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Birdson the FarmA Stewardship Guide

Written by Erin McGauley

Edited by Gregor G. Beck and Anne Bell

Spring 2004

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Introduction – 4

Homestead Areas – 8Boxes and TunnelsPlanting Native VegetationOntario Barn Owl Recovery ProjectCedar Waxwing

Cropland Techniques – 14Conservation TillageVoracious Visitors Vesper SparrowOther Cropland TechniquesCrop RotationStrip Cropping and Grassy BordersCover CropsNorthern Bobwhite

Pest Management and Organics – 23Trends in Pesticide UseReducing Exposure to PesticidesIntegrated Pest ManagementAgriculture is for the Birds!Birds Can Help Prevent Your Pest Problems

Grasslands – 27Rotational GrazingPasture and Hayfield SpeciesHayingLoggerhead ShrikeCase Study: Rotational GrazingBobolinkEastern MeadowlarkUpland Sandpiper

Marginal Farmland – 38Deciding to Retire Your LandRetired Farmland is for the BirdsBrown ThrasherEastern Towhee

Strip Habitat – 43Strip Habitat is Critical for BirdsStrip Cover Design TipsCowbird Parasitism and Yellow WarblersStrip Cover Specifics highlightIndigo BuntingEastern Kingbird

Woodlands – 49Interior Forest HabitatBigger is Better

Contents

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Naturalizing Tree PlantationsScarlet TanagerRed-eyed Vireo

Water Resources – 55If it Isn’t Broken…Buffer StripsBuffers for What?Birds Benefit from BuffersLivestock and Waterways Don’t MixThe Multiple Benefits of ExclusionExclusion FencingAlternate Watering Systems Common YellowthroatAmerican Woodcock

Monitoring for Success – 64Christmas Bird CountOntario Nest Record SchemeProject FeederWatchOntario Breeding Bird Atlas

Getting Help – Sources of Information – 67 and Assistance

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“In New England they oncethought blackbirds uselessand mischievous to the corn.They made efforts to destroythem. The consequence was,the blackbirds were dimin-ished; but a kind of worm,which devoured their grass,and which the blackbirdsused to feed on, increasedprodigiously . . . they wishedagain for their blackbirds.”Benjamin Franklin, 1749

People who live much of theirlife outside are very aware ofbirds, perhaps more so than anyother life form. We notice thenoisy return of killdeers in theearly spring, the clear sweetsong of a meadowlark from afence post in the early summer,or the clamour of gulls follow-ing the tractor on a warm sum-mer evening. Old timers will tellyou that the birds are differentnow. The fact is that the num-bers and types of birds aroundus are always changing inresponse to how we use andmanage the land and water.

In Southern Ontario, twotrends have meant bad newsfor many species of birds:

1. the countryside is increasing-ly becoming urbanized, and

2. the remaining farmland is being farmed increasinglyintensively.

For example, between 1966and 1986, agricultural use ofland declined from 68% to54% in Southern Ontario as aresult of urbanization. Duringthe same period, the percent-age of forest on agriculturalland dropped from 12% to5.5%. Most counties andtownships now have less than15% forest cover, and somehave less than 5% (Riley &Mohr, 1994).

At the same time, the proportionof small family farms declinedrelative to large corporate farms.A nation-wide trend, Canadianfarms are increasing in size anddecreasing in number, with theaverage farm size havingincreased from 50 hectares in1990 to 250 hectares in the mid-1990s (Wildlife Habitat Canada,2001).

Larger farms mean less diversi-fied farming and more row-crop-ping. As pasture is converted tocropland, sometimes hedgerowsare removed to increase field

Introduction

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size, and fields are ploughed totheir edges, eliminating grassybuffer strips. Equipment is get-ting larger, and hedgerows aretaken out to facilitate the move-ment of equipment betweenfields. Overall, this trend towardmore intensive agriculture isresulting in a simplified and con-stantly disturbed landscape,often more reliant on chemicalinputs. Impacts include ground-water contamination, decliningsurface water quality, and thedegradation and loss of wildlifehabitat. According to many researchers,the intensification and special-ization of farms in Ontario iscontributing to the populationdeclines of many species ofbirds (Friesen, 1994). For exam-ple, more than 90% of grass-land birds declined in easternNorth America between 1966and 1989; two species affected,the Henslow’s sparrow and log-gerhead shrike, are now listedas Endangered (Austen et al.,1994). Similarly, the clearing offorests has resulted in declinesof forest-dependent speciessuch as the whip-poor-will,scarlet tanager and ovenbird(Austen et al., 1994).

If we have the ability tomake the landscape worse forbirds, then surely we also have

the ability to improve it. And thatis what this guide book is about:improving habitat around thefarm for birds. There are many

good reasons to do so, someeconomic, some ecological andsome more personal.

Starting with the more personalreasons, it is probably fair to saythat most people enjoy lookingat and listening to birds. It wouldbe hard to imagine a silentspring, without the chorus ofbird song greeting us when westep out of the house in themorning. Through their song,movement, and comings andgoings, birds connect us to thenatural world and remind us thatwe are part of a living planet.

It is up to each of us to ensurethat bird populations remainhealthy. While the individualactions of landowners mayappear to have little effect on thebig picture, collectively theirimpact is profound. Hence, asone small farm after another isaffected by more intensive agri-cultural practices, we witnessdeclines in entire groups ofspecies such as grasslands birds.

Ironically, when birds disappearfrom the countryside becausethe habitat is no longer suitable,it is the landowners who maylose out, especially financially. Ona farm that is managed con-sciously to benefit birds, the birdsthemselves can be of consider-able benefit to the farmer.Consider:

• In Alberta, a pair of savan-nah sparrows (one of the

Introduction

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most common breedingbirds in mixed farmingregions in Ontario) wasfound to consume over fivekilograms of insects and spi-ders during a breeding sea-son. This would amount toabout 3.7 kilograms or149,000 grasshoppers perseason.

• In one study, birds removed64% of over-wintering cornborers in one year and 82%in another year.

• In Ohio, white-breastednuthatch, brown creeperand downy woodpeckerreduce codling moth larvaeby over 90%.

• In pecan groves, a tufted tit-mouse was found to eat2,100 case bearer larvae,saving pecan growers anestimated 52,000 nuts.

• Birds have a strong prefer-ence for pests: they eat 16times more pest insects thanbeneficial insects.

• Birds cause 72% mortalityof spruce budworm larvaeand pupae.

• In one study, evening gros-beaks ate 3,036,000spruce budworms persquare kilometre at onesite and 8,900,000 persquare kilometre at anoth-er. The financial benefitswere estimated at $1,820per square kilometre (1995dollar value).

Bird-Friendly FarmingIn most intensively farmed

areas, there are opportunities toimprove bird habitat whilemeeting farm business objec-tives. Modern farming tec-niques such as conservation

tillage, riparian buffer strips,and integrated pest manage-ment play important roles inenhancing and creating bird-friendly habitat on farms, andcan result in significant savingsfor farmers. Incorporating eco-logical management techniquessuch as those outlined in thisbook has many benefits forindividual landowners, the envi-ronment and society at large:

• Crop residues left on landin combination with no-tillcropping can reduce soilerosion by 80% andimprove water quality.

• Fencerows slow wind speedsby 15%, lowering associatederosion rates, saving valuabletop soil and acting as livingsnow fences.

• Shelterbelts can lowerenergy needs by 10-30%while offering livestockshade in summer and shel-ter in the rain and cold.

• Woodlots can provide fire-

Introduction

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wood as well as buildingmaterials, nuts and maplesyrup to supplement farmincome.

• Buffer strips protect groundand stream water qualityand filter nutrients, particu-larly nitrates, from runoff.

• Herd health is improvedwhen livestock is kept out ofwaterways.

• Enhancing farmland forbirds results in better insectand rodent control.

What this guide book is about

As a general rule, almost anypractice that reduces soil erosion,improves water quality, reducespesticide use and diversifiesfarming operations will likelybenefit birds (Best, 1990).Throughout this guide book, wehave highlighted some of themost readily available ecologicalmanagement techniques thathelp protect birds and their habi-tat. Each technique is briefly out-lined, as are the economic,environmental and/or social ben-efits of their implementation.

Various bird species that maybenefit from your actions arenamed in the descriptions ofthe management techniques. Inaddition, each section featuresone to three profiles of particu-lar bird species to give you abetter idea of the birds that canbenefit from the implementa-tion of the management tech-niques described.

At the back of the book youwill find a listing of publications and websites where you canobtain additional informationon the featured managementtechniques. There is also a com-prehensive listing of organiza-tions that can provide advice onfarming and conservation top-ics, including a summary ofsome financial assistance pro-grams to help offset up-frontcosts of implementing ecologi-cal farming methods.

Good land stewardship involvesdeveloping an understanding ofthe birds that use your farm,their habitat needs and thetechniques to manage thathabitat for the good of bothbirds and the farm. We hopethat this guide book demon-strates that bird-friendly farm-ing and sound farmmanagement can support andbenefit each other, and thattogether these approaches canresult in economic savings andecological benefits for farmers.

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Hom

estead Areas

Imagine being able to watch birds in their natu-

ral habitat and admire them from the comfort of the

kitchen table or the porch. By enhancing the area

around a farm homestead so that it is attractive to

birds, you can create year-round bird watching oppor-

tunities for you and your family. Installing nesting struc-

tures for birds and planting trees and shrubs that

provide food and cover for birds are two of the most

readily accessible ways of creating a bird-friendly

homestead.

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Boxes and Tunnels

Nesting boxes are inex-pensive to build, easy tomaintain, and provide

important nesting areas formany species of cavity-nestingbirds. Some of these birds,such as eastern bluebirds, pur-ple martins, tree swallows andAmerican kestrels can helpcontrol insects and small mam-mals on the farm! Wood duckswill also use nesting boxes,while other waterfowl, such asmallards, will use nesting tun-nels. Keep in mind that it maytake a few years after the nest-ing structure is installed beforeit is inhabited.

Below are a few guidelines to fol-low when building or installingnesting boxes for birds:

• Use weather-resistantwood such as cedar, pineor hemlock for nestingboxes, if possible. Do notuse pressure-treated lum-ber, since the chemicalscould harm nesting birdsand chicks.

• Match the size of the nest-ing box opening to thespecies of bird you wouldlike to attract. (Otherwiseyou may encourage house

sparrows and Europeanstarlings.)

• Place the box in habitatthat is suitable for thedesired species and whereit will be relatively undis-turbed for the entire nest-ing season.

• Install the box so that theopening is protected fromthe prevailing direction ofwind and rain and so thatit is protected from directsunlight.

• Protect nesting boxes frompredators. Ensure thatboxes are placed at anadequate height andinstall them on poles awayfrom shrubs and trees.Include a baffle or guardon the pole to prevent rac-coon or cat predation.

• Clean nesting boxes inearly spring before thebirds return. Waiting untilearly spring will allow ben-eficial wasps, whichpupate in nesting materi-als, to emerge and killnesting box parasites(AAFC, 1996).

Organizations including DucksUnlimited, Bird StudiesCanada, Canadian WildlifeFederation, Ontario Nature –Federation of OntarioNaturalists, and the OntarioFederation of Anglers andHunters have building plansand advice for nesting boxconstruction.

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Planting NativeVegetation

Planting native vegeta-tion around the farmhomestead provides

many benefits, including shel-ter, shade, erosion control andwater filtration. Enhancing thehomestead with native trees,shrubs, vines and grasses canalso attract many species ofmigratory or resident birds andprovide year-round natureappreciation opportunities.Plantings improve bird habitatby providing readily availablefood sources, cover and nest-ing materials. Once plants areestablished, watch for speciesthat tend to thrive aroundhomestead areas including theeastern phoebe, white-breast-ed nuthatch, northern cardinal,black-capped chickadee, east-ern kingbird and house wren.

Tree and shrub species, such asnannyberry, serviceberry, pincherry, choke cherry, birchesand staghorn sumach, areexcellent choices for feedingbirds. White spruce and east-ern white cedar trees provide

shelter for many bird species.Low-maintenance plants suchas native grasses or creepinggroundcovers are much morevaluable to birds than conven-tional lawn grasses. In fact,habitat can be improved simplyby eliminating lawn pesticidesand mowing the lawn less fre-quently, thereby reducing dis-turbances to birds. (Note alsothat setting the mower bladeshigher results in a healthierlawn that requires less water-ing.)

Native + Local = BestThroughout this guide book,all of the plant species sug-gested for wildlife habitatenhancement are native toOntario. Many of the plantspecies growing around homesand settlements in southernOntario are exotics (that is, notoriginally growing there).Unfortunately, these species,whether introduced deliberate-ly or unintentionally, can oftencrowd out native plants. Whenan exotic plant such as com-mon buckthorn becomesestablished, it can take overhabitat, prevent the growth of

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native food sources and coverrequired by local wildlife, andchange the ecological make-upof an area. Purple loosestrife isa prime example of the way inwhich exotics can becomequickly established and chokeout native species.

Exotic species, including manyanimals, are a growing con-cern. For instance, Europeanstarlings, which take over thenesting cavities preferred bythe native eastern bluebird,have had a significant impacton their populations. Therecent arrival of the emeraldash-borer and the Asian long-horned beetle (insects thatthreaten to devastate ash,maple and other hardwoodspecies in Ontario) providesanother example of the harmthat can be caused by invasiveexotic species.

By planting native species thatare adapted to local condi-tions, you will help to maintainor restore healthy communitiesof plants and animals and toprevent the potential disrup-tions caused by exotics. At theplant or tree nursery ask fornative species. Avoid cultivars,and watch out for inappropri-ate substitutions - for example,European highbush cranberry(Viburnum opulus) instead ofnative highbush cranberry(Viburnum trilobum).

At the nursery, it also pays to

make sure that the plants youare buying have been grownfrom local seed sources. Suchplants will be adapted to localclimatic and ecological siteconditions. How local is local?The Ministry of NaturalResources has divided Ontariointo tree seed zones. Usingplants that originated in thesame seed zone as your plant-ing site will ensure that theplants are adapted to the localconditions and therefore havea better chance of survival.

A Note About CatsCats play an important role inkeeping vermin down in andaround barns. It must be rec-ognized, however, that theycan also pose a real threat tobirds. Outdoor cats have beenknown to kill an average of 12-14 birds per year, resulting overtime in the loss of millions ofbirds (American BirdConservancy, 2003).

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Ontario Barn Owl Recovery ProjectThe barn owl is a medium-sized owl with dark eyes set ina distinctive heart-shaped face. Barn owls hunt in wetgrassy meadows, old farm fields, tallgrass prairie and veg-etated ditches. From both a conservation and pest controlstandpoint, barn owls are a valuable component of therural landscape. A family of eight barn owls can consumeover 1,000 mice, voles and shrews in just one breedingseason (Ingels, 1992).

Rare in Ontario, the eastern population of the barn owlhas been formally recognized as Endangered. In 1997,when barn owl numbers were very low, a group of inter-ested people in Haldimand-Norfolk initiated the OntarioBarn Owl Recovery Project. One of the components of thisproject is to erect nesting boxes on farms that have suit-able habitat for the bird, such as old fields, wetlands,barns and silos. Nesting boxes have been installed ondozens of farms along the north shore of Lake Erie withthe hope of encouraging the barn owl’s recovery.

Cedar WaxwingBombycilla cedrorum

Cedar waxwings are common summer residents and can be easilyattracted to your homestead by native berry-producing trees andshrubs. They breed late in the spring, a habit which ensures thatberry crops are ready when nestlings need to be fed in the later

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summer. Cedar waxwings have a remarkable ability to digest near-ly any type of berry, including ones that are poisonous to humans.They will even consume fermented berries, a practice which causesthem to show definite signs of tipsiness!

Rarely seen alone, these handsome birds move erratically amongfood crops, feeding on berries in large flocks. Cedar waxwings in aflock tend to cooperate. When one bird has had its fill of berries, itwill pass berries on to its neighbour, who will eat the berry or con-tinue to pass it along in a sort of berry bucket brigade, until a hun-gry bird snatches it up. Listen for the faint, high pitched ‘tsee’ callsof cedar waxwings throughout the summer.

Cedar waxwings are sleek, crested birds with a black mask and ayellow band on the tip of the tail. A little smaller than a robin,these birds frequent open, wooded areas as well as parks, gardensand overgrown fields.

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Cropland TechniquesC

reatures large and small benefit from last year’s

crop residue on the soil surface of the field before

and during planting operations. Conservation

tillage is a technique that helps farmers meet production

goals, conserve soil and water resources, and enhance bird

habitat at the same time. The Conservation Technology

Information Center defines this technique as “any tillage or

planting system that maintains at least 30% of the soil sur-

face covered by residue after planting” (CTIC, 1994).

Conservation tillage is a general term that can include sev-

eral different systems such as no-till, mulch tillage, mini-

mum till or reduced till.

Conservation Tillage

14The Birds Will Thank You

Birds are attracted tofields that are managedwith conservation tillage

for a number of reasons. By

leaving crop residue on thefield during the cold wintermonths as well as through thespring, farmers provide seedsand other food, elevated songperches and cover for birds.

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Waste grains and weed seedsare important fall foodsources for migrating andresident birds such as thesavannah sparrow, songsparrow, snow bunting andwinter songbirds. Considermaking a good situationeven better by leaving a fewrows or a small area of cropstanding as a food source forbirds.

Reduced tillage, particularlyin the spring, translates intofewer disturbances to birdsnesting in fields. Some ofthese birds include thehorned lark, killdeer and ves-per sparrow. Fall-plantedcrops such as winter wheatprovide habitat that is superi-or to spring-seeded cropsbecause there is no distur-bance during the nestingseason. A study in NorthDakota showed that nestingsuccess for waterfowl in no-till winter wheat was two tothree times higher than inconventionally farmed areas(Duebbert, 1987). No-tillwinter wheat, particularlywhen planted in corn or soy-bean stubble, has showngreat potential for benefitingsongbirds and ground-nest-ing birds (Foy, no date).

Your Pocketbook and YourEnvironment Will Thank You

Among other benefits, conser-

vation tillage can save money,topsoil and time.

• Water Quality: Leavingcrop residue on the soilsurface allows water tocollect and infiltrate thesoil, improving soil mois-ture levels and reducingwind and water erosion aswell as the risk of associat-ed chemical runoff.

• Erosion: Crop residue onfields can reduce winderosion by up to 80%,saving valuable topsoil.

• Time: Reducing the num-ber of tillage trips resultsin reduced labour and fuelcosts. Taking fewer tripson a tractor also reducescarbon dioxide emissions.

• Soil Improvement: Cropresidue improves theorganic content of the soilover the long term, andless tillage means less soilcompaction.

• Weed Control:Eliminating tillage meansthat fewer dormantannual weed seeds arebrought to the surface togerminate. Eliminatingtillage also means thatperennial weed rhizomesare not cut and broughtto the surface, infestinga larger area. Generally,reducing tillage results inless perennial weed pres-sure over the long term(AAFC, no date).

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CarefulPesticide Use IsImportant

Enhancing wildlife habitat also means that when pesticidesare used, they must be carefully selected and applied.Informed decisions are needed to balance weed and pestcontrol in crop production with the possible risks to wildlifeand wildlife habitat. Insecticides may have a direct toxiceffect on some birds, particularly ducks, and both insecti-cides and herbicides can harm wildlife food sources (AAFC,1996). Many pesticide labels note toxicity to wildlife.Careful pesticide selection and application in strict accor-dance with label directions will ensure maximum wildlifebenefits from your conservation tillage system.

Also remember that wells are affected by what is put onfields. Some herbicides such as 2,4-D remain for a longtime in ground water and have been linked to increasedhealth risks among farm workers.

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Voracious Visitors

Throughout this guide book, theadvantages of attracting birds to thefarm have been emphasized. Thereare, however, some situations wherefarmers are finding it difficult to co-exist with birds. Depending on thetype of farm operation, location andthe populations of certain species,birds which feed on fruit and othercrops are a growing concern for pro-ducers in Ontario.

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Resident Canada Geese

Due to the widespread hunting of local game for foodand sport in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Canadagoose had virtually disappeared from nearly all of its for-mer breeding range in southern Ontario. In the 1960s, theMinistry of Natural Resources and some local groups re-introduced the Canada goose to southern Ontario. Sincethat time, goose numbers have not only rebounded, butin many cases are increasing exponentially due to suitablehabitat and low predator numbers in the province. TheCanadian Wildlife Service estimates that there are morethan 400,000 resident Canada geese that breed and live insouthern Ontario year-round (OSCIA, 2002).

Until recently, the familiar honking V-shaped formationsof Canada geese were welcomed by farmers. For farmersworking hard to make a living from their crops, however,large numbers of resident geese and goslings grazing onemergent crops are not a welcome sight. The expandinggoose population is causing significant crop damage insome agricultural areas (OSCIA, 2002).

Management Options

Canada Geese are protected under the Migratory BirdsConvention Act, which requires a permit for huntingwithin open seasons. Where geese are causing seriouscrop damage, several options exist to control them (CWS,1997).

Modify breeding habitatBreeding females look for open areas with clear visibility,low predator numbers and nearby water. Create naturalbarriers of brush and shrubs around water areas to dis-courage geese from selecting a breeding site on the farm.Focus efforts on the habitat between open cropland andwetlands. This will also create habitat for songbirds suchas the common yellowthroat.

Use scare techniquesAs soon as geese arrive, use sirens, strobe lights, propanecannons and bird-call distress tapes to scare birds away

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and encourage them to nest elsewhere. Vary the patternsof sounds or lights. Implementing a combination of scaretactics works best.

Erect barriersTo deter geese from entering cropland for food, placestrands of ‘Bird Scare Flash Tape’ or other shiny, flutterymaterials at goose and gosling height levels betweenwaterways and crops. Although adult geese could fly overthese barriers, they will not leave their flightless goslings.

Contact the Canadian Wildlife ServiceThe Canadian Wildlife Service as well as Ducks UnlimitedCanada and the Ontario Soil and Crop ImprovementAssociation have been involved in researching variouscontrol methods to prevent severe crop damage. Permitsare required to hunt or scare geese with a firearm or toattempt other more invasive control methods and may beobtained from the Canadian Wildlife Service.

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Vesper SparrowPooecetes gramineus

The vesper sparrow is a bird little known to most casual observers.Its rich, musical song, which begins with two sets of unforgettable,double notes, ‘here-here! there-there!’, is commonly heard onrolling farmlands in Ontario. It is absent, however, from intensivelyfarmed areas. The vesper sparrow favours ‘messy’ crops, showing aclear preference for foraging in fields with lots of crop residue(Rodenhouse & Best, 1994). The abundance of insects in conserva-tion tillage fields attracts these birds, which eat insects throughoutthe breeding season and switch to seeds for the rest of the year.

Vesper sparrows are found on the ground in well-drained or drygrassland areas. During the springtime, males will hop onto aperch or a high tree branch to sing. The white outer tail feathers ofthe vesper sparrow are a distinctive mark when this little grayish,streaked bird takes off in flight from farm fields. Other distinguish-ing marks include a narrow white eye ring and a small patch ofchestnut on the bend of its wing.

Vesper sparrow nests hold four to six white eggs that are heavilyspotted with brown. The nest itself is a loosely-woven grass androotlet cup, concealed on the ground in grass.

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While conservation tillage is one of the most bird-friendly

farming techniques, several other cropland techniques

offer particular advantages to birds of all shapes and sizes.

Crop Rotation

When crops arechanged from yearto year in a planned

sequence, diversity is added toa farm operation. A greatervariety of migrant and nestingbirds will visit a farm that pro-vides several types of food andnesting habitat over the sea-sons. Crop rotation is also alarge component of sustain-able agriculture, with manybenefits including:

• reduced populations ofpests and weeds specificto one crop;

• reduced soil erosion andrun-off;

• reduced crop inputs;• increased yields compared

to continuous cropping.

Strip Cropping and GrassyBorders

Alternating strips of forage orsmall grain with strips of rowcrop in large fields providesnumerous field edges for birdhabitat (USDA, 1994). The vari-ety of habitats in strip croppedfields, from tall corn crops tolow clover legumes, for exam-ple, provides the protection,food and nesting areasrequired by many birds. Timing

the harvest of various stripsallows farmers to spread workout over the growing season.Leaving a strip of unplowedand unmowed cropland untilmid-July would ensure that anarea exists for birds such ashorned larks, bobolinks andkilldeer to successfully raisetheir young.

Grassy borders around fieldsare an integral part of any stripcropping operation (USDA,1994). Used in place of endrows, these borders of grass orlegumes provide turning andaccess lanes for each strip andhelp to control erosion andpromote runoff filtration.Grassy borders can provideprime bird habitat if theseareas are kept free of chemicalinputs and if mowing isdelayed until after the breed-ing season (USDA, 1994). Birdssuch as the American wood-cock prefer open grassy areasfor courtship displays and willbenefit from grassy borders.

Cover Crops

Planting a ‘blanket’ or covercrop such as red clover or cere-al rye will help protect baresoils from wind and water ero-sion during the winter andearly spring months. In addi-

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tion, cover crops can suppressweed growth, add organicmatter, improve soil structure,provide nitrogen for the nextcrop depending on the coverspecies, hold soluble nutrientsand prevent leaching (AAFC,no date).

Cover crops are particularlyimportant for birds, since theyprovide food supplies for over-

wintering and migrant species.The northern bobwhite, forexample is dependent on greenmaterial such as clover to satisfyits winter food requirements.

Northern BobwhiteColinus viginianus

Difficult to glimpse amongst dense, tangled vegetation, the north-ern bobwhite can be identified by its unmistakable whistle, singinga rising ‘bob, bob-white’ throughout the spring. The patternedfacial markings of the bobwhite set it apart in the field: these pat-terns are black and white in males and buff and white in females.

The northern bobwhite is the only native quail in eastern NorthAmerica. In Ontario, it only survives in southwestern reaches of theprovince where winters are less severe. This species needs grass-land for breeding, woody or brushy cover for shelter, and croplandfor forage, all in close proximity. As a result, farmers using conser-vation tillage, strip cropping and cover crops can provide importantfood and habitat diversity for the bobwhite. In a North Carolina

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study, researchers found that bobwhite chicks met their daily nutrition-al requirements in less than six hours of foraging in no-till soybeansplanted with wheat, compared to more than twenty hours of foragingin tilled soybean fields (Palmer and Lane, 1999). Vitamin A is a particu-lar requirement of this species, hence cover crops such as clover andgrass are critical resources for this bird throughout the winter.

Northern bobwhite nests hold 10 to 15 eggs in a grass-lined hollowconcealed in weeds or grass near open or cultivated land. Outsidethe breeding season, bobwhites gather in coveys of approximatelytwo dozen birds, huddling together in the cold and vigorouslydefending their territory.

The range of northern bobwhites in Ontario dropped following aseries of severe winters in the 1970s, and numbers remain low.Intensive farming methods that tend to limit on-farm diversity havereduced habitat quantity and quality for this species. Given thesmall, localized populations of this species and the threats to itshabitat, the northern bobwhite is now listed as Endangered inOntario. Consider implementing some of the techniques mentionedin this book to help this species recover.

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Pest M

anagem

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rganics

Pest and weed management is an essential component of

food production. Farmers must contend with European corn

borers, Colorado potato beetles, alfalfa weevils, rusts,

aphids, mites and many, many other pests in order to produce the

food that people need. Conventionally, these pests have been coun-

tered with synthetic pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides and

fungicides. Increasingly, though, consumers and producers are

investigating or employing integrated pest management or organic

alternatives.

Trends in Pesticide Use

Between 1983 and1998, total usage of pes-ticides in Ontario

decreased by 40.7%, and theamount of pesticide appliedper hectare of crop landdecreased by 35.7% (AG Care,no date). These figures reflectreduced pesticide applicationsas well as changes in the typeof crops grown, increased croprotation and the availability ofnewer, more effective pesti-cides which can be applied lessfrequently and at lower rates(AG Care, no date). In addi-tion, pesticide-free organicagricultural operations havealso been increasing. Statisticsfrom 2001 show that there areover 400 certified organicfarms in Ontario, representinga total of 30,000 hectares(75,000 acres) of the province’sfarmland. While still a relativelysmall portion of the agricultur-al land base, organic produc-

tion is growing at a yearly rateof roughly 20%, and in manycases represents a viable alter-native to conventional farmingpractices (OMAF, 2001).

Fish and wildlife, particularlybirds, have much to gain fromthis positive trend towardsdecreased pesticide use and afocus on organic practices. Theuse of pesticides has beenproven to have harmfulimpacts on birds.

Reducing Exposure toPesticides

Birds are exposed to agricultur-al chemicals when their skinand feathers touch treatedfoliage, when they preen theirresidue-covered feathers, andwhen they forage and ingestpesticide granules or affectedinsects, seeds and vegetation(Brenner, 1991). Some of themost common pesticides, par-ticularly organophosphate

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insecticides like diazinon andparathion, have been shown todirectly poison birds nestingand feeding in farm fields(CWS, 2002). More restrictiveand careful use of selective,low residual pesticides, as wellas a greater emphasis on inte-grated pest management tech-niques are making agriculturallands safer places for birds andother animals, including peo-ple, to live.

Integrated PestManagement

Integrated pest management(IPM) focuses on identifyingand monitoring pests, choos-ing a threshold of acceptablepest damage, and selectingfrom a variety of targeted con-trol practices. IPM is both eco-nomically and environmentallysound in that it minimizes cropdamage as well as pesticideuse and lowers the risk ofdeveloping pesticide-resistantpest populations. IPM alsoreduces the risks of harmfuleffects on human health andthe environment, since pesti-cides are the last resort in anIPM program (AAFC, 1996b).

Listed below are suggestedtechniques to reduce agricul-tural chemical use and create abird-friendly farm, based pri-marily on IPM (AAFC, 1996b):

• Grow crops aggressively tocompete with weeds.

Increased planting densi-ties and narrow rowspaces leave little room forunwanted vegetation.

• Use biological controlmethods such as coverand companion crops tofight weeds. Rye, forexample, inhibits weedestablishment and growth.

• Monitor your fields regu-larly. Catching problemsearly may ease controlefforts, and an awarenessof pest life cycles helpsdetermine the most effec-tive timing for control.

• Rotate crops to break pestcycles. Maintain a low pes-ticide load in the soil byincluding crops thatrequire little or no pesti-cides, like pasture grasses,in the rotation. (Note thathay fields provide habitatfor several bird speciessuch as savannah sparrow,vesper sparrow, bobolinkand meadowlark.)

• Rotate the family of chem-icals used for pesticidesannually. This will helpreduce the incidence ofpesticide-resistant pests.

• Consider delineating aneconomic threshold ofcontrol. Eliminatingevery weed in a fieldmay prove to be less effi-cient in terms of costand time than simplyallowing some controlledgrowth. Late seasonweeds do not significant-

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ly reduce crop yield.• Calibrate pesticide applica-

tion machinery carefully tocontrol chemical drift.

• Keep records of your pestcontrol successes andchallenges. Notes that arespecific to your fields willhelp you determine theeffectiveness of variouscontrol methods.

Agriculture is for the Birds!

Many of the techniques pro-filed in this guide book arecommon practices in organicfarming, including the plantingof cover crops, crop rotationand a preventative and target-ed approach to pest manage-ment. Comparative studieshave demonstrated that organicfarming is truly bird-friendly.Research in both Saskatchewanand Ontario has shown thatbirds prefer organic farms toconventional models. Birddiversity and species richnessare much higher on Ontarioorganic farms than on conven-tional farms, just as bird densi-ties are significantly greater on

Saskatchewan organic farmsthan on conventional farms(Freemark & Kirk, 2001;Shutler, 2000). No pesticidesand, generally, a greater per-centage of non-crop habitatshelp to make organic farmsmore attractive to birds(Robinson, 1991).

The Canadian OrganicGrowers is a national member-ship-based education and net-working organizationrepresenting hundreds of farm-ers, gardeners and consumers.For a provincial focus, theEcological Farming Associationof Ontario is a volunteer groupdedicated to educating farmersabout ecological methods offarming. They are committedto agricultural practices thatenhance the health of soil,crops, livestock and the farmcommunity through the under-standing of ecological princi-ples. Contact them to meetother farmers who share thisinterest.

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Birds Can Help Prevent Your Pest Problems

Increasing habitat for birds by putting into practice thetechniques mentioned in this guide book can benefit yourpest management systems, and ultimately your cropyields.

Birds eat insect pests in vast quantities and provide otherimportant services. In many cases, as noted below, farm-ers are reaping the benefits.

• Eastern bluebirds and swallows can control flies inpastures and other grazing areas, reducing the inci-dence of pink eye in livestock.

• Bluebirds and swallows are also welcome participantsin the biological control of insects on cherry farms(Brenner, 1991).

• American kestrels, great crested flycatchers and otherinsect-eating birds can help control crop losses byinsects such as grasshoppers, weevils and aphids(Ingels, 1992).

• Red-tailed hawks, northern harriers, short- and long-eared owls and great horned owls are importantrodent controllers. These birds of prey can help con-trol moles and mice, reducing silage and crop losses(Ingels, 1992).

• Vesper sparrows forage extensively in fields for grasshop-pers, beetles and cutworms, while migratory songbirdsconsume enormous numbers of insects in farm woodlotsand hedgerows (Rodenhouse & Best, 1994.).

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Grasslands

P astures, hayfields, small grain fields and

meadows on your farm are examples of agricul-

tural grassland habitat. Take a walk through

these areas and you may see grassland birds, which are

those that require open, grassy areas during the breed-

ing season. The loggerhead shrike and Henslow’s spar-

row, both listed as Endangered in Canada, depend on

grassland areas for their survival. Songbirds such as the

field sparrow, grasshopper sparrow, eastern mead-

owlark and bobolink build nests on the ground and

raise their young in grasslands. Other birds depend on

grassy areas for only a part of their habitat. The red-

tailed hawk frequently hunts in grasslands, for exam-

ple, but breeds elsewhere.

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Grasslands – A Disappearing Act

Changing agriculturalpractices have resulted indecreases in the amount

of land being used for pastureand hayfields. For example,while cropland in Ontario hasincreased by more than111,000 hectares (274,000acres) since 1996, pastureareas have decreased by over237,000 hectares (586,000acres), and hay and foddercrops by approximately 4,000hectares (10,000 acres)(Statistics Canada, 2001).Many grassland birds havebeen experiencing seriousdeclines, likely in part as aresult of habitat loss. Amongthese species are the logger-head shrike, Henslow’s spar-row, northern bobwhite,vesper sparrow and uplandsandpiper (Cadman, 2004).

Farms provide much of thehabitat for grassland birds inOntario. While regeneratingmeadows provide grasslandhabitat for birds, the manage-ment techniques in this section

focus on more intensively used grassland areas, namely pasturesand hayfields. Many of the farm-

ing techniques that help ensureadequate habitat for grasslandspecies can have equally positiveeffects on farm production.

Rotational Grazing

Rotational grazing is gainingpopularity as a managementtechnique that helps farmersmanage pasture lands andhelps to increase populationsof grassland birds. Rotationalgrazing involves dividing a pas-ture into several paddocks withfencing. Cattle, horses orsheep are then moved amongthe paddocks on a pre-arranged schedule based onforage quantity and quality.

Rotationally grazed pasturesattract a greater number andvariety of birds than continu-ously grazed pastures and rowcrop fields. Some of the rea-sons and ways that rotationalgrazing benefits birds are out-lined below:

• Rotation schedules can beplanned so that one pad-dock in the rotation isgrazed early and then actsas a refuge for breedingbirds by not being grazedduring the grassland birdbreeding season (mid-Mayto mid-July). This grazingsystem ensures that birdscan build a nest, hatcheggs and raise their youngwithout being disturbed(Undersander et al., 2000).

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• Longer intervals betweengrazing periods in activepaddocks improve overallnesting success. The moretime the paddocks canapproximate naturalundisturbed habitat whilestill providing forage forlivestock, the better.Finding a balance betweenthese two goals dependson the farm land base andthe operation’s needs.Short grazing periods (oneto two days) also result inlower levels of tramplingdamage.

• Leaving a minimum offour inches of growth fol-lowing grazing increasesbird nesting success byhelping to hide nests frompredators. This length alsospeeds the rate of plantrecovery and boosts yield(Undersander et al., 2000).

Not only does rotational graz-ing help increase local habitatdiversity and aid in grasslandbird conservation, it also pro-vides many benefits to farmers.Associated environmental ben-efits include decreased soil ero-sion and reduced risk ofmanure runoff. Other benefitsinclude:

• Reduced costs: Grazingreduces the cost of feed,fuel, fertilizer, pesticide,labour and equipment.

• Time Savings: Rotationalgrazing lets nature do the

work – livestock eat theirfood on the fields anddeposit manure where it isneeded most. Moving live-stock between paddockstakes less time than feed-ing animals in a confine-ment system. Withrotational grazing, youonly need to operate aconfinement system dur-ing the winter, and as aresult, you spend lessmoney producing livestockfood and less time on atractor harvesting fodder(Undersander et al., 2000).

• Increased Productivity:Rotational grazing hasbeen shown to increasepasture productivity by asmuch as 50% since itfavours species with con-tinuously high yield (Kyle,no date). More and higherquality forage has beenproduced in rotationallygrazed fields than in con-tinuously grazed ones, andthis translates into greatermilk or meat production.

Many grassland birds tolerateand benefit from the diversityof grass heights created whenpastures are grazed. Sincegrassland birds select theirnesting and foraging habitatbased on grass length, thisdiversity means that a numberof different bird species will beattracted to the farm.

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Pasture and Hayfield Species

The type of cover that is grownin pastures and hayfields, andthe resulting management impli-cations, can have significantinfluences on bird populations.

Grasses or Legumes?Depending on the species,grassland birds have markedpreferences for the type ofcover in which they nest andforage. Particularly attractiveare mixed grass and broadleafherbaceous covers as opposedto the more traditional legumecrops. In one study, fields withpredominant timothy and redclover cover supported over 15times more bobolinks thanfields with mostly alfalfa cover(Bollinger & Gavin, 1992).Since timothy and red cloverare a late-cut hay crop,bobolinks likely prefer thembecause they can completetheir nesting cycles withoutbeing disturbed by a tractor.This advantage applies tomany other grassland birds aswell. In fact, bobolink abun-dance is positively related tothe abundance of other birdslike the grasshopper sparrow,Henslow’s sparrow and uplandsandpiper.

Warm or Cool Season Grasses?Planting both warm and coolseason grasses can facilitaterotation schedules and hay cut-ting intervals to the advantage

of both birds and livestock. Ascool season grasses (orchard-grass, timothy, bromegrass,perennial ryegrass) go into dor-mancy in the summer months,native warm season grasses(eastern gamagrass, switch-grass, Indian grass, littlebluestem, big bluestem) areproducing forage through thedry season. Growing warmseason grasses in some areasof the pasture or hayfieldmakes delayed grazing or cut-ting more profitable, andmakes a farm operation morebird-friendly. By delaying thegrazing of certain paddocksand harvesting different areasof your hayfields throughoutthe season, refuge areas canbe left for grassland birds.

Planting warm season grassesensures that at harvest timethe forage will be of higherquality than cool season grass-es left late in the season.Indeed, studies have shownthat substantial increases inweight gain can be achievedfor livestock fed on a rotationof cool and warm seasongrasses versus animals fedsolely on cool season grasses(Moore, 1998). Recentresearch on eastern gamagrasshas shown that it is highlypalatable and has tremendousprotein regrowth potential(Quail Unlimited, no date).

Native warm season grassesare adapted to local climatic

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conditions and are thereforeable to withstand snow packand remain upright in thespring, providing a diverse,long-lived, easily managedcover that is attractive to birds.Usually they are more drought-resistant and nutritious late inthe season, making the pastureor hayfield an all-season pro-ducer.

Although establishing nativewarm season grasses requiresdedication and patience - ittakes approximately two yearsbefore positive benefits beginto take effect - these grassescan improve farm productivityand bird habitat in many waysthat are worth considering.

Haying

Mowing is central to manyfarming operations and is criti-cal for the conservation ofgrassland habitats. The timingand frequency of hay harvest-ing in traditional agriculturaloperations, however, can poseproblems for some nestingbirds, often destroying thenests of species like thegrasshopper sparrow, savan-nah sparrow, eastern mead-owlark and Henslow’s sparrow.The following techniques canhelp you reach your hay pro-duction goals while improvingbird habitat in your hayfields(Massachusetts AudubonSociety, 1998). Some are easyto implement, while others

may require further research todetermine their feasibility foryour operation:

• Delay haying.Landowners can helpincrease the success rateof nesting birds simply bydelaying the mowing ofhay. Traditional cuttingintervals are too short toallow complete nestingcycles for birds. By delay-ing spring mowing untilmid-July to allow birds toraise their broods, birdbreeding success will beboosted. Consider dividingfields into sections that aremowed earlier (e.g. hayfor fodder alongsidewaterways and wetlands)and later in the season.

• Avoid nighttimemowing. This simpleaction will reduce injuriesto birds that are roostingon the ground at night.

• Use a flushing bar onhaying equipment. Aflushing bar warns birds ofapproaching equipmentand helps to move birdshiding in the grass awayfrom machinery. Flushingbars are useful for all hay-fields, but are most criticalin areas adjacent to wet-lands where ducks nest. Astudy comparing duckmortality rates with andwithout the use of a flush-ing bar found that amower with no bar killed

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48% of the female ducksobserved. In contrast,where a flushing bar wasused, 100% of the ducksobserved were flushedfrom their nests on fields(Henkes, no date).

• Raise mower blades to sixinches or more to helpavoid crushing bird nests.

The best tool for ensuringgrassland bird survival in hay-

fields is careful observation. Ifthe location of bird nests andthe type of birds using the fieldare known, it is possible toapproximate when the birdswill have successfully raisedtheir young. Leaving smallpatches of unmowed haywhere birds are nesting forprotection and cover is also agood option if the techniquesnoted above are not feasible inyour operation.

Loggerhead ShrikeLanius ludovicianus

The loggerhead shrike is a predatory songbird that huntslike a small hawk. Unlike hawks, however, shrikes do nothave strong talons to hold onto their prey as they eat it.To compensate, these birds ingeniously impale their preyon barbed wire or thorny trees, a practice that has earned

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Grasslands

them the name ‘butcherbird.’ Impaling prey serves a num-ber of different purposes: holding prey, storing food forlater, or attracting a mate by demonstrating a male’shunting competence.

The loggerhead shrike has a heavy hooked beak, wellsuited to its hunting habits. From a perch on a utility poleor fencepost, shrikes engage in fast direct flights orswoop down to catch insects, rodents, small snakes oramphibians.

The loggerhead shrike is a trim, handsome bird, with ablack tail and wings, grey crown and back and whiteunderparts. It has a characteristic black mask that extendsabove the hooked bill onto the forehead.

The loggerhead shrike was once quite common in agri-cultural southern Ontario, where it thrived on grazedgrasslands with scattered low trees and thorny shrubs.As farming practices changed and more cash crops andconfinement livestock systems were emphasized, shrikehabitat dwindled. Other possible factors in its declineinclude pesticides and collisions with motor vehicles.Today, the loggerhead shrike is listed as Endangered.Only two dozen pairs are known to still breed inOntario. These birds are nesting in areas where shallowsoils overlie limestone bedrock, areas which tend to bemarginal farmland that is being used as pasture for live-stock (Long Point Bird Observatory, 1997). In Ontario,shrikes breed almost entirely in two core areas: theCarden Plain and the Napanee Plain.

The fate of the loggerhead shrike lies mainly in the handsof individual landowners and with positive stewardshipefforts. There are several ways in which habitat can beenhanced and managed for loggerhead shrikes (LongPoint Bird Observatory, 1997):

• Shrikes are sensitive to disturbances during the breed-ing season, so leaving a refuge area around nests dur-ing the breeding season is essential.

• Leaving brush piles on cleared land provides nestingmaterials.

• Trees, especially hawthorn and red cedars, provide

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Case Study:Rotational Grazing

Bruce Community Pasture

Although the OntarioLand CARE fundingprogram is no longer

available through DucksUnlimited, the positive environ-mental results of work donethrough the program are stillapparent. Take the BruceCommunity Pasture, for exam-ple. At this location, DucksUnlimited Canada providedadvice and funding to erectfencing around a wetland onthe pasture property, effective-ly reducing the 60 hectare (150acre) pasture to 28 hectares(70 acres). The challengebefore the farmers was tomaintain the weight of theircattle on 46% less acreage. Toachieve this, a mid-intensityrotational grazing system wasinitiated and three paddockswere created.

With a rotational grazing sys-

tem in place, the farmers atthe Bruce CommunityPasture now report substan-tial benefits in productivity,herd health, time savings,herd control and water quali-ty, not to mention bird abun-dance. Not only are theBruce County farmers able tomaintain the weight of theircattle on less acreage in arotational grazing system,they also report that foragequality is consistently highenough at times to exceedpast weight gains on the 60hectares of land previouslypastured. In addition, it nowtakes only half an hour tocheck on the herd, asopposed to the hour or morerequired when cattle werespread out over 60 hectaresof lower quality forage.

To further enhance bird habitatat the community pasture, over40 tree swallow and easternbluebird nesting boxes havebeen installed. These insect-eating birds have helped

Grasslands

habitat for perching, nesting and impaling prey.These can be planted in prime shrike habitat loca-tions.

• Shrikes prefer short grasslands with scattered trees, soensuring that pastures are grazed enhances theirhabitat. Rotational grazing helps to maximize theamount of habitat available for shrikes.

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reduce the incidence of pink-eye and unrest caused by flies.And they play a role in control-ling mosquitoes that couldcarry the West Nile Virus.

Project participants advise thatrotational grazing is a tech-nique that requires dedicationand a willingness on the partof the farmer to follow

through with the planning andmanagement of the system.They cite the benefits achievedby farmers at the BruceCommunity Pasture as proofthat the technique really worksfor the good of livestock, farm-ers’ pocketbooks, birds andthe environment (DucksUnlimited Canada, no date;Wells, 2003).

BobolinkDolichonyx oryzivorus

The bobolink’s striking black and white markings, long, clear bur-bling song and aerial displays make it an easily recognizable bird inrural Ontario. This member of the blackbird family is a long-dis-tance traveler, making its way from northern Argentina to breed inCanada and the United States. During migration, bobolinks can befound in large groups in wet meadows.

Bobolinks prefer habitats of medium-height grasslands and favourhayfields and lightly grazed pastures. Bobolinks, like many of thespecies discussed in this book, once benefited from increased agri-culture in Ontario, with hay production providing ready habitat. Infact, range maps show a clear link between agricultural areas andbobolink abundance, and where there is no hay production, thereare generally no bobolinks (Cadman et al, 1987).

Recent reports show that bobolink numbers are declining, a phe-

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nomenon which may be related to the widespread use of alfalfa asa hay crop, the harvesting of hay early in the season, and thedeclining acreage of pastures and hayfield in Ontario (StatisticsCanada, 2001; Bollinger & Gavin, 1992).

Female bobolinks are drably coloured with brown and buff streaks.They lay four to seven gray eggs that are spotted with red-brownand lavender and which they incubate for 11– 13 days. Bobolinknests are a cup of grass, stems and rootlets on the ground. To helpprotect the nest site, females behave in a cryptic manner, rarelycarrying nesting materials and food directly to their nests, but land-ing and then walking through the fields to the nest. Similarly, theytravel some distance from the nest before flushing.

Eastern MeadowlarkSturnella magna

Eastern meadowlarks sing the trademark tune of rural Ontario,boisterously calling ‘See-you at school-today’ throughout thespring. Their voices ring out from fenceposts and powerlines wher-ever grassy meadows, hayfields and pastures are found.

You will recognize an eastern meadowlark from the male’s black v-shaped ‘necklace,’ bright yellow throat and chest, and white outertail feathers. Its sides and flanks are white with brown streaking.

Meadowlarks are artful builders, creating a domed grass nest witha side door in a depression or scrape on the ground. The nest isdelicately woven into the surrounding vegetation. The female laysthree to seven white eggs that are heavily spotted with brown andlavender, incubating them for 13-15 days.

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Upland SandpiperBartramia longicauda

Upon hearing the ‘wolf whistle’ song of this species, you may turnaround to see who is calling! Look for a graceful bird with long yel-lowish legs, a slender neck, lightly streaked breast and mottledbrownish upper parts. Upland sandpipers frequently call from con-spicuous fenceposts, and breeding males will sometimes launchinto the air to perform a courtship flight.

Once common in hayfields, grassy wet meadows, pastures andabandoned fields, this bird was commercially hunted for its meat inthe late 1880s. Its numbers have recovered somewhat, but are stilllow (and possibly declining again) in Ontario.

These sandpipers build their grassy nests in depressions within pas-tures or hayfields. The female lays four pinkish-buff eggs withbrown spots, and after an incubation period of 22–27 days, bothadults tend the young.

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Marginal Farm

landFarmland management is more economically and

environmentally sound if it respects the productive

capacity of the land base (AAFC, 1996). When land is

not suited to intensive row crop agriculture, it should be

retired to pasture or natural cover such as woodland or

grassland. Some examples of marginal farmland include:

• steeply sloping croplandsthat are vulnerable to soilerosion;

• stony fields that are notprofitable to farm;

• poorly drained areas ofcropland that habituallycannot be farmed;

• fragile shorelines alonglakes, ponds and water-courses which are prone

to compaction, floodingand erosion;

• any area on the farm thatis not economically viablewhen yield and cropinputs are compared.

Marginal farmland that isretired acts as a transitionalarea between cropland andother natural areas.

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Establishing and maintainingnative trees, shrubs, wildflow-ers and grasses in these mar-ginal areas provides habitat forbirds.

Deciding to Retire Your Land

Taking land out of productionis a difficult decision that mustbe weighed against the eco-nomics of the farm operation.While it may be hard to justifypermanently retiring somemarginal areas, the decisionmay prove to be cost effective.

A cost analysis comparing theaverage gross production withthe average fixed costs of acrop on five typical southernOntario farms found that threeof the five farms had sectionsof fields in which gross mar-gins were lower than the fixedcost of farming that piece ofland. In other words, low pro-duction sections of a field wereactually costing more to befarmed than if they had beensimply abandoned orenhanced for wildlife habitat.In such cases, retiring farmlandcan improve the efficiency ofthe farm operation and allowfarmers to concentrate onmore productive lands(Brethour et al., 2001).

Alternatively, some lands aresimply too fragile to farm. Thinor stony soils are not suitablefor cultivation, nor are lands on

steep slopes or areas adjacentto wetlands or streams (AAFC,1996). Weighing the environ-mental impacts of farmingunproductive, erodible, andfragile lands generally results ina decision to retire these mar-ginal areas.

Retired Farmland is for the Birds

Retiring farmland and convert-ing it to wildlife habitat booststhe diversity of bird life on thefarm by increasing habitatdiversity. As a retired area offarmland regenerates, differentbird species will make use of it.In the early years, birds thatprefer grassland cover willinhabit the area, including theeastern meadowlark. Later,when scattered trees andshrubs make their appearance,the area will appeal to birdssuch as the brown thrasher,eastern towhee, black-billedcuckoo or field sparrow.

Some suggestions for manag-ing marginal farmlands for birdhabitat are listed below.

• Consider the soil, sur-rounding landscape andgeographical range ofunique habitats such assavanna and tallgrassprairie in Ontario.Depending on where yourproperty is located in theprovince, managing theland as a grassland may be

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more advantageous fornative species of birdsthan reforesting the area.Native grasses such asswitchgrass and bigbluestem provide cover fornesting birds.

• Where retired farmlandcurrently exists as shrubbyre-growth, ensure thatnative species are themost common plants. Ifpossible, remove exoticspecies such as commonbuckthorn and autumnolive as they compete withmore desirable nativespecies.

• Where reforestation orforest enhancement isthe goal, plant nativetrees, shrubs and vines.Shrubs and vines such asserviceberry, cherries,elderberry and wild grapeare well suited to margin-al farmlands and providefood for birds such as theeastern towhee.

• Plant a diversity of nativedeciduous and coniferoustrees on marginal lands toprovide shelter and coverfor birds. Planting groupsof trees in a field will helpto establish ‘pods’ ofwoody growth that willseed into other areas ofthe abandoned field andspeed natural regenera-tion from field to forest.

• Create piles of stone andbrush for cover and nest-ing materials for low-brush nesting songbirdssuch as the gray catbird.These types of structuresare especially useful wheremarginal land abutswoodland habitat (AAFC,1996).

• Provide nesting struc-tures to enhance suitablenesting habitat. Boxesfor tree swallows or east-ern bluebirds are avail-able for purchase andare easy to make.

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Brown ThrasherToxostoma rufum

Brown thrashers have one of the most extensive vocal repertoiresof any North American bird, with an estimated 3,000 various com-binations of musical phrases! Most commonly, you will hear themsing a complex chorus of twice-repeated phrases.

Brown thrashers have vivid reddish-brown upper parts and arewhite below with dark brown streaks. Their large, curved beak,long tail and yellow eye no doubt strike fear into their main preysource – grubs and caterpillars. These birds also toss leaves aside toeat berries and seeds.

Despite the fact that brown thrashers are larger than a robin, theyoften go unnoticed since they are relatively secretive. They spendmost of their time skulking about in thickets, field edges and over-grown pastures, especially those with hawthorns. Thrashers favourabandoned farmland, and often prefer areas away from humanhabitation. The twig and leaf nests of brown thrashers are usuallyconstructed within the protected confines of hawthorn trees orraspberry bushes for added predator protection.

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Eastern TowheePipilo erythrophthalmus

The eastern towhee can sometimes be heard energetically tossingleaves as it scratches the leaf litter looking for insects and seeds.While this ground-dwelling bird generally prefers dense brush andtangles, the male can be heard singing its signature tune from ele-vated tree perches. Listen for two accented introductory notes fol-lowed by a quavering trill likened to ‘drink your tea-ea-ea.’

The eastern towhee is a bird of striking patterns and colours, espe-cially the male with its black back, hood and tail, white belly andrufous sides.

The cup-shaped nest of the eastern towhee is made of leaves,grass, twigs and rootlets, often lined with fine grass or hair andlocated in a scratched depression. The female lays three to fourgrayish to creamy-white eggs with brown spots. During egg-layingand incubation, the birds are very secretive. Once the eggs hatch,both the male and female help to raise the young.

Unfortunately, the eastern towhee is a frequent host of the brown-headed cowbird, a nest-parasite described in the following section.

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Strip Habitat

Strip habitat has nothing to do with bareness, and

everything to do with vegetative cover! Strip cover

refers to permanent corridors of vegetation such as

fencerows, shelterbelts, windbreaks and grassy roadsides.

Farms generally have significant amounts of strip habitat,

which are configured in strips along the edges of fields or

roadsides. These types of natural or planted corridors have

long been recognized as beneficial on farms. Benefits

include:

• providing habitat for birdspecies that control pests;

• reducing soil erosion fromwater and wind;

• moderating soil and airtemperatures, increasingrelative humidity andreducing rates of evapora-tion on fields;

• providing refuge (and

increased productivity) forlivestock, which often seekthe shelter provided byhabitat strips;

• shading and protectingfarmhouses, reducingenergy bills and acting asa sound barrier;

• providing timber, fruits,nuts or maple syrup,

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depending on the speciesplanted;

• increasing the aestheticvalue of the farm (Baldwin& Johnston, no date).

Strip Habitat is Critical for BirdsStrip cover is extremely valu-able habitat for many birds,providing food sources, cover,singing perches and nestingareas for a variety of species.Farm landscapes that offerstrip habitat, particularlyfencerows, have been shownto contain more than six timesas many bird species as farm-land without such features(Best, 1983). A study that com-pared nest densities in plots ofcropland versus strip coverfound only 13 nests per 40hectares in row cropland com-pared to 142 nests per 40hectares in strip cover (Wooleyet al., 1985). Migratory song-birds also make extensive useof strip habitat for feeding dur-ing their spring and autumnmigrations, and depend on thefruits and seeds found infencerows for sustenance(Friesen, 1994).

Recommendations for stripcover design and managementvary depending on whichspecies are desired and whatfarm operation benefits areimportant. Most of the birdsthat use strip cover are gener-alist species, well adapted to

foraging and nesting inhuman-dominated landscapes.The following section focuseson maintaining, enhancing andcreating habitat for generalistspecies such as the red-tailedhawk, northern mockingbird,gray catbird, eastern towhee,song sparrow, yellow warbler,indigo bunting and easternkingbird.

Strip Cover Design Tips

• Where strip cover currentlyexists, try to maintain it.Allow strip cover tomature, as older stripcover contains greaterplant and animal diversity.Be aware of tree root sys-tems when cultivatingfields, and try to give treesroom to survive as healthycomponents of the farm.Water trees and shrubsduring drought periods,and replace dead treeswith young ones to main-tain cover.

• To reduce nest losses,maintain roadside grassyareas by mowing themearly in the spring or latein August, that is, beforeor after the breeding sea-son (Best, 1983). Vespersparrows, brown thrash-ers, eastern meadowlarksand red-winged blackbirdsall actively use roadsideshoulder habitat.

• Connect wildlife habitatswhen designing a wind-

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break, shelterbelt orfencerow planting. Linkingwetland areas and wood-lands with strip cover onyour farm will allow birdsand other wildlife to movefreely between these habi-tat types.

• Aim to provide diversehabitat. A mixture ofherbaceous and woodycover is recommended.Bird species diversity ishighest in strip cover withwoody shrubs and trees,as opposed to herbaceouscover (Best, 1983; Brenner,1991; Shalaway, 1985).

• Plant trees that serve thedual purpose of providingfood and shelter.Raspberry can be used tocreate a living fence, andprovides excellent foodand cover for birds like theindigo bunting. Junipersreduce wind and soil ero-sion while producingberries for hungry migra-tory birds.

• Design strip cover to be aswide as possible. Work inMichigan suggests thatfencerows should be morethan three metres wide toreduce nest predation(Shalaway, 1985).Shelterbelts should beestablished eight rowswide and planted with adiversity of trees (Yahner,

1983). If you currentlyhave strip habitat, designyour planting to widen itand expand natural areason your property.

• As long as they do notpresent safety hazards,keep old dead trees instrip habitats. These pro-vide important resting andnesting resources for birdslike the American kestrel,eastern screech-owl andblack-capped chickadee.

• Establish nesting boxes forbirds like the eastern blue-bird along strip cover areasto help boost bird habitaton the farm.

• Fence livestock out of stripcover. Cattle may trampleor feed on the understoreyand ground cover, elimi-nating bird nesting, forag-ing and cover sources(Friesen, 1994).

• Control weeds withoutherbicides by using treeshelters, mulches andcover crops. Many pesti-cides kill the insect and/orvegetation species thatbirds depend on for foodand cover, and may havenegative effects on thebirds themselves.Herbicides also stunt treesin strip cover, makingthem less healthy and ableto cope with disease ordrought.

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46

Strip Cover Specifics

• Windbreaks are one to five rows wide. Designed to controlerosion, they are generally composed of coniferous specieslike white cedar or white spruce.

• Shelterbelts are five or more rows wide. Their main pur-pose is to reduce heat loss by wind. They are composed ofboth deciduous and coniferous trees.

• Fencerows are strips of trees and shrubs three to ten metreswide. They are often composed of deciduous trees, and maybe planted or naturally established from adjacent lands.

• Roadsides are areas next to the road which may also serveas ditches.

Cowbird Parasitism and Yellow Warblers

The brown-headed cowbird once followed bison herds in west-ern Canada. As the cowbirds’ range expanded eastward intoOntario, they began to inhabit areas where cattle were raised.Perhaps because of their nomadic lifestyle, cowbirds do notbuild a nest and rear their young. Instead, these birds haveevolved as ‘nest parasites,’ laying their eggs in other birds’nests. From the cowbird’s perspective, this parasitic strategy is agreat way to let the host species do all of the work incubatingand raising cowbird chicks. Indeed, cowbirds have been so suc-cessful that they now parasitize the nests of over 140 species ofbirds in North America.

Hosts of cowbird parasitism are generally smaller than the cow-bird. The host female expends considerable energy incubating theunusually large egg in her nest, but her work truly begins oncethe egg hatches. Cowbird eggs generally hatch earlier than theirfellow eggs, and the nestlings develop much more quickly thantheir nestmates. As cowbird chicks grow, they demand significantfood resources from their host mothers. They are often fed at theexpense of the legitimate offspring, who typically starve or arepushed out of the nest by the young cowbird.

The brown-headed cowbird is now common in Ontario. Fromelevated perches in strip habitat or along the edge of wood-

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47

lands, it locates and monitors the nests of potential hosts.Unfortunately, its ‘nesting’ strategy is a contributing factor tothe decline of some North American songbirds. It has been esti-mated that nest parasitism, mainly from the brown-headedcowbird, is the single leading cause of nest failures across awide range of species, habitats and locations, accounting for80% of nest losses (Martin, 1993).

Yellow warblers are among the most frequent targets of cow-bird parasitism. Unlike many other birds, however, yellow war-blers can recognize the eggs of brown-headed cowbirds whenthey find them in their nests. When this happens, the warblerswill either abandon their nest or build a new nest on top of theold one and lay a new clutch of eggs. In an attempt to succeedagainst the persistence of cowbirds, yellow warblers have beenknown to stack more than five nests on top of one another!With this skill, and the bird’s generalist habitat requirements, itis not surprising that the yellow warbler is one of the mostcommon warblers in North America.

Indigo BuntingPasserina cyanea

Upon first glance, the male indigo bunting may appear almostblack. When the sunlight diffracts on the bird’s feathers, however,the brilliant blue colour for which the indigo bunting is named willshine forth. In contrast, the female indigo bunting is soft brownoverall, with brown streaks on her breast and a whitish throat.

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48

The indigo bunting is a tireless singer with a variable song ofpaired, accented notes likened to ‘fire-fire, where-where, here-here, see-it, see-it’.

Related to grosbeaks, the indigo bunting has a stout dark bill,which it uses to eat grasshoppers, beetles, grubs and weed seeds.It is a true strip habitat or ‘edge’ species, inhabiting orchards,shrubby fields, hedgerows, woodland edges and regenerating for-est clearings. Raspberry thickets are one of its favourite haunts.Raspberry thorns protect its nest while it feeds concealed amongthe thickets.

Eastern KingbirdTyrannus tyrannus

Eastern kingbirds look like they are ready for a black tie party. Theirupper parts are uniformly dark gray to black and their under partsare bright white. The most distinguishing feature on these birds isthe white band on the tip of their black tail. Their upright headfeathers give them a somewhat pointy-headed silhouette.

Noisy and conspicuous, the eastern kingbird has been known toattack crows, hawks and humans intruding on its territory. Thefearlessness and aggression of this bird doubtless earned it its com-mon name of ‘kingbird.’

In late summer or early fall, eastern kingbirds flock and feed onberries and insects, both of which they deftly snatch while on thewing. They prefer rural areas and woodland edge habitat, and arerelatively easy to spot perched on utility wires and fenceposts alongroadsides.

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49

WoodlandsFor birds and other wildlife in southern Ontario, it

is vitally important that rural woodlands be main-

tained and restored. To fully appreciate the situation,

consider the fact that prior to the arrival of European set-

tlers, forests once covered about 90% of the region. The

vast majority of these forests have since been cleared for

agricultural, residential and urban development. Today less

than 0.07% of southern Ontario remains in old growth

forests, and in some places even young or mature wood-

lands are uncommon (FON 2003c; FON, 2003b). Many of

the remaining woodlands are isolated patches of forest,

vulnerable to roads and other human disturbances that

threaten their ability to maintain viable populations of

plant and animal species over the long term.

50

Protecting and enhancing thefarm woodlands that remain iskey to preserving habitat formany birds. Farmlands nearOttawa with at least 20% for-est cover have retained about90% of the plants and animalsfound in large forest ecosys-tems, illustrating that agricul-tural systems and natureprotection can be compatible(Middleton & Merriam, 1983).

Interior Forest Habitat

In rural Ontario, some birdspecies are dependent uponrelatively large remnant patch-es of forest. That is becauselarger patches of forest havewhat is called ‘interior’ foresthabitat, that is, habitat that is100 metres or more from theforest edge. Interior foresthabitat offers many advan-tages that are critical for somebird species, including areduced risk of predation ornest parasitism, reduced levelsof competition, more hos-pitable temperatures and mois-ture conditions, and lesssusceptibility to human distur-bances (FON, 2003). As aresult, birds have much higherrates of nest success in largerforests (Friesen, 1994).Unfortunately, such forests arescarce or even absent in partsof southern Ontario, and inthese areas many specialistmigratory songbirds thatdepend on interior habitatsuch as the scarlet tanager,

veery, and ovenbird are declin-ing (Francis & Austen, 1999).

Interior forest species have dif-ferent needs than generalistspecies such as the easternkingbird, brown-headed cow-bird and yellow warbler. Thesegeneralists are well served bythe strip and woodland edgehabitats that are common infarmland areas. Also wellserved are many predators,parasites and competitors thatmake this habitat unsuitablefor interior forest species.

Bigger is Better

Both the regional and on-farmdiversity of wildlife species willbe maximized if larger patchesof woodland habitat areretained or enhanced. If a farmhas a woodlot that is greaterthan 200 metres in diameter, itmay already have at least someinterior habitat. Even if thewoodlot is not sizeable enoughto have interior habitat, thelarger it is, the more species itwill support. Conservation biol-ogy has shown that one largeforest area will support a largerdiversity of species than two ormore smaller forest areas ofthe same total size. In otherwords, bigger is better!

The best way to managewoodlands for birds is to pro-tect forests where they exist,and enhance them where pos-sible. Below are some suggest-

Woodlands

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ed woodland managementtechniques to improve birdhabitat:

• Expand your woodland byplanting around it orplanting to connect it toadjacent woodlands.Forest edges that aredensely vegetated providegreater protection to theforest interior and maycontribute to higher nest-ing success (Martin, 1993).

• Plant native trees and con-trol invasive exotic speciessuch as autumn olive,common buckthorn, andtree of heaven. Thesespecies can invade andcompete with the nativevegetation upon whichbirds and other wildlifedepend.

• Aim to increase interiorhabitat in your woodland.If you own a tract of for-est with a field or gap init, consider reforesting orretiring this field. Roundor square designs havemore interior forest thando long, narrow wood-land strips. Where possi-ble, work withneighbours to protectlarger blocks of forest.

• Place roads and paths asclose to the edge as possi-ble (or outside) to maxi-mize the interiorundisturbed area of theforest (Harker et al. 1993).

• Fence woodlands or use

thorny shrubs to keep live-stock out. Trampling killsgroundcover and saplings,increases the potential forintroducing non-nativeseeds, compacts the soiland exposes root systems.

• Leave snags in the forest -standing dead trees arehomes for the northernflicker, pileated wood-pecker, black-cappedchickadee and white-breasted nuthatch. Theyalso serve as perches forbirds of prey and foodsources for insect-eatingbirds. More than 50 birdand mammal species inOntario depend on cavitytrees for nesting, roosting,feeding, storing food orfinding cover. For everyhectare of forest, a mini-mum of 12 small snags(less than 50 centimetresin diameter) and six largesnags (more than 50 cen-timetres in diameter) isrecommended (Lompart etal., 1997).

• Resist the urge to ‘tidy up’the woodlot. Brush piles,dead logs and fallenwoody material on theforest floor provide impor-tant habitat for birds.Ruffed grouse use logs tostand on for drumming rit-uals; other birds roost andnest in brush piles; andthe insects living indecomposing material arefood for ovenbirds, wood

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52

thrush, wrens andnuthatches (MVCA, 1993).

• Feed the birds by main-taining or planting nut or‘mast’ producing treessuch as hickory, oak, cher-ry, butternut, maple andbeech.

• If the woodland is beingharvested, consult a pro-fessional forest ecologistand use a selection har-vesting system wheremature trees are selectedbased on size, spacing andincome potential. Harvestin the winter or late sum-mer to minimize distur-bance during the criticalnesting and breeding peri-ods (AAFC, 1996). It is rec-ommended that loggingoperations maintain five toten percent of older,mature trees.

Naturalizing TreePlantations

Many farm woodlands areplantations consisting of even-aged trees of one or twospecies. Plantations are oftennot favoured by many birdspecies since they can lackdesirable native habitat fea-tures and diversity.Nonetheless, conifer planta-

tions play an important role inreducing soil erosion and thewater cycle. They can also beconsidered ‘nurse’ crops forforest regeneration if they areallowed to undergo successionto a diverse mature forest ofmixed hardwood and coniferspecies. Giving this regenera-tion process a helping handcan be a general objective inmanaging a plantation. It canoffer increased farm incomefrom marketable wood prod-ucts, while enhancing habitatfor birds.

One approach to speeding upforest regeneration is to createcanopy gaps where sunlightcan reach the forest floor. Cutopenings in about two to fivepercent of the plantation inaddition to trees taken in regu-lar thinnings. Gaps six to tenmetres in diameter will creategrowing conditions favourableto the natural regeneration ofspecies such as ash, maple andbeech. If gaps are cut in thevicinity of a stand of thesespecies, seeding may takeplace naturally. Otherwise, itmay be necessary to plant thegap areas with suitable trees(Lompart et al., 1997).

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Scarlet TanagerPiranga olivacea

In Central and South America there are over 200 brightly colouredtanager species, but here in Ontario, the only nesting tanager isthe scarlet version of this vast bird clan. Preferring extensive maturewoodlands, scarlet tanagers feed and nest in the tallest reaches ofthe forest.

Despite their brilliant red plumage, scarlet tanagers are surprisinglydifficult to see as they dart and flit in the canopy in search of insectprey. During poor weather conditions when insects move lower inelevation, you may be lucky enough to see a tanager at eye level.Look for the black wings and tail and pale bill of the male andfemale birds. Breeding males have brilliant red bodies whereasnon-breeding males and females are olive coloured above and yel-low below. Listen for them in large patches of deciduous or mixedforest cover. They sing a series of four to five whistled phrases, likea robin, but raspier - as if the robin had a sore throat.

Scarlet tanagers need interior forest habitat. They are very sensitiveto the phenomenon known as forest fragmentation (when forestsare cut up into smaller, more isolated patches by roads, urbaniza-tion, agriculture, etc.). They are one of the migratory bird speciesmost sensitive to losses of forest cover in southern Ontario(Cadman, 1999; Villard, 1999).

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54

Red-eyed VireoVireo olivaceus

Chances are you have heard a red-eyed vireo singing in the canopyor understorey of a woodland before. Male red-eyed vireos singcontinuously through the day in the spring and summer, long aftermost other songbirds have finished their courtship performances.The woodlands seem to ring with their repetitive phrases, ‘Here Iam! Where are you? Over here! Here I am!’ Indeed, red-eyed vire-os are capable of delivering more than 20,000 songs per day!

Red-eyed vireos are best identified by their white eyebrow toppedby their gray crown, olive green upper parts, white or pale grayunderparts and lack of wing bars.

One of the most common and widespread birds in Ontario, red-eyed vireos are found in high concentrations in large deciduouswoodlands with a shrubby understorey. Red-eyed vireos will inhab-it smaller forests than the scarlet tanager and will even nest in wellwooded residential areas, with up to approximately one pair perhalf hectare in ideal habitat (Villard, 1999).

Woodlands

Water resources

Fresh water resources are a precious commodity

around the world, and are especially important on

the farm. Recent events such as prolonged droughts,

low water levels in the Great Lakes and water quality issues

like the Walkerton tragedy have brought concerns about

water quality and quantity to the fore. Humans in rural

areas and towns depend on farmers to be good stewards

of water resources. So do livestock, wildlife and birds, par-

ticularly waterfowl. Often reliant on ground water, farmers

are especially aware of the need for careful stewardship of

the wetlands, ponds, tile drainage outlets, lakes, streams

and drainage channels on their properties. 55

56

If It Isn’t Broken…

Water resources and the landsthat surround them provideincredibly productive habitatfor birds like the least bittern,osprey, great blue heron and avariety of waterfowl. Theseaquatic systems also provideready sources of water for irri-gation and other on-farmtasks. The best way to protecttheir quality and quantity forhumans and birds alike is toleave them alone. This meansavoiding, wherever possible,either draining, damming orcultivating near wetlands,streams, and other water bod-ies. It also means managingthe surrounding landscapewisely so that functioning sys-tems are not impaired.Integrated pest managementand conservation tillage, forexample, can help maintain

the natural productivity ofthese systems (AAFC, 1996).

Two additional techniques, cre-ating buffer strips and restrictinglivestock access to waterways,are described below. Each pro-vides an effective way of man-aging water quality and quantityfor the benefit of humans, live-stock and birds.

Buffer Strips

Buffer strips are living filtersthat separate natural areasfrom intensive agriculturalactivity. They are strips of landmaintained in permanent veg-etation, designed to interceptagricultural runoff, includingpesticides, nutrients and ani-mal wastes. Buffer strips aregenerally established in areasadjacent to water sources thatprovide low yields and are diffi-

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cult to farm due to slopes, ero-sion, or high soil moisture con-tent. (AAFC, 1997). Bufferstrips are common sense con-servation, and can provide ahost of associated benefits thatcounteract serious environ-mental problems:

• Water pollution. Bufferstrips slow the flow ofwater. When water isslowed, soil particles carry-ing pollutants like phos-phorus are trapped. Somepollutants can then beassimilated by plants.Slower water also meansincreased infiltration ofdissolved pollutants intothe soil. Rainwatertrapped in buffer stripshelps to dilute pollutantsbefore they reach water-ways (CTIC, 2002).

• Flooding. Tree roots andvegetation in buffersreduce floodwater velocityand erosive force, prevent-ing the erosion of valuablecropland during stormevents. Roots also holdstream bank soils in placewhile vegetation blocksstream debris from enter-ing cropland (LandOwnerResource Center, 2000).

• Erosion and sedimenta-tion. Properly designedbuffer strips enhancesheet flow of water overan area of vegetation,slowing water velocity andencouraging sedimenta-

tion. Less sediment instreams and wetlandsmeans a healthier aquaticecosystem. On the land,slower water movementreduces the erosion of fer-tile topsoil and createsfewer gullies (CTIC, 2002).

• Biodiversity loss. Bufferstrips of grass, shrubs andtrees provide nestingcover, travel corridors andfood sources for a varietyof wildlife. Birds are oftenfound in buffer strips,which act as habitat hide-aways for nesting water-fowl as well as huntinggrounds for marshlandbirds like great blueherons.

Buffers for What?

While farm run-off is best con-trolled at the source by goodcropland management includ-ing conservation tillage, bufferstrips provide one last line ofdefence. Because buffer stripsare a management techniquethat is often used to accom-plish a number of purposes, acorresponding number ofdesigns or types of buffersexists. Below are some of themost common types of bufferstrips (LandOwner ResourceCenter, 2000):

Filter StripsThe workhorses of the bufferstrips, these bands of grass aregenerally planted beside a crop

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or livestock area to help filtersediments, nutrients and pesti-cides in runoff before they reachwetlands, streams or ponds.

Grassed WaterwaysThese are strips of grass in crop-land that are positioned in areaswhere water concentrates as itruns off a field. Used primarilyto control gully erosion, grassedwaterways can be designed orcombined to work with filterstrips (LandOwner ResourceCenter, 2000).

Riparian BuffersTrees, shrubs and grasses thatline the edge of a stream orriver are called riparian buffers.These buffer strips containmore woody species than filterstrips. As a result, riparianbuffers have an increased abili-ty to mitigate streambank ero-sion, shade waterways for fish,and provide cover for birds andother wildlife that breed, feedor live near water.

Shallow Water Buffers Placed primarily around wet-land areas such as ponds,swamps or wet spots infields, these buffer plantingsare designed more for habi-tat than filtration, althoughthey perform many of thesame functions as do thetypes of buffer strips previ-ously mentioned.

Birds Benefit from Buffers

In agricultural areas dominated byrow crops, buffer strips are a wel-come haven for species such asmallards, common yellowthroats,song sparrows and red-wingedblackbirds. Some considerationsfor enhancing buffer strips forbirds are noted below.

Buffer Strip Plant Species The plant species included in abuffer strip will vary dependingon the purpose of the buffer.The table below compares thebenefits of grass, shrub or treespecies in buffer plantings.

Water resources

Benefit Vegetation typeGrass Shrub Tree

Stabilize bank erosion Low High HighFilter Sediment High Low LowFilter nutrients, pesticides, microbesSediment-bound High Low LowWildlife HabitatRange/pasture/prairie wildlife High Medium LowForest wildlife Low Medium HighEconomic products Medium Low MediumVisual diversity Low Medium HighFlood protection Low Medium High

(Dosskey et al 1997)

Relative effectiveness of different vegetation types forproviding specific benefits in buffer strips.

59

Note that the bird speciesusing a buffer strip will varydepending on the vegetationplanted. If grassland birds areyour focus, aim to plant nativewarm season grasses. Theirability to withstand droughtconditions and their lowrequirements for maintenancemake them the ideal cover forfilter strips and grassed water-ways as well as a suitable com-ponent of riparian buffer strips.

To maximize the utility of yourbuffer strip for birds in general,focus on planting the widest,most species-diverse bufferthat you can afford. Whilegrasses trap sediments andpollutants, woody vegetationcan remove nitrates from sub-surface ground water flowingbeyond the reach of grassroots (CTIC, 2002). The gener-al rule in species selection forbuffer strips is that the morenatural the buffer strip – themore native plants there are –the less maintenance it willrequire (Livestock ManurePollution and PreventionProject, 2000).

Habitat WidthWider buffer strips are moreattractive to birds. Researchalso indicates a positive rela-tionship between the diversityof bird species and the widthof vegetation strips adjacentto water bodies (Stauffer &Best, 1980). While even a few

metres can provide some ben-efit, wider buffers are better.For maximum wildlife benefit,buffers should be 50 metreswide or more (AAFC, 1996).Significantly more migratorysongbirds have been found inbuffers that are wider than 25metres than in those that arenarrower, due to the lowerfrequency of disturbance(Croonquist & Brooks, 1993).Many species of birds, notablyducks, nest in areas up to onekilometre from a stream,marsh or wetland, and mal-lards commonly nest up to300 metres from wetlandedges.

Livestock and WaterwaysDon’t Mix

For years, pasture managersselected grazing areas thatincluded a creek or river as awater source for livestock(McCormack, 1998). Directaccess was an inexpensivemeans of providing water for

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the animals. Concerns aboutwater quality and wildlife habi-tat, however, are calling thispractice into question.Depending on the grazingintensity and the physical char-acteristics of the site, theimpact of allowing livestock toaccess water from streams,ponds and wetlands can rangefrom small to very significant.Generally, livestock have detri-mental impacts on the waterquality and bank vegetation ofa waterway, and excludingthem from water sources isbecoming a common landstewardship technique (AAFC,1996). In a waterway, unre-stricted livestock can:

• contract foot rot, masti-tis and waterborne dis-eases by wallowing inwater and muck;

• increase the costs of drainmaintenance and dredg-ing to farmers throughtrampling and subsequenterosion;

• trample the banks ofwaterways causing erosionand sedimentation thatnegatively affect waterquality and the aquaticecosystem;

• compact the soil along thebanks of waterways,killing vegetation;

• deposit manure in or nearwaterways, causing waterpollution and threateningthe health of humans andlivestock downstream;

• disturb or destroy impor-tant bird and wildlife habi-tat adjacent to waterways.

The Multiple Benefits of Exclusion

Excluding livestock from water-ways can result in many bene-fits, including improved herdhealth, healthier bank vegeta-tion, reduced erosion, reduceddrain maintenance costs,improved drinking water quali-ty and better bird habitat(DUC, no date). These benefitswill be felt both on the farmand beyond. As streams orcreeks flow across private andpublic lands on their way tolarger rivers or lakes, actionsthat affect them at any pointwill have an impact on all thelife downstream.

For example, sedimentationfrom erosion is the primarythreat to fish in many Ontariowaterways. Sediments fromfarming activities can smotherfish eggs and alter the amountof light reaching aquaticplants. While conservationtillage and buffer strips help tolimit the impacts of erosionfrom farm fields, excludinglivestock from waterways fur-ther reduces sedimentationdownstream. Healthy aquaticecosystems, in turn, can helpto support healthy bird popula-tions, providing food for greatblue herons, ospreys, belted

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kingfishers and spotted sand-pipers.

Exclusion Fencing

The multiple benefits of live-stock exclusion are promptingmany Ontario farmers to fencetheir ponds, streams and wet-lands and to provide alternatewatering sources for theirherds. The most cost-effectiveand common method of fenc-ing a waterway is to erect atwo-strand electric fencearound the waterway. Arecent study by OMAF showsthat high-tensile electric fenc-ing is one quarter the cost ofnine strand page wire and onethird the cost of double strandbarbed wire (DUC, no date).One strand of wire placed 75centimetres (30 inches) fromthe soil will control cows, year-ling heifers and horses, buttwo strands, one at 45 cen-timetres (18 inches) and one at90 centimetres (36 inches), areoften used (DUC no date).

Creating living fences alongwaterways is another methodof restricting livestock access.Densely planted trees andshrubs will, in time, effectivelyfence an area and providecover and habitat for birds(AAFC, 1997). Complementinga living fence with a temporaryfence while plants becomeestablished is essential toensuring plant survival.Raspberry and hawthorn

species are good choices forliving fences and for bird habi-tat, as they provide food, coverand nesting spaces for manybirds. Living fences physicallyand visually protect stream,pond and wetland bank vege-tation and limit stream cross-ings, making these sites moresuitable for marsh birds, nest-ing waterfowl and otherspecies sensitive to distur-bance.

Alternate Watering Systems

Once cattle are excluded froma waterway, an alternatewatering system is required. Alternate watering systemsprovide improved water qualityand quantity for livestock. Ifthey are given clean and readi-ly available water, livestock willconsume their required waterintake and be more productive(McCormack, 1998). Manyoptions are available for thesesystems, including solar pow-ered pumps that also supplypower to remote electric fenc-ing, gravity-fed ram pumps ornose-pumps that are operatedby the cattle themselves.

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Common YellowthroatGeothlypis trichas

This masked songster is a common visitor to wetlands acrossOntario. The common yellowthroat belongs to the wood-warblerfamily. While its bright colouration seems in line with its kin, itspreference for wet overgrown meadows and cattail marshes sets itapart from other wood-warblers.

Male common yellowthroats visit preferred singing perches in rota-tion and fiercely guard them from other males. From these spots,they sing their distinctive ‘witchity-witchity-witchity-witch’ song.

Common yellowthroats do, indeed, have a yellow throat, as well asa yellow breast and undertail coverts. Males also have a black maskwith a white upper border. Their olive-green upper parts and dingywhite belly contrast with their bright yellow throat. Female yel-lowthroats do not have the distinctive mask, but do have a whitebelly and may show a faint eye ring.

Common yellowthroats nest on or near the ground among emer-gent aquatic vegetation such as cattails and eat insects, includingdragonflies and beetles, and spiders. Their nesting habits and foodand cover preferences make them direct beneficiaries of bufferstrips.

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63

American WoodcockScolopax minor

These chunky little birds put on a springtime show that is worththe wait! In early evening, where open grassy areas abut wetlands,you may find an American woodcock wrapped up in his courtshipdisplays. These birds strut or turn on the spot, stopping every quar-ter turn or so to call a loud ‘peeent’ in a nasal voice. After a num-ber of vocalizations, the woodcock twitters through the air in acircular flight display, and then plummets to the ground, zigzag-ging like a falling leaf. It is the woodcock’s rounded wings thatmake the noises you hear as the bird flies up and falls down in itsdisplay.

Other than during the breeding season American woodcocks areshy and inconspicuous birds. Their camouflaged plumage helpskeep them well hidden in the moist woodlands and damp thicketsadjacent to grassy areas where they live.

The woodcock’s long sturdy bill helps it to probe in soft soil forearthworms and insect larvae and to pinch snails, millipedes andseeds from plant material. The American woodcock has short legsand a short neck, and unusually large, dark eyes. Its most distinc-tive field marks are the light coloured bars on its otherwise blackcrown. These are arranged perpendicular to the direction of its bill,a feature that helps to distinguish it from the common snipe,which has facial and head stripes parallel to its bill. In addition, thewoodcock’s brown or buff breast colourations differ from thesnipe’s whiter breast plumage.

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64

Monitoring the numbers and species of birds

seen at the farm will help you to realize the

impact of the farm management techniques

included in this book on bird populations.

Joining a local nature group is a great way to share and

learn from like-minded people. Ontario Nature’s Nature

Network represents over 130 member groups across the

province, and can help you join or organize a group in your

area. Local nature groups often sponsor bird appreciation

activities, and can help you get involved in bird monitoring

programs that focus on your farm or that have a continent-

wide scale. Some of the activities open to volunteers

include the annual Christmas Bird Count, the Ontario Nest

Record Scheme, Project Feeder Watch and the Ontario

Breeding Bird Atlas.

Monitoring for Success

65

Christmas Bird Count

The Christmas BirdCount (CBC) is coordi-nated by Bird Studies

Canada in partnership with theAudubon Society. The yearlybirding events that take placefor this monitoring programare organized by individualfield naturalist groups or pri-vate individuals. Local rivalriesand the long history of this sur-vey have made the CBC one ofthe biggest social and sportingevents in the birding world.Now in its second century, theCBC draws over 50,000 coun-ters from across Canada, theUnited States and LatinAmerica for a one day eventwithin a two-week windowduring the Christmas season.During that one day, all of thebirds seen in a 24 kilometrediameter circle are identified,counted and recorded. Theresults of each group’s countare then compiled and addedto the CBC database. Eachcounter’s findings, rated on abirds-per-person-hour scale,can then be compared to find-ings from as far back as 1900to determine trends in birdnumbers and distributions.

Ontario Nest RecordScheme

As the name suggests, thisprogram tracks the health ofOntario’s bird populations bymaintaining records of nestingsuccess and nest distribution.

Volunteers fill out a data cardfor each nest they find andmonitor, and data is submittedto the Royal Ontario Museum,which coordinates this pro-gram. Data gathered may beused to study breeding birddistributions, clutch size andhatchling success, the impactsof brown-headed cowbirdsand nest predators, as well aschanges in nesting dates.Among important data gath-ered are egg laying dates,which can then be used tohelp identify safe periods formanagement activities such asharvesting hay or timber.Farmers with bird nests in theirfields are ideal observers forthis program.

Project FeederWatch

Project FeederWatch involvesthousands of ordinary peoplein the business of observingtheir winter bird feeders andrecording the results in theinterest of science. The pro-gram is active continent-wideand is managed by Bird StudiesCanada and the CornellLaboratory of Ornithology withadditional support from theCanadian Nature Federationand National Audubon Society.On two consecutive days everytwo weeks between Novemberand April, observers take noteof weather conditions andmark down the greatest num-bers of each species seen atone time at the feeder. Theinformation collected helps to

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track changes in the abun-dance and distribution of birdspecies that use feeders in thewinter. For a $25 registrationfee, participants receive aposter of common winterbirds, a bird calendar, the Bird -Watch Canada newsletter, andinstructions about the pro-gram. Project FeederWatch is agreat way to learn more aboutthe birds that visit your birdfeeder and your farm through-out the winter.

Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas

The second Ontario BreedingBird Atlas is a volunteer-based

project to gather data on thedistribution and abundance ofbird species breeding inOntario. Data for the secondatlas is being collected over afive year period, from 2001 –2005. Volunteers look for evi-dence of breeding and abun-dance for as many species aspossible. The data provideinformation on the distributionof birds throughout theprovince, including rangeexpansions and populationchanges since the first atlaswas conducted in 1981-1985.

Monitoring for Success

Visit: birdsontario.org

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This section of the guide book is designed to put

landowners in touch with organizations that act as

clearinghouses for conservation information, envi-

ronmental farming techniques as well as networking

resources. Some of the organizations listed may offer

financial programs to assist individual farmers in the imple-

mentation of the techniques noted in the book. Funding

programs and project eligibility vary from year to year. It is

recommended that contact be made prior to planning a

project for which financial assistance is required.

68

Ontario Nature Ontario Nature protects and restoresnature through research, education andconservation action. Ontario Naturechampions woodlands, wetlands andwildlife, and preserves essential habitatthrough its own system of naturereserves. It is a charitable organizationrepresenting 30,000 members and over140 member groups across theprovince, connecting individuals andcommunities to nature.

Contact Ontario Nature to networkwith local naturalist groups, to findout more about protecting bird habi-tat through conservation easementsand land donations, or to inquireabout the (2001-2005) OntarioBreeding Bird Atlas.

Ontario Nature366 Adelaide St. West, Suite 201Toronto, ONM5V 1R91-800-440-2366 or (416) 444-8419E-mail: info@ontarionature.orgWebsite: www.ontarionature.org

Nature CanadaNature Canada is the national voice ofnaturalists in Canada. It represents morethan forty thousand individual membersand supporters in every province andterritory, together with over one hun-dred affiliated organizations, includinglocal and provincial naturalist groups.Nature Canada’s mission is to protectnature, its diversity and the processesthat sustain it. As the Canadian BirdLifeInternational co-partner with BirdStudies Canada, Nature Canada isinvolved in a global effort to improvethe quality of life for birds, other wildlifeand people. Together they have identi-fied a network of Important Bird Areasacross the country, and are working tosafeguard these essential sites forCanada’s birds.

85 Albert St, Suite 900Ottawa, OntarioK1P 6A4

Phone: 1-800-267-4088or 613-562-3447Fax: 613-562-3371Email: info@naturecanada.cawww.naturecanada.ca

Bird Studies CanadaBird Studies Canada (BSC) is recognizedas a leading conservation organizationdedicated to advancing the under-standing, appreciation and conservationof wild birds and their habitats inCanada and elsewhere. BSC coordinatesprograms on regional, national andinternational scales, including many ofthe bird monitoring programs men-tioned in this guide book. BSC is alsoone of the Canadian BirdLifeInternational co-partners and is involvedin a global effort to protect essentialbird habitat through the delivery of theCanadian Important Bird AreasProgram. Contact BSC to find out moreabout Project Feeder Watch, the OntarioNest Record Scheme and the ChristmasBird Count, or to find out more aboutbirds and bird conservation in your area.

Bird Studies CanadaP.O. Box 160Port Rowan, ONN0E 1M0 1-888-448-BIRD E-mail: generalinfo@bsc-eoc.orgWebsite: www.bsc-eoc.org

Canadian Organic GrowersCanadian Organic Growers (COG) is anational information network for organ-ic farmers, gardeners and consumers.COG’s mission is to be a leading organicinformation and networking resourcefor Canada, promoting the methodsand techniques of organic growingalong with the associated environmen-tal, health and social benefits.

Canadian Organic GrowersNational Office323 Chapel StreetOttawa, OntarioK1N 7Z2Tel: 613-216-0741

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Toll-free: 1-888-375-7383Fax: 613-236-0743Email: office-at-cog.caWebsite: www.cog.ca

Canadian Wildlife FederationThe Canadian Wildlife Federation (CWF)is dedicated to fostering awareness andappreciation of our natural world. Byspreading knowledge of human impactson the environment, sponsoringresearch, promoting the sustainable useof natural resources, recommending leg-islative changes, and cooperating withlike-minded partners, CWF encouragesa future in which Canadians live in har-mony with nature.

Canadian Wildlife Federation350 Michael Cowpland DriveKanata, ONK2M 2W11-800-563-WILDEmail: info@cwf-fcf.orgWebsite: www.cwf-fcf.org

Canadian Wildlife ServiceThe Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) isCanada’s national wildlife agency,handling wildlife issues that are theresponsibility of the federal government.CWS is involved in the protection ofmigratory birds, wildlife habitat, endan-gered species, and research on national-ly important wildlife issues, amongother program areas.

Canadian Wildlife Service – EnvironmentCanada351 St. Joseph BoulevardHull, QCK1A 0H3(819) 997-1095Email: enviroinfo@ec.gc.caWebsite: www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca

Conservation OntarioLocal Conservation Authority ProgramsMembers of Ontario’s 36 ConservationAuthorities are working individually toensure clean water, prevent flooding,reduce erosion, preserve wildlife, andprovide local conservation and recre-

ational spaces in the province. Throughthe development and delivery of pro-grams to restore and manage Ontario’swater resources, ConservationAuthorities are closely linked to localstewardship activities. Some of the proj-ects likely to be supported by a localConservation Authority include restrict-ing livestock from waterways, andplanting buffer strips and strip habitat.Conservation Authorities serve individ-ual landowners, providing stewardshipadvice and, in some cases, funds relatedto waterway protection and restoration.

Individual Conservation Authoritiesdevelop programs to protect the urbanand rural lands that form part of thewatershed under their jurisdiction. Tofind out if there is a funding programrelated to an ecological farm manage-ment technique noted in this book, con-tact Conservation Ontario and havethem put you in touch with your localConservation Authority.

Conservation OntarioP.O. Box 11120 Bayview ParkwayNewmarket, ONL3Y 4W3E-mail: info@conservation-ontario.on.caWebsite: www.conservation-ontario.on.ca

Ducks Unlimited CanadaDucks Unlimited Canada conserves,restores and manages wetlands andassociated habitats for North America’swaterfowl and other wildlife. As aresult, this organization is active in ruralOntario and, in the past, has offeredfunding programs such as Ontario LandCare and the Rural Conservation ClubProgram. These funding initiatives fea-tured partnerships with local farmersand community pasture managers toimplement ecological agricultural man-agement techniques. Their past experi-ence in ecological farming techniquesmakes Ducks Unlimited staff a valuableresource for advice and help with con-servation initiatives on farms, as are the

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organization’s wetland related publica-tions and profiles of past projects. DucksUnlimited does provide some financialassistance for agricultural projects, par-ticularly those involved in wetland management.

Ducks Unlimited Canada566 Welham RoadBarrie, ONL4N 8Z2(705) 721-4444Email: du_barrie@ducks.caWebsite: www.ducks.ca

Environmental Farm Plan Incentive FundThe Environmental Farm Plan is a volun-tary educational program for farmersand their families. Currently, over26,000 farm families have beenengaged in the EFP program, which isdelivered locally by the Ontario Soil Cropand Improvement Association on behalfof the Ontario Farm EnvironmentalCoalition. The EFP program involvesworkshops to help participants workthrough the process of conducting anenvironmental risk assessment anddeveloping an EFP. Once a plan hasbeen prepared, the program offersfinancial incentives to assist farmersmaking positive environmental changesand implementing new managementpractices. (See OSCIA, p.71.)

Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters Local Habitat Restoration ProgramsIndividual Ontario Federation of Anglersand Hunters (OFAH) club members partici-pate in any number of local and provincial-ly significant habitat restoration projects.Members of the OFAH have been plantingtrees, creating stream buffers, installingwood duck nesting boxes and protectingwetlands and woodlands to provide betterhabitat for wildlife. Locally based clubssometimes have funds to disperse for habi-tat enhancement. For more informationabout current funding opportunities, contact:Ontario Federation of Anglers and

HuntersP.O. Box 2800Peterborough, ONK9J 8L5(705) 748-6324 Email: ofah@ofah.orgWebsite: www.ofah.org

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food and Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaThese agencies maintain exhaustiveinformation databases on their web-sites, and it is well worth a browsethrough for additional information, spe-cialist contact information and ideasabout ecological farm managementtechniques. While the majority of fund-ing from these organizations is adminis-tered through other programs like theEFP, funding may be available for indi-vidual farmland enhancement projects.

Ministry of Agriculture, Food and RuralAffairs1 Stone Road WestGuelph, ON N1G 4Y2Telephone: (519) 826-3100Toll Free:1-888-466-2372Toll Free:1-877-424-1300 Local: (519) 826-4047 Email: ag.info.omafra@ontario.cahttp://www.omafra.gov.on.ca

Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaSir John Carling Building 930 Carling Ave Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C7 Telephone: 613-759-1000Fax: 613-759-7977Email: info@agr.gc.cahttp://www.agr.gc.ca

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources If a farm woodlot is four hectares (10acres) or more in size, tax savings maybe gained by enrolling that land in theManaged Forest Tax Incentive Program,administered by the Ministry of NaturalResources. Other funding programs maybe available through the MNR for fish

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and wildlife habitat enhancement. TheLandOwner Resource Centre is a uniqueextension service of the MNR and pro-vides a suite of publications relating torestoration and land management,many of which are directly applicable tofarmland.

MNR Southern Region 300 Water Street,4th Floor, South Tower,P.O. Box 7000Peterborough, ONK9J 8M5(705) 755-2000Website: www.mnr.gov.on.ca

LandOwner Resource CentreP.O. Box 599, 5524 Dickinson StreetMantiock, ONK4M 1A5(613) 692-23901-800-387-5304E-mail: info@lrconline.comWebsite: www.lrconline.com

Ontario Soil and Crop ImprovementAssociation (OSCIA)The Ontario Soil and Crop ImprovementAssociation (OSCIA) is dedicated tocommunicating and facilitating respon-sible, economic management of soil,water, air and crops. Their membershiprepresents virtually all commoditygroups across the province and is a cred-ible, active grassroots voice on agricul-tural issues. OSCIA has 55 localcounty/district branches across theprovince and is a significant presence inall the major agricultural areas ofOntario.

Ontario Soil and Crop ImprovementAssociation1 Stone Road W.Guelph, ONN1G 4Y2(519) 826-41241-800-265-9751E-mail: oscia@ontariosoilcrop.orgWebsite: www.ontariosoilcrop.org

Ontario StewardshipThe Ministry of Natural Resources'Ontario Stewardship program is a community-based initiative that bringstogether landowners, associations,resource agencies and individuals whoshare an interest in responsible land careand sustainable resource use. The pro-gram advocates stewardship as a toolfor land management.

Participants in the program are encour-aged to work together to develop anecosystem-approach for improving localstewardship and to create collaborativeresource management tools. Local stew-ardship councils can assist in ecologicalfarm management and can link farmersto other information sources for assis-tance with farm enhancement initiatives.

To become involved in the program,contact your local stewardship councilor visit our website at: www.ontariostewardship.com

Mitch R. Baldwin MSc.Provincial Stewardship Coordinator,Ontario Stewardship ProgramOntario Ministry of Natural ResourcesSouthern Region Office300 Water Street 4th floor, South TowerPeterborough, Ontario, Canada P.O. Box 7000K9J 8M5 Phone: 705-755-3278Email: mitch.baldwin@ontario.cawww.ontariostewardship.org

Society for Ecological RestorationUp-to-date information about invasiveexotic species and native plants is availablefrom the Society for Ecological Restoration,by mail or through their website.

SER Ontario Chapter(519) 888-4567 ext. 5616Email: info@serontario.orgWebsite: www.serontario.org

Tallgrass OntarioThis organization’s strength lies in itsfocus on native tallgrass prairies in

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Ontario. If you are interested in findingout more about warm season nativegrasses, or would like to find outwhether restoring an old field on yourproperty to a prairie ecosystem is suit-able for your land, contact TallgrassOntario.

Tallgrass Ontario659 Exeter RoadLondon, ONN5Y 2R7(519) 873-4631E-mail: info@tallgrassontario.orgWebsite: www.tallgrassontario.org

Wildlife Habitat CanadaWetland Habitat Fund Water quality and erosion projects,including buffer strips, native vegetationplanting and restricted livestock accessmay be funded by the Wetland HabitatFund (WHF). This fund provides privatelandowners with financial assistance forprojects that improve the ecologicalintegrity of wetland habitats. The WHFis directly supported by Wildlife HabitatCanada. The fund program favours proj-ects that address local wetland andwildlife habitat issues, such as those ini-tiated by farmers. Habitat projects thatconform to WHF’s criteria may be eligi-ble for funds up to a maximum of 50%of the project cost or $5,000 (whicheveris less). To apply, contact the ProgramManager to determine the WHF repre-sentative in your area, or visithttp://www.wetlandfund.com/whfcon-tacts.htm.

1750 Courtwood Crescent, Suite 310Ottawa, ONK2C 2B5Phone: (613) 722-2090Toll-free: 1-800-669-7919Fax: (613) 722-3318Website: http://www.whc.org

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Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.1994. Best management practices:Water management. Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada, Ontario Ministry ofAgriculture and Food.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.1996. Best management practices: Fishand wildlife habitat management.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,Ontario Ministry of Agriculture andFood.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.1996b. Best management practices:Integrated pest management.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,Ontario Ministry of Agriculture andFood.

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.1997. Best management practices: No-till, making it work. Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada, Ontario Ministry ofAgriculture and Food.

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Austen, M.J.W., M.D. Cadman, R.D.James. 1994. Ontario birds at risk:Status and conservation needs. DonMills, ON: Federation of OntarioNaturalists, Long Point Bird Observatory.

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