Confucius

For other uses, see Confucius (disambiguation).

Confucius (/kənˈfjuːʃəs/; September 28, 551 – 479BC)*[1]*[2] was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, andphilosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinesehistory.The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal andgovernmental morality, correctness of social relation-ships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed suc-cessfully with many other schools during the HundredSchools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favorof the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following thevictory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confu-cius's thoughts received official sanction and were furtherdeveloped into a system known as Confucianism.Confucius is traditionally credited with having authoredor edited many of the Chinese classic texts including allof the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautiousof attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself.Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in theAnalects, but only many years after his death.Confucius's principles had a basis in common Chinesetradition and belief. He championed strong family loy-alty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their childrenand of husbands by their wives. He also recommendedfamily as a basis for ideal government. He espoused thewell-known principle“Do not do to others what you donot want done to yourself”, the Golden Rule.

1 Names

Confucius' family and personal name respectively wasKong Qiu (孔丘 Kǒng Qiū).*[3] His courtesy name wasZhongni (仲尼 Zhòngní).*[3] In Chinese, he is most of-ten known as Kongzi (孔子 Kǒng Zǐ, literally “Mas-ter Kong”).*[4]*[5] He is also known by the honorificKong Fuzi (孔夫子 Kǒng Fūzǐ, literally“Grand MasterKong”).*[5] In the Wade–Giles system of romanization,the honorific name is rendered as“K'ung Fu-tzu”. TheLatinized name “Confucius”is derived from “KongFuzi”, and was first coined by 16th-century Jesuit mis-sionaries to China, most probably by Matteo Ricci.*[5]Within theAnalects, he is often referred to simply as“theMaster”(子 Zǐ). In 1 AD, Confucius was given his firstposthumous name, the“Laudably Declarable Lord Ni”(褒成宣尼公). In 1530, he was declared the“ExtremelySage Departed Teacher”(至聖先師). He is also known

separately as the“Great Sage”(至聖),“First Teacher”(先師), and “Model Teacher for Ten Thousand Ages”(萬世師表).*[6]

2 Family background

Main article: Family tree of Confucius in the main lineof descent

According to tradition, three generations before Confu-cius' time, his ancestors had migrated from the Songstate to the Lu state.*[7] Confucius was a descen-dant of the Shang dynasty Kings through the Dukes ofSong.*[8]*[9]*[10]

3 Biography

3.1 Early life

Chu

Song

Jin

Yan

Qi

Lu

Wu

CaoZheng

Zhou

Wei

Cai

Chen

Qin

Chengzhou

Yellow

river

Yellow river

Wei river

Han river

Huai river

Yanzi river

Yanzi river

SichuanBasin

East China Sea

Yellow Sea

Bohai SeaKorean

Penisula

Southern hills

Steppes

Yi

(Tianjin)

Linzi

Qufu

Shangqiu

Gusu

Guiji

(Nanjing)(Hefei)

(Wuhan)Ying

Shangcai

Kaifeng(Zhengzhou) Chiqiu

(Jinan)

Yong

(Xi'an)

(Beijing)

Chengpu

(Shanghai)

(Hangzou)

Ji

Chinese plain in the late Spring and Autumn period (5th century BC)

Legend

YellowPhysical item

Rivers

State's capital

Imperial capital

Ancient or (modern) city

Qin State

Lopez Hugo, CC-by-sa

Lu can be seen in China's northeast.

It is generally thought that Confucius was born onSeptember 28, 551 BC.*[1]*[11] His birthplace wasin Zou, Lu state (near present-day Qufu, ShandongProvince).*[11]*[12] His father Kong He (孔紇), alsoknown as Shuliang He (叔梁紇), was an officer in theLu military. Kong He died when Confucius was threeyears old, and Confucius was raised by his mother YanZhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty.*[13] His mother wouldlater die at less than 40 years of age.*[13] At age 19 hemarried his wife, surnamed Qiguan (亓官), and a yearlater the couple had their first child, Kong Li (孔鯉)*[13]who was later known as“Boyu”, which means“TopFish”in Chinese.*[14] Qiguan and Confucius would later

1

2 3 BIOGRAPHY

have two daughters together, one of whom is thought tohave died early in her life as a child.*[15]Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, wherehe studied and learned the Six Arts.*[16]Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between thearistocracy and the common people. He is said to haveworked in various government jobs during his early 20s,and also worked as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheepand horses, which he used the proceeds from to give hismother a proper burial.*[13]*[14] When his mother died,Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for threeyears as was the tradition.*[14]

3.2 Political career

The Lu state was headed by a ruling ducal house.*[17]Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whoseheads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary po-sitions in the Lu bureaucracy.*[18] The Ji family heldthe position“Minister over the Masses”, who was alsothe“Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position“Minister ofWorks"; and the Shu family held the position“Minister of War”.*[18] In the winter of 505 BC, YangHu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellionand seized power from the Ji family.*[18] However, bythe summer of 501 BC, the three hereditary families hadsucceeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu.*[18] By then,Confucius had built up a considerable reputation throughhis teachings, while the families came to see the value ofproper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieveloyalty to a legitimate government.*[19] Thus, that year(501 BC), Confucius came to be appointed to the minorposition of governor of a town.*[19] Eventually, he roseto the position of Minister of Crime.*[19]Confucius desired to return the authority of the state tothe duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city-strongholds belonging to the three families.*[20] Thisway, he could establish a centralized government.*[20]However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he hadno military authority himself.*[20] In 500 BC, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of theShu family.*[20] Although the Meng and Shu familiesunsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose upwith the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to theQi state.*[20] The situation may have been in favor forConfucius as this likely made it possible for Confuciusand his disciples to convince the aristocratic families todismantle the fortifications of their cities.*[20] Eventu-ally, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciplessucceeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the wallsof Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and theMeng family in razing the walls of Cheng.*[20] First, theShu family led an army towards their city Hou and toredown its walls in 498 BC.*[20] Soon thereafter, Gong-shan Furao*[lower-alpha 1]—a retainer of the Ji family—revolted and took control of the forces at Bi.*[21]*[22]

He immediately launched an attack and entered the cap-ital Lu.*[20]Earlier, Gongshan had approachedConfucius to join him,which Confucius considered.*[21] Even though he disap-proved the use of a violent revolution, the Ji family dom-inated the Lu state force for generations and had exiledthe previous duke.*[21] Although he wanted the oppor-tunity to put his principles in practice, Confucius gave upon this idea in the end.*[21] Creel (1949) states that, un-like the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may havesought to destroy the three hereditary families and restorethe power of the duke.*[23] However, Dubs (1946) is ofthe view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount JiHuan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dis-mantling the Bi fortified walls.*[22] Whatever the situa-tion may have been, Gongshan was considered an uprightman who continued to defend the state of Lu, even afterhe was forced to flee.*[23]*[24]During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You (仲由) hadmanaged to keep the duke and the three viscounts to-gether at the court.*[24] Zhong You was one of the dis-ciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for himto be given the position of governor by the Ji family.*[25]When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Vis-count Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat toa stronghold on his palace grounds.*[26] Thereafter, theheads of the three families and the duke retreated to theJi's palace complex and ascended theWuzi Terrace.*[27]Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault againstthe rebels.*[27] At least one of the two officers was a re-tainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refusethe orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts,and court.*[26] The rebels were pursued and defeated atGu.*[27] Immediately after the revolt was defeated, theJi family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.*[27]The attackers retreated after realizing that they wouldhave to become rebels against the state and against theirown lord.*[26] Through Confucius' actions, the Bi offi-cials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord,thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dis-mantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored suchrebels) or confess to instigating the event by going againstproper conduct and righteousness as an official.*[26]Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to lightConfucius' foresight, practical political ability and his in-sight into human character.*[26]When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Mengfamily, the governor was reluctant to have his city wallstorn down and convinced the head of theMeng family notto do so.*[27] The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor ad-vised against razing the walls to the ground as he said thatit made Cheng vulnerable to the Qi state and cause thedestruction of the Meng family.*[26] Even though Vis-count Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an at-tempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantlethe walls.*[26]

3

Later in 498 BC, Duke Ding personally went with anarmy to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze itswalls to the ground, but he did not succeed.*[28] Thus,Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms thathe wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule ofthe duke.*[29] He had made powerful enemies withinthe state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to hissuccesses so far.*[30] According to accounts in the ZuoZhuan and Shiji, Confucius departed his homeland in 497BC after his support for the failed attempt of dismantlingthe fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shufamilies.*[31] He left the state of Lu without resigning,remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long asViscount Ji Huan was alive.*[30]

3.3 Exile

The Shiji states that the neighboring Qi state was worriedthat Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius wasinvolved in the government of the Lu state. Accordingto this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms bysending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girlsto the Duke of Lu. The Duke indulged himself in plea-sure and did not attend to official duties for three days.Confucius was deeply disappointed and resolved to leaveLu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at oncewould expose the misbehavior of the Duke and thereforebring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serv-ing. Confucius therefore waited for the Duke to make alesser mistake. Soon after, the Duke neglected to sendto Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was hisdue according to custom, and Confucius seized upon thispretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.After Confucius' resignation, he began a long journey orset of journeys around the small kingdoms of north-eastand central China, traditionally including the states ofWei, Song, Chen, and Cai. At the courts of these states,he expounded his political beliefs but did not see themimplemented.

3.4 Return home

According to the Zuo Zhuan, Confucius returned hometo his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited todo so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu.*[32] TheAnalects depict him spending his last years teaching 72or 77 disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a setof texts called the Five Classics.During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an ad-visor to several government officials in Lu, including JiKangzi, on matters including governance and crime.*[32]

4 Philosophy

Main article: ConfucianismAlthough Confucianism is often followed in a religious

The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the Temple of Confucius inQufu

manner by the Chinese, many argue that its values aresecular and therefore it isn't a religion, but more akin to asecular morality. Proponents argue that despite the sec-ular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on aworldview that is religious.*[33] Confucianism discusseselements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven,but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual mat-ters often considered essential to religious thought, suchas the nature of souls. However, Confucius is said to havebelieved in astrology saying: “Heaven sends down itsgood or evil symbols andwisemen act accordingly”.*[34]

The Analects of Confucius

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a“trans-mitter who invented nothing”. He puts the greatest em-phasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinesecharacter for study (學) that opens the text. Far from try-ing to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wantedhis disciples to master and internalize the old classics, sothat their deep thought and thorough study would allowthem to relate the moral problems of the present to pastpolitical events (as recorded in the Annals) or the pastexpressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's re-flections (as in the poems of the Book of Odes).

4 4 PHILOSOPHY

4.1 Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have beenthe superiority of personal exemplification over explicitrules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attain-ment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules.Confucian ethics may be considered a type of virtueethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argumentand ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more in-directly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.His teachings require examination and context in order tobe understood. A good example is found in this famousanecdote:

廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？”不問馬。

When the stables were burnt down,on returning from court Confuciussaid, “Was anyone hurt?" He didnot ask about the horses.

AnalectsX.11 (tr.Waley),10–13(tr.Legge),or X-17(tr. Lau)

By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstratesthat the sage values human beings over property; readersare led to reflect on whether their response would followConfucius' and to pursue self-improvement if it would nothave. Confucius, as an exemplar of human excellence,serves as the ultimate model, rather than a deity or a uni-versally true set of abstract principles. For these reasons,according to many commentators, Confucius' teachingsmay be considered a Chinese example of humanism.One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rulesometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negativeform:

己所不欲，勿施於人。

“What you do not wish for yourself,do not do to others.”

子貢問曰：“有一言而可以終身行之者乎”？子曰：“其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。”

Zi Gong [a disciple] asked:“Is thereany one word that could guide a per-son throughout life?"The Master replied: “How about'reciprocity'! Never impose on oth-ers what you would not choose foryourself.”

AnalectsXV.24,tr. DavidHinton

Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues tothe self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Vir-tuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sin-cere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuousdisposition without knowledge is susceptible to corrup-tion and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righ-teousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is alsoimportant for one's own sake; the superior person loveslearning for the sake of learning and righteousness for thesake of righteousness.The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ (禮)is based on three important conceptual aspects of life:(a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors anddeities of various types, (b) social and political institu-tions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. It was be-lieved by some that lǐ originated from the heavens, butConfucius stressed the development of lǐ through the ac-tions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions oflǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions com-mitted by a person to build the ideal society, rather thanthose simply conforming with canonical standards of cer-emony.In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the properthing at the proper time, balancing between maintain-ing existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fab-ric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethicalgood. Training in the lǐ of past sages cultivates in peoplevirtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ mustbe adapted in light of situational contexts.In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related toyì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yìcan be translated as righteousness, though it may simplymean what is ethically best to do in a certain context.The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest.While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarilybad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one'slife was based upon following a path designed to enhancethe greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the rightthing for the right reason.Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to con-form to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linkedto the core value of rén (仁).Rén consists of 5 basicvirtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence andkindness.*[35] Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfillingone's responsibilities toward others, most often translatedas“benevolence”or“humaneness"; translator ArthurWaley calls it“Goodness”(with a capital G), and othertranslations that have been put forth include “author-itativeness”and “selflessness.”Confucius' moral sys-tem was based upon empathy and understanding others,rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one'sspontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide

5

action intuitively was even better than living by the rulesof yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is ameans between ex-tremes. For example, the properly generous person givesthe right amount—not too much and not too little.*[35]

4.2 Politics

Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethicalthought. He argued that the best government is one thatrules through“rites”(lǐ ) and people's natural morality,and not by using bribery and coercion. He explained thatthis is one of the most important analects:“If the peoplebe led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given themby punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment,but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, anduniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propri-ety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreoverwill become good.”(Translated by James Legge) in theGreat Learning (大學). This“sense of shame”is an in-ternalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes theevil action, instead of following it in the form of laws asin Legalism.Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, andurged the Chinese, particularly those with politicalpower, to model themselves on earlier examples. Intimes of division, chaos, and endless wars between feu-dal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven(天命) that could unify the“world”(天下,“all underHeaven”) and bestow peace and prosperity on the peo-ple. Because his vision of personal and social perfectionswas framed as a revival of the ordered society of earliertimes, Confucius is often considered a great proponent ofconservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes oftenshows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutionsand rites to push a new political agenda of his own: arevival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would suc-ceed to power on the basis of their moral merits insteadof lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their peo-ple, striving for personal and social perfection, and sucha ruler would spread his own virtues to the people insteadof imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.Confucius did not believe in the concept of "democracy",which is itself an Athenian concept unknown in ancientChina, but could be interpreted by Confucius' principlesrecommending against individuals electing their own po-litical leaders to govern them, or that anyone is capableof self-government. He expressed fears that the masseslacked the intellect to make decisions for themselves, andthat, in his view, since not everyone is created equal, noteveryone has a right of self-government.*[36]While he supported the idea of government ruling by avirtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elementsto limit the power of rulers. He argued for representingtruth in language, and honesty was of paramount impor-tance. Even in facial expression, truth must always berepresented. Confucius believed that if a ruler were to

lead correctly, by action, that orders would be deemed un-necessary in that others will follow the proper actions oftheir ruler. In discussing the relationship between a kingand his subject (or a father and his son), he underlinedthe need to give due respect to superiors. This demandedthat the subordinates must give advice to their superiorsif the superiors were considered to be taking the courseof action that was wrong. Confucius believed in ruling byexample, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punish-ment isn't necessary.*[37]

5 Disciples

Main article: Disciples of Confucius

There is not much known of Confucius' disciples anda little over half of them had their surnames recordedin the Zuo Zhuan.*[38] The Analects records 22 namesthat are most likely Confucius' disciples, while theMencius records 24 names, although it is quite certain thatthere have been many more disciples whose name werenot recorded.*[38] Most of Confucius' disciples werefrom the Lu state, while others were from neighboringstates.*[38] For example, Zigong was from the Wey stateand Sima Niu was from the Song state.*[38] Confucius'favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of themost impoverished of them all.*[38] Sima Niu, in con-trast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hail-ing from the Song state.*[38] Under Confucius' teachings,the disciples became well-learned in the principles andmethods of government.*[39] He often engaged in dis-cussion and debate with his students and gave high impor-tance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual.*[39]Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to in-dividual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved bypersuasion rather than violence.*[39] Even though Con-fucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracywas likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy offi-cials who were studied in morals as the circumstances ofthe time made it desirable.*[39] In fact, the disciple Zilueven died defending his ruler in Wei.*[39]Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, haddominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and evenattempted a coup, which narrowly failed.*[39] As a likelyconsequence, it was after that that the first disciples ofConfucius were appointed to government positions.*[39]A few of Confucius' disciples went on to attain official po-sitions of some importance, some of which were arrangedby Confucius.*[40] By the time Confucius was 50 yearsold, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lustate over the ruling ducal house.*[41] Even though theJi family had practices with which Confucius disagreedand disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius' dis-ciples many opportunities for employment.*[41] Confu-cius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to theirprinciples and renounced those who did not, all the while

6 6 LEGACY

being openly critical of the Ji family.*[42]

6 Legacy

Confucius' teachings were later turned into an elaborateset of rules and practices by his numerous disciples andfollowers, who organized his teachings into the Analects.Confucius' disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, contin-ued his philosophical school after his death. These effortsspread Confucian ideals to students who then became of-ficials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby givingConfucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.Two of Confucius' most famous later followers empha-sized radically different aspects of his teachings. In thecenturies after his death, Mencius (孟子) and Xun Zi(荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating indifferent ways on the fundamental ideas associated withConfucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the in-nate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethicalintuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, whileXun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic andmaterialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing thatmorality was inculcated in society through tradition andin individuals through training. In time, their writings,together with the Analects and other core texts came toconstitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to thedevelopment of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an ef-fective state. A disagreement between these two politi-cal philosophies came to a head in 223 BC when the Qinstate conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister ofthe Qin Dynasty convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandonthe Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akinto the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as be-ing against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the statearound the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressedtheir point, Li Si had many Confucian scholars killed andtheir books burned—considered a huge blow to the phi-losophy and Chinese scholarship.Under the succeeding Han Dynasty and Tang dynasty,Confucian ideas gained even more widespread promi-nence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were madethe official imperial philosophy and required reading forcivil service examinations in 140 BC which was con-tinued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th Cen-tury. As Moism lost support by the time of the Han,the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, whichConfucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings ofLaozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it fromdirect conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhistreligion, which gained acceptance during the Southernand Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas andConfucian-trained officials were relied upon in the MingDynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai

Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.During the Song dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (AD 1130–1200) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Con-fucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, butnot long after his death his ideas became the new or-thodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant.Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created some-thing rather different, and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China,Japan, Korea and Vietnam until the 19th century.

Life and Works of Confucius by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687.

The works of Confucius were translated into Europeanlanguages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationedin China.*[lower-alpha 2] Matteo Ricci started to reporton the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero In-torcetta published the life and works of Confucius intoLatin in 1687.*[43] It is thought that such works hadconsiderable importance on European thinkers of the pe-riod, particularly among the Deists and other philosoph-ical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested bythe integration of the system of morality of Confuciusinto Western civilization.*[43]*[44]In the modern era Confucian movements, such as NewConfucianism, still exist but during the Cultural Revo-lution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leadingfigures in the Communist Party of China. This was par-tially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucian-ism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th Centuryas a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and re-fusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to thetragedies that befell China in the 19th Century.Confucius' works are studied by scholars in many otherAsian countries, particularly those in the Chinese culturalsphere, such as Korea, Japan andVietnam. Many of thosecountries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony ev-ery year.The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confuciuswas a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and othereminent Chinese personages.*[45]

8.1 Memorials of Confucius 7

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, “Confucius”, wasnamed after the Chinese thinker.

7 Visual portraits

No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius sur-vives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that hewas portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his leg-endary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there havebeen many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philoso-pher.In former times, it was customary to have a portraitin Confucius Temples; however, during the reign ofHongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty it was de-cided that the only proper portrait of Confucius shouldbe in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong.In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorialtablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation com-missioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on theTang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

8 Death and legacy

Tomb of Confucius in Kong Lin cemetery, Qufu, ShandongProvince

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite dis-ciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72. He died from nat-ural causes. Confucius was buried in Kong Lin cemeterywhich lies in the historical part of Qufu in the Shandong

Province. The original tomb erected there in memory ofConfucius on the bank of the Sishui River had the shapeof an axe. In addition, it has a raised brick platform at thefront of the memorial for offerings such as sandalwoodincense and fruit.

8.1 Memorials of Confucius

Soon after Confucius' death, Qufu, his home town be-came a place of devotion and remembrance. The Handynasty Records of the Grand Historian records that it hadalready become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It isstill a major destination for cultural tourism, and manypeople visit his grave and the surrounding temples. Inpan-China cultures, there are many temples where repre-sentations of the Buddha, Laozi and Confucius are foundtogether. There are also many temples dedicated to him,which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies.The Chinese have a tradition of holding spectacularmemorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year,using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li(周禮) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Con-fucius' birth. This tradition was interrupted for severaldecades in mainland China, where the official stance ofthe Communist Party and the State was that Confuciusand Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist be-liefs which held that the subservience of the people to thearistocracy is a part of the natural order. All such cere-monies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considereda veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Com-munist Party members may be found in attendance.In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang)strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behav-ior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius(祭孔) is supported by the government and has contin-ued without interruption. While not a national holiday,it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father'sDay does in the West.

8.2 Descendants

See also: Family tree of Confucius in the main line ofdescent

Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified andhonored by successive imperial governments with titlesof nobility and official posts. They were honored withthe rank of a marquis thirty-five times since Gaozu ofthe Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank ofduke forty-two times from the Tang dynasty to the QingDynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed thetitle of “Duke Wenxuan”on Kong Suizhi of the 35thgeneration. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first be-stowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan

8 11 REFERENCES

of the 46th generation.During the Southern Song dynasty the Duke YanshengKong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor toQuzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dy-nasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Du-anyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu asDuke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dy-nasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the northin Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. Duringthe Yuan dynasty, the Emperor Kublai Khan invited thesouthern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu to returned to Qufu.Kong Zhu refused, and gave up the title, so the north-ern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where theylived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhoualone number 30,000.*[46]*[47]Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the titleof Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive gen-erations of descendants until it was abolished by theNationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the ti-tle, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointedSacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died inOctober 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th linealdescendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grand-son, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, wasborn in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80thlineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006.Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland Chinaand has written a book about her experiences growing upat the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi,died as a young woman.*[48] Many descendants of Con-fucius still live in Qufu today.Confucius' family, the Kongs, have the longest recordedextant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-sonfamily tree, now in its 83rd generation,*[49] has beenrecorded since the death of Confucius. According to theConfucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, he has2 million known and registered descendants, and thereare an estimated 3 million in all.*[50] Of these, sev-eral tens of thousands live outside of China.*[50] In the14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, wherean estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live to-day.*[50] One of the main lineages fled from the Kongancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War inthe 1940s, and eventually settled in Taiwan.*[48] Thereare also branches of the Kong family who have convertedto Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan inGansu province in the 1800s,*[51] and in 1715 in Xuan-wei city in Yunnan province.*[52] Kong Dejun (孔德軍)is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghaiprovince and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree,there was a project in China to test the DNA of knownfamily members of the collateral branches in mainlandChina.*[53] Among other things, this would allow scien-tists to identify a common Y chromosome in male de-

scendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbro-ken, father-to-son, since Confucius' lifetime, the malesin the family would all have the same Y chromosome astheir direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to thepassage of time.*[54] The aim of the genetic test was thehelp members of collateral branches in China who losttheir genealogical records to prove their descent. How-ever, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided notto agree to DNA testing.*[55] Bryan Sykes, professor ofgenetics at Oxford University, understands this decision:“The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural sig-nificance,”he said. “It's not just a scientific question.”*[55] The DNA testing was originally proposed to addnew members, many of whose family record books werelost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian fam-ily tree.*[56] The main branch of the family which fled toTaiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test atall.In 2013 a DNA test performed on multiple different fam-ilies who claimed descent from Confucius found that theyshared the same Y chromosome as reported by FudanUniversity.*[57]The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius ge-nealogy was printed by the Confucius Genealogy Compi-lation Committee (CGCC).*[58]*[59] It was unveiled ina ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009.*[58]*[59]Women are now included for the first time.*[60]There is also a “Sacrificial Official to Mencius”for adescendant of Mencius, a“Sacrificial Official to Zengzi”for a descendant of Zengzi, and a“Sacrificial Official toYan Hui”for a descendant of Yan Hui.

9 See also

• Classic of Poetry

• Confucius Institute

10 Notes[1] Gongshan Furao is also known as Gongshan Buniu.

[2] The first was Michele Ruggieri who had returned fromChina to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in LatinChinese classics, while residing in Salerno.

11 References[1] Hugan, Yong (2013). Confucius: A Guide for the Per-

plexed. A&C Black. p. 3. Retrieved August 12, 2015.

[2] Riegel 2012, online.

[3] Chin 2007, 2.

9

[4] Rainey 2010, 1.

[5] Phan 2012, 170

[6] Kögel, Eduard (2015). The Grand Documentation: ErnstBoerschmann and Chinese Religious Architecture. Walterde Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Retrieved August 17, 2015.

[7] Creel 1949, 26.

[8] Yao 1997, 29.

[9] Yao 2000, 23.

[10] Rainey 2010, 66.

[11] Creel 1949, 25.

[12] Rainey 2010, 16.

[13] Huang, Yong (2013). Confucius: A Guide for the Per-plexed. A&C Black. p. 4. Retrieved August 12, 2015.

[14] Burgan, Michael (2008). Confucius: Chinese Philosopherand Teacher. Capstone. p. 23. Retrieved August 12,2015.

[15] Schuman, Michael (2015). Confucius: And the World HeCreated. Basic Books. Retrieved August 12, 2015.

[16] Huang, Yong (2013). Confucius: A Guide for the Per-plexed. A&C Black. pp. 4–5. Retrieved August 12,2015.

[17] Dubs 1946, 274–275.

[18] Dubs 1946, 275.

[19] Dubs 1946, 275–276.

[20] Dubs 1946, 277.

[21] Creel 1949, 35–36.

[22] Dubs 1946, 277–278.

[23] Creel 1949, 35.

[24] Dubs 1946, 278.

[25] Dubs 1946, 278–279.

[26] Dubs 1946, 279.

[27] Chin 2007, 30.

[28] Dubs 1946, 280.

[29] Dubs 1946, 280–281.

[30] Dubs 1946, 281.

[31] Riegel 1986, 13.

[32] Huang, Yong (2013). Confucius: A Guide for the Per-plexed. A&C Black. pp. 27–28. Retrieved August 13,2015.

[33] Berger, Peter (February 15, 2012). “Is Confucianism aReligion?". The American Interest. Retrieved August 13,2015.

[34] Parkers (1983)

[35] Bonevac & Phillips 2009, 40.

[36] Schuman, Michael (2015). Confucius: And the World HeCreated. Basic Books. ISBN 0465040578. Retrieved Au-gust 17, 2015.

[37] Violatti, Cristian (August 31, 2013). “Confucianism”.Ancient History Encyclopedia. RetrievedAugust 17, 2015.

[38] Creel 1949, 30.

[39] Creel 1949, 32.

[40] Creel 1949, 31.

[41] Creel 1949, 33.

[42] Creel 1949, 32–33.

[43] Parker 1977, 25.

[44] Hobson 2004, 194–195.

[45] Ahmad ???, online.

[46] “Nation observes Confucius anniversary”. China Daily.2006-09-29.

[47] “Confucius Anniversary Celebrated”. China Daily.September 29, 2006.

[48] Kong, Ke & Roberts 1988.

[49] China Economic Net 2009, online.

[50] Yan 2008, online.

[51] Jing, Jun (1998). The Temple of Memories: History,Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village. Stanford Uni-versity Press. p. 26. ISBN 0804764921.

[52] Zhou, Jing.“New Confucius Genealogy out next year”.china.org.cn. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[53] Ministry of Commerce of the PRC 2006, online.

[54] China Internet Information Center 2006, online.

[55] Qiu 2008, online.

[56] Bandao 2007, online.

[57] Chen, Stephen (13 November 2013).“Study finds singlebloodline among self-claimed Confucius descendants”.South China Morning Post.

[58] China Daily 2009, online.

[59] Zhou 2008, online.

[60] China Daily 2007, online.

10 13 FURTHER READING

12 Bibliography

12.1 Hard copy

• Bonevac, Daniel; Phillips, Stephen (2009). Intro-duction to world philosophy. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515231-9.

• Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1949). Confucius: Theman and the myth. New York: John Day Company.

• Dubs, Homer H. (1946). “The political career ofConfucius”. Journal of the American Oriental So-ciety 66 (4). JSTOR 596405.

• Hobson, John M. (2004). The Eastern origins ofWestern civilisation (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54724-5.

• Chin, Ann-ping (2007). The authentic Confucius:A life of thought and politics. New York: Scribner.ISBN 978-0-7432-4618-7.

• Kong, Demao; Ke, Lan; Roberts, Rosemary (1988).The house of Confucius (Translated ed.). London:Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-41279-4.

• Parker, John (1977). Windows into China: The Je-suits and their books, 1580–1730. Boston: Trusteesof the Public Library of the City of Boston. ISBN0-89073-050-4.

• Phan, Peter C. (2012). “Catholicism and Con-fucianism: An intercultural and interreligious di-alogue”. Catholicism and interreligious dialogue.New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-982787-9.

• Rainey, Lee Dian (2010). Confucius & Confu-cianism: The essentials. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-1-4051-8841-8.

• Riegel, Jeffrey K. (1986). “Poetry and the legendof Confucius's exile”. Journal of the American Ori-ental Society 106 (1). JSTOR 602359.

• Yao, Xinzhong (1997). Confucianism and Chris-tianity: A Comparative Study of Jen and Agape.Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-76-1.

• Yao, Xinzhong (2000). An Introduction to Confu-cianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-64430-5.

12.2 Online

• Ahmad, Mirza Tahir (n.d.).“Confucianism”. Ah-madiyya Muslim Community. Retrieved 7 Novem-ber 2010.

• Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (20 February2011).“Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction”.

•“Confucius descendents say DNA testing plan lackswisdom”. Bandao. 21 August 2007.

•“Confucius family tree to record female kin”. ChinaDaily. 2 February 2007.

•“Confucius' Family Tree Recorded biggest”. ChinaDaily. 24 September 2009.

•“Confucius family tree revision ends with 2 mln de-scendants”. China Economic Net. 4 January 2009.

• “DNA Testing Adopted to Identify Confucius De-scendants”. China Internet Information Center. 19June 2006.

• “DNA test to clear up Confucius confusion”.Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic ofChina. 18 June 2006.

• Riegel, Jeffrey (2012).“Confucius”. The StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.

• Qiu, Jane (13August 2008).“Inheriting Confucius”. Seed Magazine.

• Yan, Liang (16 February 2008).“Updated Confu-cius family tree has twomillion members”. Xinhua.

• Zhou, Jing (31 October 2008). “New ConfuciusGenealogy out next year”. China Internet Informa-tion Center.

13 Further reading• Clements, Jonathan (2008). Confucius: A Biogra-

phy. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Pub-lishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-4775-6.

• Confucius (1997). Lun yu, (in English The Analectsof Confucius). Translation and notes by Simon Leys.New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04019-4.

• Confucius (2003). Confucius: Analects—With Se-lections from Traditional Commentaries. Translatedby E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.(Original work published c. 551–479 BC) ISBN 0-87220-635-1.

• Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1949). Confucius and theChinese Way. New York: Harper.

• Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1953). Chinese Thoughtfrom Confucius to Mao Tse-tung. Chicago: Univer-sity of Chicago Press.

• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). “Confucianism: AnOverview”. In Encyclopedia of Religion (Vol. C, pp1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference USA.

11

• Dawson, Raymond (1982). Confucius. Oxford: Ox-ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-287536-1.

• Fingarette, Hebert (1998). Confucius : the secularas sacred. Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN1-57766-010-2.

• Ssu-ma Ch'ien (1974). Records of the Historian.Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, trans. Hong Kong:Commercial Press.

• Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). Confucius and theAnalects: New Essays. New York: Oxford Univer-sity Press. ISBN 0-19-513396-X.

• Van Norden, B.W., trans. (2006). Mengzi, in PhilipJ. Ivanhoe & B.W. Van Norden, Readings in Clas-sical Chinese Philosophy. 2nd ed. Indianapolis:Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-780-3.

14 External links• Confucius entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Phi-

losophy

•

• Confucius on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

• Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects

• The Dao of Kongzi, introduction to the thought ofConfucius.

• Confucius entry by Jeffrey Riegel in the StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy

• Works by Confucius at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Confucius at Internet Archive

• Works by Confucius at LibriVox (public domain au-diobooks)

• Confucian Analects (Project Gutenberg release ofJames Legge's Translation)

• Core philosophical passages in the Analects of Con-fucius.

12 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Confucius Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius?oldid=693831735 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, Malcolm Farmer,XJaM, Christopher Mahan, William Avery, Sean, SimonP, Shii, Youandme, Hephaestos, Olivier, Stevertigo, D, Smelialichu, MichaelHardy, Wshun, Pit~enwiki, Llywrch, Voidvector, Mahjongg, Gabbe, Menchi, Ixfd64, Delirium, Skysmith, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki,Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Bueller 007, Darkwind, Ottawakungfu, Александър, MyNameIsClare,Bingfeng, Pratyeka, BenKovitz, Poor Yorick, Cimon Avaro, Jiang, Kaihsu, Evercat, Aarontay, Andrevan, Wayne~enwiki, WhisperToMe,ThomasStrohmann~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Saltine, Itai, Buridan, Taoster, Shizhao, Bjarki S, Stormie, AnonMoos, JasonM, Pakaran, Jusjih, Steffen Löwe Gera, Adam Carr, Shantavira, RadicalBender, Jni, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Earl Andrew, Fredrik, Ki-zor, Chris 73, Goethean, Kokiri, Mayooranathan, Tim Ivorson, Mirv, Academic Challenger, Hemanshu, Texture, DHN, Gbog, Caknuck,Sunray, Hadal, JackofOz, Vikreykja, Carlj7, Mandel, Lupo, HaeB, SpellBott, ManuelGR, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, DocWatson42,Christopher Parham, Sj, Nat Krause, Netoholic, Lee J Haywood, Trujaman, Spencer195, Everyking, Jacob1207, Wikibob, Bird, Jfd-wolff, Wikiwikifast, Per Honor et Gloria, Macrakis, Python eggs, Chameleon, Tagishsimon, Golbez, Wmahan, Gadfium, Jasper Chua,Bact, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Jeshii, Kiteinthewind, Jossi, Stringer~enwiki, Rdsmith4, APH, Wikinu~enwiki, Bodnotbod, Karl-Henner,Starx, Cglassey, Gscshoyru, Asbestos, Michael L. Kaufman, Imjustmatthew, Mschlindwein, Fg2, Hardouin, Jh51681, Adashiel, TrevorMacInnis, Grunt, Lacrimosus, DmitryKo, Lucidish, CALR, DanielCD, Ultratomio, EugeneZelenko, Felix Wan, Discospinster, Rich Farm-brough, Brutannica, Aonaran, Mjpieters, Dbachmann, Bender235, FrankCostanza, Aranel, Pofkezas, Terrytip, Kwamikagami, Aude,Shanes, RoyBoy, Moilleadóir, Chriscf, Causa sui, Bobo192, Thirdid, Shenme, Filiocht, Viriditas, Wisdom89, Jguk 2, Alpheus, Confla-tuman, Giraffedata, Jojit fb, PeterisP, Eritain, Pearle, Perceval, Rolfmueller, HasharBot~enwiki, Vizcarra, Jumbuck, Danski14, Capt-mjc, Alansohn, Gary, Ryanmcdaniel, Thebeginning, Thechuck, Visviva, Atlant, Andrewpmk, Bathrobe, Ricky81682, AzaToth, T-1000,Evangeline, JinFX, YDZ, Plange, Fivetrees, Shinjiman, Binabik80, Danhash, N2lect2el, Sciurinæ, BlastOButter42, Heida Maria, Kingof Hearts (old account 1), KTC, Richard Weil, Hijiri88, Feezo, Weyes, Angr, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Imagina-torium, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Gorgeousp, Mr Tan, JarlaxleArtemis, CWH, Aamargulies, Rocastelo, Spettro9,Crazirishbty, Fbv65edel, JosefK, Striver, Bluemoose, John Hill, Pgilman, Sltan, Geenius at Wrok, Dysepsion, Paxsimius, Ashmoo, Gra-ham87, Timsj, Canderson7, Saperaud~enwiki, Dr.Gonzo, Koavf, Adjusting, Orville Eastland, PinchasC, XP1, Hiberniantears, Tangotango,Uliyellow, Wooddoo-eng, SolAce7x, Vegaswikian, John Frink, Yamamoto Ichiro, Skyfiler, Slc39, WWC, Crazycomputers, Chrisjack-son, RexNL, Gurch, Angel12~enwiki, Maustrauser, Bmicomp, Benjwong, King of Hearts, Jidan, Chobot, CAD6DEE2E8DAD95A,Lightsup55, Benlisquare, 334a, DocCaligari, Vmenkov, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol, Satanael, TexasAndroid, Neitherday, Hede2000, Pig-man, GLaDOS, Lleux~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, KSchutte, Wimt, EnakoNosaj, Wikimachine, Prime Entelechy,Shanel, NawlinWiki, Lao Wai, Zhaladshar, Wiki alf, Saccharomyces, Anomo, Robertvan1, Amax~enwiki, Astorknlam, Chunky Rice,Cleared as filed, JDoorjam, Nick, Retired username, Wonglokking, Shinmawa, Dppowell, Jpbowen, Rmky87, Aldux, Vancouveriensis,Gammadion, RUL3R, Voidxor, Denihilonihil, Semperf, Sumple, Zwobot, Aaron Schulz, Mddake, Elkman, Haemo, Nlu, Wknight94,Zero1328, PotatoSamurai, Laszlo Panaflex, Penguinsforever, Womble, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Theda, Peter Kirby, Denisutku, KDLarsen,Pietdesomere, SMcCandlish, Mastercampbell, DGaw, Tarkovsky~enwiki, JLaTondre, Tryptofeng, Flowersofnight, ArielGold, Albert ip,Richar4034, RunOrDie, CharlieHuang, Katieh5584, LakeHMM, DVD R W, Bibliomaniac15, Barry Wells, Luk, Trevorloflin, Smack-Bot, Dqpeck, Zazaban, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Lwh~enwiki, Pgk, Ccalvin, Lawrencekhoo, Blue520, Bomac,Jagged 85, Lds, Rizman720, Delldot, Underwater, ProveIt, Kintetsubuffalo, Flameeyes, Jwestbrook, SmartGuy Old, Hmains, Skizzik,Chongmyong~enwiki, ERcheck, Exlibris, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kurykh, MikeSy, Asclepius, Persian Poet Gal, WikiFlier, Rothery,Tetraglot, 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15.2 Images 13

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