O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
Transcript of O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
1/23
38
CHAPTER 3:
THEORISING TRANSITIONS:
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
When a seedling is transplanted from one place to another, the
transplantation may be a stimulus or a shock. The careful gardener seeks to
minimise shock so that the plant is re-established as (easily) as possible
(Cleave, Jowett & Bate, 1982, p.195)
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
2/23
39
3.1 Introduction
Internationally transition has been studied using several theoretical concepts. Griebel
& Niesel (1999) advise that in Germany many studies of transition have either
referred to attachment theory or stress theory. However they suggest that the concept
of family transition is also suitable for enhancing the multiple demands and
expectations concerning children, and parents as well as on the institutions side
(2000, p1). They cite the family transition model developed by Cowan (1991, 1994)
as being suitable to investigate this transition. This model was initially developed to
study family transitions such as the birth of a child, divorce, remarriage, and includes
the perspectives of all the family members. Elder (2001) has further suggested that
the experiences of children should be viewed within the context of family, social
change and the individual lives within such contexts, using the perspective of life
course theory. Peters (2000) reminds us of the importance of considering
maturational theories when looking at the transition to school. She noted that
following on from these theories, the understanding that children are expected to
develop in a predictable fashion has implications in terms of when children are
considered to be ready for school, and also in terms of judgements of children who
are deemed not to meet standardised readiness tests.
Fabian (1998, 1999, 2000a) cites the anthropological work of van Gennep as being
useful when looking at rites of passage when entering the school system. These rites
of passage would include rites of separation, rites of transition and rites of
incorporation. She identifies three stages: the preliminal stage (such as talking about
what school will be like, buying the school uniform, and creating expectations about
school); the liminal stage (which includes meeting the teacher, and separating from
the parent on the first day of school); and the postliminal stage (involving celebrating
completion of the first day of school with family, and habituation to the new status of
schoolchild). These concepts of liminality are also cited by Norris (1999) as being
particularly relevant for the study of transitions, as she reminds us that the word
originally comes from the French word liminaire or of the threshold. Fabian
suggests that these rights of passage help to incorporate the individual into the group,
as Van Gennep outlines the process it should include rights of separation, rights oftransition, and rights of incorporation.
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
3/23
40
Another theory that has been used in the study of transition is that of Communities of
Practice. Emanating from socio-cultural theory it is a social theory of learning
developed by Lave & Wenger (1991) using the Communities of Practice model.
Wenger (1998) explains the notion of communities of practice in terms of members
learning within familiar territory, where they are both considered to be, and consider
themselves as being, competent learners. She suggested that this allows engagement
in terms of full understanding of the community. Within such a system learners
should be encouraged and supported by more capable members of the community,
sharing common goals and meaningful intercourse. The theory has a foundation
based on three basic concepts: negotiation of meaning, participation and reification. It
emphasises the importance of the interplay between learning and the process of
meaning making within the given social system. In essence, childrens participation
in the classroom environment and community involves them adopting the rules and
roles implicit within that environment, this in turn helps them develop a sense of
belonging within that community. The aim is for students to develop identities of
participation in which they engage with the learning process.
All the above theoretical considerations are useful in the study of the transition from
preschool to school. However, after much consideration it was concluded that the
ecological model of transition would be particularly useful in better understanding the
transition from preschool to school in the Irish context. Thus the Ecological Systems
Model is the primary theoretical basis for the project. The main reason for this was
its acknowledgement of the shared responsibility of all the stakeholders and the
dynamic nature of the relationships involved in the process. In tandem with the
Ecological Systems Model, the Sociocultural Perspective was also considered to be
important, and the combination of the two approaches provided a sound theoretical
focus for the study.
Another point of importance is that when considering the theoretical standpoints for
the current study, it was decided to place the researchers vision for the inclusion of
children and the rights of children to be involved in research into their lives at the
forefront of considerations. Within the areas of research, practice, and policy in
Ireland, the rights of the child to have her voice heard are becoming widely
recognised (Hogan & OReilly, 2007). Similar considerations have been noted
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
4/23
41
internationally (Christensen & Prout, 2005). In Ireland, the National Childrens
Strategy (DHC, 2000) followed by the establishment of the Childrens Ombudsmans
Office and the Office of the Minister for Children have most notably focused on the
need to empower and consult with children in matters relating to their own lives.
Indeed such consideration follows from Article 12 of the UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child, which asserts the rights of children to be heard in matters relating
to their own lives (UNICEF, 1989). Following on from the above, this thesis has been
framed with a vision of children as being both active agents in their own world, and
competent participants in the research process. The importance of acknowledging
children as being competent subjects in research into their own lives and viewing
children as active agents in their own social worlds strongly contributed to the
decision to combine the approaches of the Ecological Systems Model and the
Sociocultural Perspective as a theoretical focus for the study. Details of the two
models, and why each was considered appropriate for the study are outlined below.
3.2 Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Model
Underpinning much of the current thinking on transitions research has been the
ecological systems model of development, proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979; 1992)
which sees the child as one part of a process of interaction influencing her
development. Bronfenbrenner states
the characteristics of the person at a given time in his or her life are a joint
function of the characteristics of the person and of the environment over the
course of that persons life up to that time (1992, p190).
Bronfenbrenner suggests that the child is the centre of five environmental systems, orlayers, and is influenced by experiences related to each of the five. Within these
layers, the individuals within each level, most notably the child himself, actively
participate in and influence interactions. The most central influence on the child is
that of the microsystem, which is any individual setting, for example the home or the
school, in which the child has most of her direct interactions. The people in these
microsystems have the most immediate effect on the child, and according to
ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down this
will cause the child difficulty in exploring other parts of his environment (Paquette &
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
5/23
42
Ryan, 2001). As Dockett & Perry (2003) advise children exist within a web of
meaningful social relationships; what is important to them and what they know
derives largely from the interactions within these relationships (p9). The second
level is the mesosystem, the relational network with others, which consists of linkages
between any of the various settings in which the child spends time. These can exert
an influence over the child in subtle ways, for example if parents and teachers have
differences of opinion on the education of the child. The exosystem is the influence
of external environments, for example the national curriculum or bilingualism in the
classroom. In essence, it is the organisational context in which the child operates at
any given time, and which has a direct influence on the child. Although the child has
no active control over these influences, the child does actively interpret these in
his/her local context and characteristics of the child have a definite influence on the
application of these influences. Next come the influences of the macrosystem, the
variables of the particular culture, in which the child exists. The priority that the
macrosystem gives to childrens needs will effect the levels of support that children
receive at the inner levels of the system. For example, Paquette & Ryan (2001)
suggest that if it is the belief of any particular society that parents should be
responsible for rearing their children, that society is less likely to provide external
resources to assist parents in that role. This will impact on the parents ability or
inability to carry out that responsibility, and will impact the childs micro- and
mesosystems. Fulcher (2007) reminds us of the importance of the macrosystem, and
proposes children perceive and learn to give meaning through culturally designed
experiences thus the experiences of children must be viewed within the various
cultural environments which they inhabit. He suggests that historical and cross-
cultural meanings must be taken into account when undertaking research into the lives
of children, and thus places great emphasis on the local-regional policy environment.
He compares this to placing Bronfenbrenners set of Russian Dolls into their Dolls
House.
Bronfenbrenners later conceptualisations of the model also include a Chronosystem
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) which involves the temporal changes in childrens
environment, which produce new conditions that affect development (Berk, 2000,
p30). These can be changes which take place on a frequent basis through the childs
life, or one-off changes such as the transition from preschool to formal schooling.
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
6/23
43
Bronfenbrenners chronosystem includes changes within and between systems
included in the transition over time. In this way he sees the childs ecology as
composed of a layer of multi-connected systems all of which have some degree of
effect on the child and his/her development. Relationships within these nested layers
are bi-directional, so adults affect childrens behaviour, but children are also active
participants in the process.
Bronfenbrenner & Morris (1998) further developed this evolving theoretical
framework which they renamed the Bioecological Model. The model was refined to
allow for what Bronfenbrenner saw as a change from research out of context, to
research on context without development (p994) providing more knowledge about
environments than the developing individual within that environment. The newly
evolving model hoped to further develop the role of the person in the model. It also
answered criticisms of the last model for failing to account for biological influences.
Elder (2007) suggests that when developing the original model Bronfenbrenner
admitted that he was so immersed in context that he failed to account properly for the
role of the person. This is reflected in his later writings when a greater emphasis on
the person is clear. The model consists of four principal components, and the
relationships between them. The first of these is the Process, which encompasses
interactions between the individual and the environment, called proximal processes.
These proximal processes are viewed as being the primary engines of development
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998, p996). The next influence is the developing person
and their individual characteristics. Dispositions, resources of ability and knowledge,
and demand characteristics are seen to be important influences in shaping the
development of the person and their proximal processes. These person characteristics
are also incorporated into the microsystem as characteristics of parents and teachers
interacting with the child. Thirdly, environmental contexts, although more remote
than person characteristics, are noted as being of importance, in terms of childrens
relationships with objects and symbols. Particular reference is made to the
importance of features of the environment that foster versus interfere with the
development of proximal processes (p.995). For example, the hectic lifestyle
experienced by most children today is noted as being a particularly chaotic
environmental context. Finally, time is mentioned as having been omitted from the
earlier version of the model, and as being particularly significant to three successive
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
7/23
44
levels, micro-, meso-, and macro-. In terms of the current research project, it is clear
that time will impact on the microsystem and mesosystems during the first year of
formal schooling. The microsystem of school as experienced by children arriving in
September to start school for the first time will clearly be very different to their
experiences of the same setting in June when they finish their first year of school.
Similarly home-school links during the first year of school can result in changes in
relationships and understandings within this mesosystem over the course of the same
school year. Clearly time has an impact in terms of the ever changing systems.
3.3 Understanding of Transition in Ecological Terms
Bronfenbrenner (1979) defines adjustment to a new situation as an ecological
transition: An ecological transition occurs whenever a persons position in the
ecological environment is altered as the result of a change in role, setting, or both
(1979, Definition 6, p.26) Viewing the transition from preschool to school from this
model, the child is influenced by the family and background, the characteristics of the
childs past and present learning environments, and the educational values and
experiences of his/her caregivers. This results in complex interactions between the
child, the family, preschool and primary school staff, along with each of their
expectations of this process. In this way the childs transition to school is seen in
terms of the influence of contexts (eg, family, preschool, school) and the connections
between these contexts (eg, family-school relationships, preschool-school
relationships) across time (Bailey, 1999). During the transition period the three
microsystems of home, preschool and school are interconnected in a mesosystem.
Difficulties experienced within the three environments can interfere with the
development of proximal processes. As Paquette & Ryan comment:
The interaction between factors in the childs maturing biology, his immediate
family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his
development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout
other layers (2001, p.1)
If the process of transition is to be a successful one for the child, communication and
participation is needed between these groups.
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
8/23
45
Understanding the transition to school in ecological terms is emphasised by many
researchers in this area. The approach of three influential groups have heavily
influenced the theoretical basis of this study, these are: Ramey & Ramey (1992,
1996); Pianta & Walsh (1996); and Dunlop & Fabian (2002). Ramey & Ramey
devised their Transition Conceptual Model following a socio-ecological approach to
the development of children within a developmental systems theory framework. The
key concepts of context, process and outcomes are represented in the model. Figure
3.1 below outlines their model.
Figure 3.1: The Transition Conceptual Model (Ramey and Ramey, 1992, 1996)
showing the major influences on children and families during the
school years. (taken from Ramey & Ramey, 1999, p222).
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
9/23
46
The child is shown as being embedded within the family, and the family as being
embedded within the community. They note that the bi-directional influences that
children and families have on schools and communities, although acknowledged as
being important, are not shown in this diagram as their emphasis is on ways to
improve child and family outcomes. The model also details eight spheres of influence
which overlap to effect the child and family, they are considered to be the proximal
factors in the overall system. Transactions involving supportive influences in the
diagram are represented by black arrows, and those involving stressors and risk
factors represented by white arrows.
Pianta & Walsh (1996) studied the transition to school for high risk children and
suggested that the quality of relationship between home and school is critical for this
transition. Their Contextual Systems Model suggests that a successful transition is
dependent on this relationship, which is in turn influenced by the parents personal
resources and background, the schools openness to communication, and community
values. The present study suggests that when children attend a preschool before
formal schooling, this context is also included as a partner in the process.
The model depicted in Figure 3.2 is a graphic illustration of an ecological perspective
to transition (Pianta & Cox, 1999).
Figure 3.2 An Ecological Model of Transition (Taken from Pianta & Cox,
1999, p.6)
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
10/23
47
Pianta & Cox (1999) outline the work undertaken by the National Center for Early
Development and Learning (NCEDL) on the transition to formal schooling. They
suggest that this transition should be considered in terms of the relevant contexts (eg,
family, school, community) and the connections between each of the contexts. These
contexts and the relationships between them are important at any point in time during
the transition process, and across time. They suggest that the ecological model is
more complex than the child-centred perspective on transition that considers the skills
of the child to be the most important factor. They argue that the ecological approach
is more appropriate for the study of transition to formal schooling than assessment of
childrens individual skills and abilities, as child factors account for less than 25% of
the variance in kindergarten outcomes. They suggest that an ecological perspective
on the transition to formal schooling is a powerful tool for analysis and synthesis of
an issue that is of national significance (Pianta & Cox, 1999, p.11). They propose
that a greater understanding of transition can be achieved by looking at the different
contexts that influence childrens development (such as home, preschool, and
community) and the inter-relations between these contexts over time needs to be
considered.
Dunlop & Fabian (2002) also propose that research on transitions favours an
ecological model. They advise that their research encompasses home, school,
community and society in general, and as such is a nested one, but not constant.
Presented as a systems approach on an ecological model, our conceptual framework
is transformed, and our contention that children, teachers and parents might co-
construct transitions can be seen in context (p149). They suggest that the child
undergoing transition from preschool to school occupies three microsystems: home;
the preschool; and the school. Their transition systems model (See Figure 3.3 below)
shows how they look beyond the three individual settings to encompass the
relationships between each. They also remind us that the people involved in the
model are active in each area by way of their inter-connections.
At the exosystem level Dunlop and Fabian have included areas such as parental
employment; housing; local educational policies. It is interesting to note that they
have also included information, empowerment, and working together at this
level. The fact that these three areas have been included in the model are a sign of
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
11/23
48
their significance. They also stress the need for communication and participation
between each part of the system. Finally, they assert that two other areas are central
to, and interact with, each of their conceptual levels. These are the ability of children
to contribute to the process, and the effect of public policy on childrens lives.
Figure 3.3: A Transition Systems Approach. (Taken from Dunlop &
Fabian, 2002, p151.)
The above three representations of ecological models of transition acknowledge the
shared responsibility of all the stakeholders in the process. They all highlight the
dynamic nature of the relationships involved in the transition process, and each one
acknowledges the fluid and evolving process of transition. Rather than viewing
transition as an event for the individual child, they acknowledge the involvement and
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
12/23
49
influence of all stakeholders in the process. With this in mind, and drawing on the
three models outlined, the author proposes that the following ecological model of
transition would be useful when approaching the transition from preschool to school
in the Irish context [Figure 3.4]. This model was used when designing this research
project, and demonstrates how the child is an active agent in their own transition.
Figure 3.4: A Model of Transition From Preschool to School in the Irish Context.
Home
Family
Friends
eighbours
The Child : Individual
Characteristics (Age,
Temperament, Motivation,
Prior Understanding etc)
An Active Agent in the Process
PreschoolTeachers
Peers
Culture
Curriculum
School
Teachers
Peers
Culture
Curriculum
Irish Macrosystem, Church and State
Communication Relationships
Irish Exosystem
Irish Exosystem
Irish Macrosystem, Church and State
Historical &Cultural Context
Symbolic Meanings Cultural Tools
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
13/23
50
A photograph of a child is used in the figure to remind us of the importance of
keeping the child at the centre of all research in this area1. It was considered that a
pictorial image of a child reminds the reader of this emphasis more than plain text. It
is suggested that during the period of transition from preschool to school, the contexts
of home, preschool, and school are all important in terms of Microsystems within
which the child learns the skills, and develops the cultural knowledge, which will
assist them during this transition. The arrows between the child and these three
Microsystems within which he is learning, remind us of the importance of the
Mesosystem, and the links between the systems. It is important to note that these
arrows are bi-directional reminding us that the child can influence all three contexts as
well as being influenced by them himself.
The yellow layer represents the Exosystem in the Irish context, this layer influences
the home, preschool and school environments, and indeed the child himself.
Although the home, preschool and school environments may also have the
opportunity to influence the exosystem. Consultation with parents/practitioners in
many areas of ECCE in Ireland has increased rapidly over the past decade. For
example, the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE) have
worked from a broad consultative base, including parents, while developing the
National Quality Framework for early education in Ireland. The National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) have also worked from a consultative approach
while developing the National Framework for Early Learning. Opportunities for
parents and practitioners to be more involved, and to make their views known on
policies concerning the education of their children, are becoming more widely
available.
Finally the Irish Macrosystem is represented by the red layer. This consists of the
culture within which children in Ireland are located. The model also specifically
mentions the Church and the State as it is considered that these two institutions have
great impact on this transition for children. Many state departments have
responsibilities for children during this transition. At the preschool level, the
Department of Health and Children is responsible for developing and maintaining the
1Both Michael and his parents gave permission for his photograph to be used in the model.
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
14/23
51
Child Care (Pre-School Services) Regulations (DOH&C, 1996, 2006) which were the
first legislative control over ECCE in Ireland. The Regulations cover any ECCE
service catering for children under six years who are not attending school, and focus
on the structural aspects of settings. The Department of Education and Science is also
involved in preschool education in Ireland, particularly in terms of funding initiatives
for children at risk of educational disadvantage. This Department was also
responsible for publishing the White Paper,Ready to Learn (DES, 1999a) which led
to the development of the CECDE. The Department of Justice Equality and Law
Reform are also involved in ECCE at preschool level, both through funding
initiatives and also having published the National Childcare Strategy (DJELF, 1999).
In December 2005, the Office of the Minister for Children (OMC) was established to
improve the lives of children under the National Childrens Strategy and bring greater
coherence to policy-making for children. The OMC units that are part of the
Department of Health and Children include the Childcare Directorate (formerly part
of the Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform). The Early Years Education
Policy Unit is also co-located with the OMC but continues to report to the Department
of Education and Science. The aim of such co-location is to provide a joined-up
Government approach to the development of policy and delivery of services for
children and this may be particularly relevant to the transition from preschool to
primary school services. The Department of Social and Family Affairs also has great
impact on those children residing in disadvantaged areas at the time of transition,
particularly in terms of income support, and benefits, made available to parents. This
can have a direct impact on whether parents can afford to pay for preschool education
or not.
At a primary school level, the vast majority of schools in Ireland are state aided,
originally established under dioscesan patronage (usually under the patronage of the
local Bishop) with the State recognising their denominational character. Schools must
comply with the Rules for National Schools, laid down by the Minister for Education,
and funding supplied by the state for the current and capital costs of primary schools
is dependent on such compliance. Boards of Management are responsible for the
direct government of their schools, including appointment of teaching staff. Parents
representatives are included on these Boards of Management. These Boards provide
an opportunity for parents, teachers, and community representatives to play a role in
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
15/23
52
school management. The Department of Education and Science is responsible for
developing the primary school curriculum, and the regulation and inspection of
primary schools in Ireland. The aim of the Department is to provide high-quality
education which will (a) enable individuals to achieve their full potential and to
participate fully as members of society; and (b) contribute to Ireland's social, cultural
and economic development. (DOE&S, 2006, p1.). We can see from the above that
the child making the transition from preschool to primary school is influenced by a
range of external environments over which he has varying levels of influence.
Finally, it should be noted that the ecological perspective supports a holistic approach
to the transition to formal education. It sees the child as an active participant in the
process, acknowledging his/her rights and entitlements to a positive learning
environment. A holistic view of the process would also ensure that the
interconnectedness of the child, his/her family and his/her teachers, would be
emphasised. The expectations of, and the relationships between, all those involved in
the transition would all be acknowledged in the process. A holistic approach to the
transition would also focus on the range of supports that each child needs to ensure a
successful transition and assimilation into the new cultural environment of the infant
classroom. These could include basic physical needs such as adequate nutrition and
warm clothing, and educational needs such as access to adequate equipment in the
school environment and access to small class sizes in order to facilitate childrens
learning. It could also include socio-emotional needs such as access to positive adult-
child interactions, comprehensive support and positive expectations for both children
and families. It would also involve continuity and communication between settings,
and educational programmes which would facilitate childrens individual
development.
3.4 The Ecological Model and the Current Research Project
The ecological model was considered suitable for the current research project in that
it provides a framework which allows the enquirer to visualise the complex dynamics
in different contexts (Hayes, 2004a, p34). Ecological theory supports the importance
of a systematic description of the settings in which development takes place, and the
relationships between these settings. The emphasis on relationships supports the need
to involve all stakeholders in the research process. This research project will use both
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
16/23
53
quantitative and qualitative data to systematically investigate the experience of
transition from preschool to school for children in Ireland. The data gathered during
Phase I of the project will give an insight into the views and opinions of both
preschool and junior infants teachers on the transition to school. These data should
inform opinion on the proximal processes at work during this transition and their
influence on child development during this time. The relationships between preschool
and primary school teachers, their beliefs and practices influencing the transition
between the two contexts are expected to be an important factor in developing a better
understanding of the topic. They should also yield a better understanding into some
of the environmental contexts in which this transition takes place. Rather than just
bridge a gap between preschool and school, the emphasis is on building a sense of
continuity between preschool settings and the primary setting. A greater
understanding of the relationships between, and differences of opinion between, the
preschool and primary school environments will enhance our ability to develop this
continuity. The model is also believed to be very relevant to Phase II. Data gathered
during this phase will involve observing children in both the Microsystems of home
and school. The mesosystem, the interactions between the child, parents, home
environment, teachers, and school environment, will also be considered during this
phase of the project.
Bronfenbrenner proposed the Process-Person-Context-Time Model as being an
operational research design that facilitated research following his Bioecological
model. In terms of this research, the process is investigated both in Phase I and
Phase II of the project. Phase I investigates the opinions of preschool and primary
school teachers on the process of transition. It investigates factual aspects such as
policies and practices in places in preschools and schools with regard to transition.
However, it also examines the opinions and beliefs about the two groups of teachers
on the process. Phase II gives a more in-depth view of the process in the individual
lives of seven children undertaking the transition. The person element is accounted
for in Phase II of this research, in terms of the case study children and their individual
experiences of the transition to school. In Phase I the person element is represented
in terms of the information provided on questionnaires about the teaching experience,
or qualifications, of the respondents. The context element has various aspects. In
Phase I, the preschool and primary school teachers provide a context in which they
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
17/23
54
have developed their opinions on transition in terms of the context in which they
experience their working lives. Preschool teachers give information on the type of
service, who makes the decisions regarding a child leaving preschool to start formal
schooling, whether they are located in an urban or rural area, and whether that area is
disadvantaged or not. The personal details given also have implications for the
context in which their decisions are based. The primary teachers provide information
on the number of children in their class, whether it is a mixed grade class, the
numbers of children in each group, the number of adults working with the group, and
the school size. As with the preschool group they also give details about whether they
are located in an urban or rural area, and whether their school has disadvantaged
status. The personal details given by this group also have implications for the context
in which their decisions are based. In Phase II, the research design included the views
of parents, teacher, classroom assistant, and the children themselves. Methodology
includes interviews, group discussions, classroom and playground observations, and
child drawings, with the aim of providing a broad general context in which the
transition for these individual children took place. Finally the time element is
important in Phase I in terms of the timing of the research, during a period when class
sizes at infant level, and resources available to primary schools, are very much to the
forefront in the Irish media (Flynn, 2000; Irish Independent, 2004; Carr 2005; Kerr,
2005; Walsh, 2005). In Phase II, it is important to note that the research commences
prior to school start for the case study children and their parents, and continues
through the first year of primary school. Finally, although the four elements are
considered individually, they are inter-linked and are also investigated in terms of
their interaction.
3.5 Sociocultural Theory
Deriving from the work of Vygotsky (1962, 1978, 1988) sociocultural theory
proposes that children are active agents in their own learning and that that human
capacities are changed by the culture of the environment in which they develop. In
this way the same biological or environmental factors can produce very different
effects depending on social or cultural considerations. The emphasis of this theory on
the role of society in development of education has been hugely influential (Hayes,
2004a). Vygotsky suggested that the child internalizes social interactions through
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
18/23
55
which they learn and develop. Children use internalization and reconstruction to learn
from new situations, and as they re-encounter situations they develop more
sophisticated ways of dealing with them. The role of adult is seen to be that of
teacher and a central concept of the theory is the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD), which is the distance between the childs current level of understanding, and
where they can reach with assistance, in essence it is a measure of the childs learning
potential. Within the ZPD Vygotsky proposed that children need assistance to
develop higher mental processes. He defined the concept as the distance between the
childs actual level of development as a measure of their independent behaviour and
his or her potential development level in a social context with adult or peer guidance
or collaborationthe ZPD defines those functions that have not yet matured but are
in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in
an embryonic state (1978, p.86).
The concept of scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is particularly important in
relation to ZPD. This is where an adult assists a child to reach the next level of
development, in effect the adult (or more competent peer) can lead and guide the child
towards extending their knowledge. The adult then gradually lets the child perform
the tasks without support thus developing their confidence. The role of scaffolding
and the ZPD is considered to be central to the concept of effective teaching. As Hayes
reminds us the ZPD furnishes psychologists and educators with a mechanism for
cultivating higher order cognitive functions, a tool through which the internal course
of development can be understood. (2004a, p.87). However, some have argued that,
although the concept has been widely supported and adopted by educationalists, it is
not always properly understood or put into practice (Lambert & Clyde, 2000;
Valsiner, 1997). Indeed it has been argued that both the concepts of ZPD and
scaffolding present too passive a view of the child and too instructional a role for the
expert. The direction of the interactions, from the adult/expert to the novice/learner, is
considered uni-directional and insufficiently sensitive to the important role of the
process of the interaction itself within the scaffold metaphor or the ZPD space.
(Hayes, 2004a, p75). Researchers have stressed the importance of remembering that
the child should be an active agent in the process, not a passive force in the
scaffolding process. In this way the child, or children, involved in the process share
in developing the new meanings constructed, and it is now recognised that scaffolding
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
19/23
56
consists of a complex set of social dynamics and interpersonal communications which
then result in a new shared construction (Addison Stone, 1993; Hayes 2004a). This in
turn reminds us of the importance of the relationship between teacher and student. It
is important that the adult show a sensitivity to the stage of development currently
held by the child, and the tasks that are within reach through the process of
scaffolding (Oates, Sheehy & Wood, 2005). In essence by teachers must stimulate
their students mental processes by giving them access to the symbolic tools required
to reach more advanced forms of thought (Perret-Clermont, Carugati & Oates, 2004).
It is also important to note that if the adult shows little regard for any aspect of
learning, the motivation for the child to learn is reduced.
Vygotsky also identified language as being particularly important in the
internalisation of interpersonal processes. He suggested that language is central to
childrens development and that although children use language initially to
communicate with others, it then develops into internal speech which is essential for
the higher development of the child. He saw preschool children who talk through a
problem out loud while working on a task as being in the process of developing their
internal language, which will later be used in self-directing thought. In effect he
suggested that it is through language that childrens thinking develops, and the
language a child develops and the meanings and understandings linked to that
language are culture bound.
Sociocultural theory is recognised as a framework which enables us to better
understand childrens learning and the influence of both adults and peers on the
learning process, while also recognising the child as being an active partner in the
process:
Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first on the
social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people
(interpsychological), and then inside the child (intrapsychological)
(Vygotsky, 1978, p57).
3.6 Understanding Transition in Sociocultural Terms
Researchers such as Podmore, Sauvao and Mapa (2003) have argued that
sociocultural theory has an important place in the study of the transition to school. As
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
20/23
57
discussed above Vvgotsky saw the development of the child in terms of their social
and cultural interactions. Learning will be promoted when a child is both supported
and challenged in their achievements by interaction within the learning community.
As Niesel & Griebel advise in a socio-constructivist perspective, transition is a
process of co-construction through communication and participation between
institution and family (2007, p24). In this way learning is a collective activity, and
the tools, language, and social rules within any given community of learners may
differ. This will have direct impact on children as they move between different
cultures of preschool and formal school in Ireland. On entry to formal schooling
children must cope with the dual socialisation of preschool and school. Cultural
differences found within the home context will also have an impact on this transition.
These differences and the challenges involved in negotiating the new activity system
in which learning will take place, can in some cases hinder the learning process.
Different expectations of the behaviour expected of a child can also be found in the
home environment, the preschool or school environment, and at a societal level
generally. These expectations will affect the transition of the child between each of
these environments. If there is a difference between the expectations at home, in
preschool, or in school, this can result in difficulties in the child moving between
contexts.
Vygotsky stresses the importance of pupil and teacher sharing the same frame of
reference, they need to have a shared understanding of the task at hand. The emphasis
is on the adult having an understanding of how the child views the task, and adult and
child working together on a task in order that scaffolding can take place. Vygotsky
did not support direct teaching of information, but required the teacher to engage in
sensitively scaffolding the childs own learning, in effect arranging a situation which
gives the child the tools to figure out the next step in learning for themselves. So a
process of social interaction between teacher and pupil is required in order that the
pupil reach their ZPD. This form of scaffolding instruction can often be found in
preschool environments such as High/Scope (OFlaherty, 1995). It should also be
noted at this point that many preschools in Ireland work from a curriculum heavily
influenced by Piaget. As Hayes (2004a) outlines:
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
21/23
58
His work has provided an almost universally agreed developmental context
for curriculum development and practice in early and elementary education.
In many of the early preschool intervention projects, which were designed to
facilitate the academic development of young children, the paradigm that
guided planning was one that drew its inspiration from his developmental
theory. The aims of these projects were to prepare children for school and tocompensate for delays in their development arising from socio-economic
disadvantage. This attention to readiness and corrective measures derives
from the Piagetian tradition. (Hayes, 2004a, p37).
It has been argued that Piaget did not value culture and social aspects in the same way
as Vygotsky, and some researchers are critical of the constructivist model of learning,
arguing that it places too much emphasis on the child as a lone constructor rather than
shared learning experiences (Tudge & Rogoff, 1987; Berk and Winsler, 1995).
However, others argue that Piaget considered individual and social factors to be
inextricably intertwined he believed that development is simultaneously
individual and social (Brown, 1997, p60-61). Certainly, the Piagetian model of
learning suggests that teachers should create learning opportunities in which a child
can explore and formulate a higher level of thinking. As Hayes asserts the
scaffolding metaphor captures the Piagetian notion of the child as a constructor of
knowledge and the construction is supported, or scaffolded, by the social environment
within which such construction is occurring (2004a, p75). However, in order for
such high-level interactions to take place, the teacher must be in a position to engage
with the child in conducting the activity, challenge learning, and support
development. Researchers have noted that examples of high-quality scaffolding are
rare at primary level (Sylva, 1997; Bliss, Askew & McRae, 1996). Although Sylva
acknowledges that the preschool environment provides greater opportunities for
scaffolding opportunities as compared to primary level. Indeed, teachers in Irish
primary schools have long argued that the class sizes which they teach, and the
adult:child ratios, are not favourable to small group activity, or high-level adult:child
interactions (INTO, 2006). Hayes (2004a) found that infant classes teachers were
observed to spend 85% of time teaching in an adult-centred way. She noted that this
high level of adult-centred teaching was unexpected, particularly considered in
tandem with the teachers expressed belief that the development of social skills with
peers is the most important skill for children of this age to develop, and the child-
centred nature of the primary school curriculum. Practical considerations, such as
class sizes and adult:child ratios, may play an important part on the social interactions
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
22/23
59
with the classroom. From a sociocultural perspective enough time needs to be
available for teachers to observe and judge adequately the needs of each child, so that
they can adjust their support to extend the childs learning. Small group time, or one-
on-one interactions are important in terms of such interaction and conversation with
children.
Vygotsky also saw play as being of importance in childrens learning, particularly
fantasy play, as it created situations in which a child could test out rules and meanings
away from concrete real-life situations. Play creates its own ZPD and Vygotsky
suggested that while engaging in imaginary play a child would often act as if he were
a head taller than himself (1978, p102). The impact of moving from the more play-
based preschool curricula to the more formal infants classes curricula may well affect
the learning experiences of the children. The emphasis on play-based activities, or
lack of emphasis, will have an impact on transition in sociocultural terms. [See
Section 2.5 for a discussion on curricular continuity between preschools and primary
schools in Ireland]. Finally, Lombardi (1992) advises that traditional notions of
transition that focus on bridging the gaps between different types of early childhood
programs are changing (p2). She suggests that instead we should be working on
developing continuity of services. The cultural differences between the settings of
preschool and formal school will in sociocultural terms have an impact on the
transition between the two settings, and will be of great importance in terms of
achieving continuity between the two.
3.7 Summary
The transition from preschool has been studied using several theoretical concepts.
However, as pointed out by Tobbell & ODonnell (2005) the design of much of the
current research available studying this transition does not allow for a complex
understanding of the central issues involved. They advise the literature does not
provide detail or understanding of what actually happens in a classroom; the
practices which construct participation and so learning (p3). The movement towards
the right of children to have their voices heard in both research and policy
considerations in Ireland, and rights of children to be recognised as individuals within
their own social worlds, had a direct influence on how the theoretical approach for
-
7/27/2019 O'Kane, C 3 Theorising Transitions.pdf
23/23
this project was developed. It is hoped that the use of ecological and socio-cultural
theory which underpin the methodology of the current study will produce data which
will provide a clearer picture of this transition in the Irish context. The ecological
perspective was considered important in terms of its emphasis on the interactive
dynamics between person, process and context over time, and also in terms of its
emphasis on proximal processes in driving development. The project also adopted an
implicitly socio-cultural perspective on learning, recognising that the learning which
takes place within any given cultural setting is mediated by the tools and experiences
of that particular social group.