, 119, 124, 128, 129, 132, 136, 137,

150, 156

killed · 12, 18, 82, 84, 103, 116

King Louis XVI · 14

Kraft · 94

Krebs · 15

L

La France · 15, 156

Laika · 26

L'Albatros artificiel · 16

landing · 4, 11, 20, 26, 31, 42, 53, 56, 73, 75, 76, 79, 87,

92, 93, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 108, 111, 115,

117, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136,

137, 144, 147, 148

Langley · 27

launch · 4, 26, 31, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55, 57, 62, 64, 65,

69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 86, 88, 90,

91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 105, 114, 116, 118, 129, 133, 137,

156, 158, 159

Launch Escape System · 6, 51, 67, 155

launchpad · 12, 51, 55, 156, 158

Le Bris · 16

Leon Silver · 129

LES · 7, 46, 51, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 84, 155, 157

life support · 59, 79, 84, 100, 113

lightning · 116

Lindbergh · 19

Little Joe II · 45, 46, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78

LM · 48, 53, 58, 89, 90, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,

104, 105, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120,

121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133,

134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 155, 157, 158, 159

Lockheed Martin · 29

Lovell · 95, 98, 104, 119, 152

LRV · 58, 131, 132, 134, 137, 157, 159

Luna · 26, 117

lunar · 11, 32, 35, 36, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 87, 88, 90, 96,

97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114,

115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131,

132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 146, 151, 158

Lunar Flag Assembly · 6, 57

Lunar Module · 6, 52, 53, 58, 59, 87, 88, 90, 96, 100, 102,

103, 105, 120, 122, 133, 137, 154

Lunokhod · 59

M

Mach 1 · 29

Magellan · 147, 150

manned · 4, 11, 14, 17, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 42, 45, 48, 66,

82, 83, 95, 99, 101, 115, 128, 136, 137, 142, 143, 148,

156

manoeuvre · 31, 76, 78, 97

mare · 132

Mare Cognitum · 117

Mare Tranquillitatis · 98, 105

Mars · 4, 34, 148

Mattingly · 119, 132, 135, 159

McDivitt · 82, 99, 100

Me 163 · 21, 156

micrometeorite · 69

military · 18, 23, 27, 42

mission control · 79, 91, 102, 158

Mitchell · 124, 125, 126, 132

Mobile Launcher Platform · 6, 55, 157

Mobile Quarantine Facility · 6, 55

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Modular Equipment Transporter · 6, 58, 126

monkey · 26

Monoplane · 16, 156

Montgolfier · 14, 156

Moon · 4, 11, 151

motion sickness · 91

N

NACA · 5, 23, 27, 29, 156

NASA · 4, 5, 13, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29, 31, 47, 54, 55, 59, 63,

81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 91, 93, 94, 97, 103, 108, 111, 114,

125, 126, 128, 129, 148, 151, 152, 156, 158

Newton · 38

nitrate · 38, 42

North Ray Crater · 134

nuclear · 24

Number 21 · 17

O

Ocean of Storms · 115, 117

Oceanus Procellarum · 115, 117

Odysseus · 147

Operations · 8, 83, 109, 117, 126, 130, 133, 137

orbit · 24, 26, 30, 31, 34, 36, 47, 49, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,

80, 88, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 105, 113,

114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 129, 130, 135, 136, 137, 144

Orion · 132, 133, 134

Orteig Prize · 19

oxygen · 36, 60, 119, 120, 121, 123, 130

P

parachute · 72, 73, 75, 76, 116, 156

Paris · 14, 98, 156

Pegasus · 7, 69, 70, 71, 157

Pegoud · 18

photograph · 17

plane · 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 29, 156

planet · 4, 34, 95, 112, 142, 144, 147, 148

PLSS · 109, 110

pogo oscillations · 88, 96, 120

Portugal · 19

potassium · 36, 42

powered · 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 29, 54, 58, 102, 122,

125, 156

President · 11, 27, 55, 111, 112, 114, 125, 156

pressure · 39, 59, 67, 76, 79, 85, 92, 120, 121, 154, 158

Program · 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 25, 29, 30, 34, 36, 40, 45, 51,

53, 54, 59, 62, 67, 69, 70, 77, 82, 83, 85, 99, 108, 115,

125, 131, 136, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 152, 153, 159

Project Gemini · 5, 30, 31, 83

Project Highwater · 63, 64

Project Mercury · 5, 11, 30

propellant · 38, 39, 40, 64

pyroxferroite · 111

R

radar · 21, 102, 105, 125

radiation · 57, 146

record · 20, 32, 49, 96, 98, 101, 135, 140

recovery · 55, 73, 79, 113, 119, 123, 127

Red Baron · 18, 156

re-entry · 52, 81, 88, 92, 93, 116, 121, 123, 131

Renard · 15

rendezvous · 32, 83, 90, 92, 105, 114

Réveillon · 14

Rio de Janeiro · 19

Robert · 14, 39, 43, 148, 157

rock · 12, 34, 58, 111, 120, 126, 134, 140

rocket · 6, 21, 25, 26, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 49,

51, 52, 54, 55, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 74, 75, 77,

79, 80, 83, 86, 88, 96, 97, 116, 137, 142, 151, 154,

156, 157

Roosa · 124, 127, 132, 136

S

saltpetre · 42

sample · 110, 134, 136, 158

samples · 4, 12, 58, 111, 124, 126, 131, 132, 134, 137,

140, 148

satellite · 26, 27, 34, 69, 70, 71, 157

Saturn I · 6, 45, 47, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,

71, 157

Saturn IB · 6, 45, 47, 48, 54, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 89, 90,

142, 157

Saturn V · 6, 40, 45, 49, 54, 55, 86, 88, 95, 99, 101, 104,

105, 115, 116, 119, 124, 128, 132, 136, 137, 142, 152,

157

SCE · 116

Schmitt · 128, 136, 137, 140, 159

Schweickart · 82, 99, 100, 158

Scott · 82, 99, 100, 115, 128, 129, 130, 131, 159

Sea of Tranquillity · 103, 105

Service Module · 47, 52, 88, 90, 121, 122, 154, 155

Shepard · 11, 30, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 156, 157, 159

S-IC · 96, 129

sites · 12, 35, 98, 129, 134

S-IVB · 48, 80, 90, 96, 97, 102, 105, 116, 117, 120, 154,

158, 159

Skylab · 8, 48, 52, 59, 142, 159

Slayton · 91, 143, 156

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SM · 105, 116, 119, 120, 121, 133, 140, 155, 159

smoke · 84

soil · 36, 110, 111, 135, 140

solar energy · 148

solid-fuel · 39, 156

Solid-Fuel · 6, 38

South Pole-Aitken Basin · 35

Soviet · 20, 24, 25, 26, 30, 112, 143, 156

Soyuz · 8, 51, 52, 91, 143, 159

Space Adaption Syndrome · 97

Space Race · 5, 24, 25, 26, 104, 143

space shuttle · 40

spacecraft · 11, 26, 31, 32, 38, 46, 52, 54, 66, 67, 68, 69,

70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88, 91, 95,

96, 97, 98, 100, 102, 105, 116, 118, 130, 135, 143,

154, 157

spacesuit · 59, 60, 100, 109

splashdown · 8, 52, 55, 100, 118, 122, 123, 159

SPS · 90, 97, 98, 121, 135, 154

Sputnik · 26, 27

Stafford · 90, 101, 102, 103

stars · 113, 146, 147

Statio Cognitum · 117

steam · 15, 16

stirring · 120

Stringfellow · 16

sulphur · 38, 42

Sun · 34, 118, 143

Surveyor 3 · 115, 117, 118, 158

Swedenborg · 15

Swigert · 91, 119, 120

T

Technology · 8, 9, 143

TEI · 98, 155

telemetry · 64, 78, 79, 116

Tereshkova · 26

test. · 12, 83, 96

The Odyssey · 147

Theia · 34, 156

TLI · 8, 88, 96, 97, 105, 116, 120, 125, 129, 130, 133, 137,

155

Tranquility · 108, 158

tranquillityite · 111

TsAGI 1-EA · 20, 156

TV · 6, 30, 57, 91, 92, 98, 102, 103, 109, 111, 118, 122,

144, 146, 158

U

U.S. · 17, 23, 25, 26, 27, 85, 111, 143, 156, 157

Una Ronald · 146

unmanned · 16, 17, 30, 32, 45, 46, 48, 79, 87, 117, 142

untethered · 14

USS Hornet · 114, 118

USS New Orleans · 127

USS Ticonderoga · 135, 140

V

vacuum · 36, 38, 118, 156

Vehicle Assembly Building · 54, 55

velocity · 39, 78, 88, 96, 121

video · 12, 110

von Braun · 49

von Richthofen · 18

W

Walker · 29

water · 41, 59, 63, 92, 122, 123

Weißkopf · 17

White · 12, 32, 46, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84,

85, 111, 156

Williams · 99, 101

wind · 36, 57, 146, 156

wings · 15, 29

Wintgens · 18

Worden · 115, 128, 129, 130, 131

World War I · 19

World War II · 19, 20, 21, 24, 25

Wright Brothers · 17, 156

X

X-1 · 23, 29

X-2 · 29

X-35 · 29

X-5 · 29

X-plane · 29

Y

Young · 90, 101, 102, 119, 132, 133, 135, 136, 156

Yuriev · 20

Z

zeppelin · 14, 20

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