Ojas ss-mys

“FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON CONCEPT

OF OJAS”

By

Dr. JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND B.A.M.S.,

Dissertation submitted to the

Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka, Bangalore.

In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MEDICINE (AYURVEDA)

In

AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA

Under The Guidance of

DR. N. ANJANEYA MURTHY M.D. (AYU), Sahitya Shastry

Professor and HOD, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta,

G.A.M.C., Mysore.

Co-Guide

DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (Ayu)

Asst. Professor, J.S.S. Ayurveda Medical College,

Mysore.

DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES IN AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA

GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE, MYSORE.

2008

Ayurmitra

TAyComprehended

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES IN AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA,

GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE

MYSORE.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this Dissertation “FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT OF OJAS” is a bonafide and genuine research work carried out by me

under the guidance of Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy, Professor, Department of Post

Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College,

Mysore.

Date: Signature of the Candidate

Place: Mysore Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund




MYSORE.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “FUNDAMENTAL STUDY

ON CONCEPT OF OJAS” is a bonafide research work done by

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of Doctor of Medicine (Ayurveda).

Date: Signature of the Guide

Place: Mysore Dr. N.Anjaneya Murthy

Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate Studies In Ayurveda Siddhanta,

Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.




MYSORE.

CERTIFICATE





Date: Signature of the Co-Guide

Place: Mysore DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (AYU)

H.O.D. & Asst. Professor, Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta J.S.S. Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.




MYSORE.

ENDORSEMENT BY THE HOD, PRINCIPAL /

HEAD OF THE INSTITUTION

This is to certify that the dissertation “FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT OF OJAS” is a bonafide research work done by

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND under the guidance of Professor

Dr.N.Anjaneya Murthy, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda

Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.

Seal & Signature of the HOD Seal & Signature of the Principal

Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy Dr. Ashok D. Satpute Professor and H.O.D, Principal Department of Post Graduate Studies In Government Ayurveda Medical Ayurveda Siddhanta, College, Mysore. Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.

Date: Date:

Place: Mysore Place: Mysore




MYSORE.

COPY RIGHT

Declaration by the Candidate

I hereby declare that the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences,

Karnataka shall have the rights to preserve, use and disseminate this dissertation /

thesis in print or electronic format for academic / research purpose.

Date : Signature of the Candidate

Place : Mysore Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund

© Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka

Dedicated with due regards …

to the sacred commemoration of my deceased

grandfather …

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge all of them who have helped/

blessed me for successful completion of this dissertation.

I owe my deepest sense of gratitude to my Hon’ble guide Dr.N.Anjaneya

Murthy, Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate studies in Ayurveda

Siddhanta, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his valuable suggestions, guidance, affection, care

and all sorts of help in successful completion of this study.

I am also grateful to my co-guide Dr.K. Venkat Shivudu, Assistant Professor,

Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta, J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore, for his

continuous encouragement and suggestions during the course of study.

I am obliged by continuous inspiration, suggestions and guidance given by my

respected teacher Dr.Malhari Kamalakar Sirdeshpande, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Dravya guna, Manjara Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, Latur, Maharashtra.

I am thankful to Dr.Ashok, D. Satpute Principal, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his

valuable support and apt suggestions.

I am thankful to my teachers Dr.T.D.Ksheresagar, Dr.S.G.Mangalgi,

Dr.Naseema Akhtar, Dr.G.Gopinath, Dr.H.M.Chandramauli, Dr.T.Balakrishna,

Dr.Shanthala Priyadarshini, Dr.Shantharam, Dr.Lancy Disuza and Dr.R.C.Maitreyae

for their timely suggestions and encouragement.

I am grateful to Dr.V.A.Chate and Dr.A.B.Katti for their special attention,

continuous support and suggestions which have very crucial role in completion of this

study. I am also thankful to all other teachers of G.A.M.C. Mysore, for their support

and suggestions.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Vidwan Shri Gangadhara Y.Bhat,

Professor, Dept. of Naveen Nyaya, Maharaja’s Sanskrit College, Mysore, for his kind

support in understanding grammatical aspects of Ayurvedic literature in this course of

study.

i

I express my gratitude to Dr.S.M.Purshottama, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Physiology, M.M.C and R.I., Mysore for his valuable guidelines and suggestions

during review of modern literature in this course of study.

I will like to thank Dr.Shivaramaprasad Professor and H.O.D. Dept of

P.G.Studies in Kayachikitsa, D.G.A.M.C.Gadag for his whole hearted support and

help which he rendered to me at a very crucial period.

I also thank Dr.T.Nagaraja, Dr.P.Sudhakar Reddy, Dr.Alka Jayavanth Kumar,

and Mrs.K.Leela, all my teachers from J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College for their help

and guidance during the course of the study.

I also thank Dr.Venkateshulu, Consulting cardiologist, Wockhardt hospital,

Bangalore, Dr.Rajsimha, Simha Heart Foundation, Mysore, Dr.Gorkal, Prof. and

H.O.D Dept of Physiology, J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.Shamsundar, Prof and

H.O.D Dept of Anatomy J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.H.B.Shashidhar,

Assistant Professor, Dept of Pathology, M.M.C and R.I, Mysore, Dr.Bimal Chajer,

Saool Heart Foundation, New Delhi, Dr.Gurudeep Singh, Dean of P.G.Studies,

S.D.M. College of Ayurveda, Hassan, Dr.D.G.Thatte, Lucknow, Dr.S.R.Joshi, Sangli,

Maharashtra, and many other experts in the field of Ayurveda as well as modern

medicine who have given their valuable suggestions during this course of study.

I extend my thanks to my seniors, Dr.Abdul Khadar and Dr.Kiran Mutanalli. I

am thankful to my classmates Dr.Savitha.R.Shenoy, Dr.K.S.D.Sharma, Dr.Soubhagya

Bilagi and Dr.H.D.Vijaylakshmi for their continuous help, encouragement and

suggestions. I also extent my thanks to my junior collogues Dr.Rajesh Bhat,

Dr.Pankaj Pathak, Dr.A.Annaporani, Dr.Aparna.K, Dr.Rameshkumar.K, Dr.Kalyani

Bhusane, Dr.Ranjithkumar Shetty and Dr. Geetha for their timely support during my

course of study. I also thank Mr. Prasad, Microdot Creators, Mysore, for his efforts in

successful and attractive presentation of this work. I extent my sense of

acknowledgement to all those persons, who have knowingly, unknowingly helped in

this course of study and also beg pardon for missing names.

ii

I will like to remember my family; my father and mother, grand father and

grand mother, my elder brother at this moment as I would not have achieved this feet

without the love , care they are bestowing on me in my life.

Finally it is benediction of God Venketeshwara that I have reached to this

stage in my life.

Date :

Place : Mysore (Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund)

iii

ABSTRACT

Need for the Study and Objectives

Immunological disorders are one of the biggest questions in front of medical

fraternity in this era. Immunity has been compared to bala in Ayurveda, bala being a

functional entity is karya and ojas is karana for it. Comprehensive understanding of

this concept of ojas may help to understand immunological disorders in a better way

and will brighten the perspective of treatment of these disorders. Recent advances in

modern medicine are also needed to be reviewed for any parallel concept to ojas.

Different versions in description of ojas of various authors in Ayurvedic literature are

also needed to be analysed for better understanding. Taking these needs into

consideration objectives was formed.

Methods

Collection, compilation, rearrangement, analysis of data from various

Ayurvedic as well as modern medicine textbooks, journals, websites was done.

Discussions with large number of scholars both from the field of Ayurveda as well as

modern medicine were also carried out.

Interpretation and Conclusion

Different versions of various authors in Ayurvedic classics regarding ojas are

not contrary to each other. Never the less their collective understanding cohesively

enrich the various aspects of concept of ojas.

Prostaglandins are having great similarities with ojas when compared on the

basis of gunas and karmas. Structural basis of immune response collectively comes

nearer to concept of ojas in perspective of immunity / bala.

Key Words

Ojas, Ayu, Prostaglandins, Bala, structural basis of immune response.

iv

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement i – iii

Abstract iv

Introduction 01

Objectives 04

Review of Ayurvedic Literature 05

Review of Modern Literature 37

Materials and Methods 79

Discussion 82

Conclusion 117

Recommendation for Further Study 118

Summary 119

Bibliographic Reference s 120

v

LIST OF TABLES

T.No. Name of the Table Page No.

01 Showing Gunas of Ojas 11

02 Showing Karmas of Ojas 13

03 Showing Sthanas of Ojas 17

04 Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about

pramana of ojas

18

05 Showing Aaharapariposhana karma according to Acharya Charaka

19

06 Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to Acharya Sushruta

20

07 Showing different views on poshana of ojas according to various Ayurvedic classics

21

08 Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various Authors

25

09 Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya and Visha

27

10 Showing different concepts quoted as ojas according to various authors

36

11 Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins

with their actions

40

12 Showing major components of the innate immune system 60

13 Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their description

66

14 Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig) 76

15 Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of Ojogunas

88

16 Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas 103

17 Showing Differences in ojas and bala 107

18 Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of

Ojas and Prostaglandins

111

19 Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins 111

20 Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins 111

21 Showing Comparison of Structural basis of Immune structures 114

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

No. Name of Figure Page No.

01 Showing schematic representation of different layers of

Immunity in human body

57

02 Showing schematic presentation of Immune mechanism 59

03 Showing schematic representation of complement system 64

04 Showing components of immunoglobulin 72

LIST OF FLOW CHARTS

No. Name of Flow Chart Page No.

01 Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb 05

02 Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas 06

03 Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG and its

effects on human body.

42

vii

“FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON CONCEPT

OF OJAS”

By

Dr. JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND B.A.M.S.,

Dissertation submitted to the

Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka, Bangalore.

In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MEDICINE (AYURVEDA)

In

AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA

Under The Guidance of

DR. N. ANJANEYA MURTHY M.D. (AYU), Sahitya Shastry

Professor and HOD, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta,

G.A.M.C., Mysore.

Co-Guide

DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (Ayu)

Asst. Professor, J.S.S. Ayurveda Medical College,

Mysore.


GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE, MYSORE.

2008




MYSORE.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this Dissertation “FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT OF OJAS” is a bonafide and genuine research work carried out by me

under the guidance of Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy, Professor, Department of Post

Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College,

Mysore.

Date: Signature of the Candidate

Place: Mysore Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund




MYSORE.

CERTIFICATE





Date: Signature of the Guide

Place: Mysore Dr. N.Anjaneya Murthy

Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate Studies In Ayurveda Siddhanta,

Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.




MYSORE.

CERTIFICATE





Date: Signature of the Co-Guide

Place: Mysore DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (AYU)

H.O.D. & Asst. Professor, Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta J.S.S. Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.




MYSORE.

ENDORSEMENT BY THE HOD, PRINCIPAL /

HEAD OF THE INSTITUTION

This is to certify that the dissertation “FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT OF OJAS” is a bonafide research work done by

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND under the guidance of Professor

Dr.N.Anjaneya Murthy, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda

Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.

Seal & Signature of the HOD Seal & Signature of the Principal

Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy Dr. Ashok D. Satpute Professor and H.O.D, Principal Department of Post Graduate Studies In Government Ayurveda Medical Ayurveda Siddhanta, College, Mysore. Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.

Date: Date:

Place: Mysore Place: Mysore




MYSORE.

COPY RIGHT

Declaration by the Candidate

I hereby declare that the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences,

Karnataka shall have the rights to preserve, use and disseminate this dissertation /

thesis in print or electronic format for academic / research purpose.

Date : Signature of the Candidate

Place : Mysore Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund

© Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka

Dedicated with due regards …

to the sacred commemoration of my deceased

grandfather …

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge all of them who have he lped/

blessed me for successful completion of this dissertation.

I owe my deepest sense of gratitude to my Hon’ble guide Dr.N.Anjaneya

Murthy, Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate studies in Ayurveda

Siddhanta, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his valuable suggestions, guidance, affection, care

and all sorts of help in successful completion of this study.

I am also grateful to my co-guide Dr.K. Venkat Shivudu, Assistant Professor,

Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta, J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore, for his

continuous encouragement and suggestions during the course of study.

I am obliged by continuous inspiration, suggestions and guidance given by my

respected teacher Dr.Malhari Kamalakar Sirdeshpande, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Dravya guna, Manjara Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, Latur, Maharashtra.

I am thankful to Dr.Ashok, D. Satpute Principal, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his

valuable support and apt suggestions.

I am thankful to my teachers Dr.T.D.Ksheresagar, Dr.S.G.Mangalgi,

Dr.Naseema Akhtar, Dr.G.Gopinath, Dr.H.M.Chandramauli, Dr.T.Balakrishna,

Dr.Shanthala Priyadarshini, Dr.Shantharam, Dr.Lancy Disuza and Dr.R.C.Maitreyae

for their timely suggestions and encouragement.

I am grateful to Dr.V.A.Chate and Dr.A.B.Katti for their special attention,

continuous support and suggestions which have very crucial role in completion of this

study. I am also thankful to all other teachers of G.A.M.C. Mysore, for their support

and suggestions.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Vidwan Shri Gangadhara Y.Bhat,

Professor, Dept. of Naveen Nyaya, Maharaja’s Sanskrit College, Mysore, for his kind

support in understanding grammatical aspects of Ayurvedic literature in this course of

study.

i

I express my gratitude to Dr.S.M.Purshottama, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Physiology, M.M.C and R.I., Mysore for his valuable guidelines and suggestions

during review of modern literature in this course of study.

I will like to thank Dr.Shivaramaprasad Professor and H.O.D. Dept of

P.G.Studies in Kayachikitsa, D.G.A.M.C.Gadag for his whole hearted support and

help which he rendered to me at a very crucial period.

I also thank Dr.T.Nagaraja, Dr.P.Sudhakar Reddy, Dr.Alka Jayavanth Kumar,

and Mrs.K.Leela, all my teachers from J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College for their help

and guidance during the course of the study.

I also thank Dr.Venkateshulu, Consulting cardiologist, Wockhardt hospital,

Bangalore, Dr.Rajsimha, Simha Heart Foundation, Mysore, Dr.Gorkal, Prof. and

H.O.D Dept of Physiology, J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.Shamsundar, Prof and

H.O.D Dept of Anatomy J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.H.B.Shashidhar,

Assistant Professor, Dept of Pathology, M.M.C and R.I, Mysore, Dr.Bimal Chajer,

Saool Heart Foundation, New Delhi, Dr.Gurudeep Singh, Dean of P.G.Studies,

S.D.M. College of Ayurveda, Hassan, Dr.D.G.Thatte, Lucknow, Dr.S.R.Joshi, Sangli,

Maharashtra, and many other experts in the field of Ayurveda as well as modern

medicine who have given their valuable suggestions during this course of study.

I extend my thanks to my seniors, Dr.Abdul Khadar and Dr.Kiran Mutanalli. I

am thankful to my classmates Dr.Savitha.R.Shenoy, Dr.K.S.D.Sharma, Dr.Soubhagya

Bilagi and Dr.H.D.Vijaylakshmi for their continuous help, encouragement and

suggestions. I also extent my thanks to my junior collogues Dr.Rajesh Bhat,

Dr.Pankaj Pathak, Dr.A.Annaporani, Dr.Aparna.K, Dr.Rameshkumar.K, Dr.Kalyani

Bhusane, Dr.Ranjithkumar Shetty and Dr. Geetha for their timely support during my

course of study. I also thank Mr. Prasad, Microdot Creators, Mysore, for his efforts in

successful and attractive presentation of this work. I extent my sense of

acknowledgement to all those persons, who have knowingly, unknowingly helped in

this course of study and also beg pardon for missing names.

ii

I will like to remember my family; my father and mother, grand father and

grand mother, my elder brother at this moment as I would not have achieved this feet

without the love , care they are bestowing on me in my life.

Finally it is benediction of God Venketeshwara that I have reached to this

stage in my life.

Date :

Place : Mysore (Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund)

iii

ABSTRACT

Need for the Study and Objectives

Immunological disorders are one of the biggest questions in front of medical

fraternity in this era. Immunity has been compared to bala in Ayurveda, bala being a

functional entity is karya and ojas is karana for it. Comprehensive understanding of

this concept of ojas may help to understand immunological disorders in a better way

and will brighten the perspective of treatment of these disorders. Recent advances in

modern medicine are also needed to be reviewed for any parallel concept to ojas.

Different versions in description of ojas of various authors in Ayurvedic literature are

also needed to be analysed for better understanding. Taking these needs into

consideration objectives was formed.

Methods

Collection, compilation, rearrangement, analysis of data from various

Ayurvedic as well as modern medicine textbooks, journals, websites was done.

Discussions with large number of scholars both from the field of Ayurveda as well as

modern medicine were also carried out.

Interpretation and Conclusion

Different versions of various authors in Ayurvedic classics regarding ojas are

not contrary to each other. Never the less their collective understanding cohesively

enrich the various aspects of concept of ojas.

Prostaglandins are having great similarities with ojas when compared on the

basis of gunas and karmas. Structural basis of immune response collectively comes

nearer to concept of ojas in perspective of immunity / bala.

Key Words

Ojas, Ayu, Prostaglandins, Bala, structural basis of immune response.

iv

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement i – iii

Abstract iv

Introduction 01

Objectives 04

Review of Ayurvedic Literature 05

Review of Modern Literature 37

Materials and Methods 79

Discussion 82

Conclusion 117

Recommendation for Furthe r Study 118

Summary 119

Bibliographic Reference s 120

v

LIST OF TABLES

T.No. Name of the Table Page No.

01 Showing Gunas of Ojas 11

02 Showing Karmas of Ojas 13 03 Showing Sthanas of Ojas 17

04 Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about pramana of ojas

18

05 Showing Aaharapariposhana karma according to Acharya Charaka

19

06 Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to Acharya Sushruta

20

07 Showing different views on poshana of ojas according to various Ayurvedic classics

21

08 Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various Authors

25

09 Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya and Visha

27

10 Showing different concepts quoted as ojas according to various authors

36

11 Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins with their actions

40

12 Showing major components of the innate immune system 60 13 Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their

description 66

14 Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig) 76 15 Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of

Ojogunas 88

16 Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas 103 17 Showing Differences in ojas and bala 107

18 Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of Ojas and Prostaglandins

111

19 Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins 111

20 Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins 111

21 Showing Comparison of Structural basis of Immune structures 114

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

No. Name of Figure Page No.

01 Showing schematic representation of different layers of

Immunity in human body

57

02 Showing schematic presentation of Immune mechanism 59

03 Showing schematic representation of complement system 64

04 Showing components of immunoglobulin 72

LIST OF FLOW CHARTS

No. Name of Flow Chart Page No.

01 Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb 05

02 Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas 06

03 Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG and its

effects on human body.

42

vii

Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas

1

INTRODUCTION

Ayurveda word literally means veda of Ayu. Word veda has various meanings

such as jnyana, labha, satta, shastra, etc. Thus Ayurveda is a science which deals

with jnyana of Ayu, methods to achieve ayu, protection of ayu etc. For this the

knowledge of ayu is a must. Ayu is anuvrutti of chetana; if there is nivruti of chetana

then it is death. Anuvrutti of chetana in other words is stated as samyoga of shareera,

indriya, satva and atma. Thus this samyoga itself is ayu and viyoga is mrutyu.

Initiation of this samyoga and maintaining it is the most important prerequisite of

human life. Without any such mechanism which initiates, maintains and protects this

samyoga life cannot exist.

Satva, atma and shareera are three pillars of life. Aatma being drashta does

not actively participate in any of body actions. All the body actions thus can be

ascribed to shareera and or manas. A regulatory mechanism which controls shareera

as well as manas independently and collectively is also an important pre-requisite for

existence of life / ayu.

All the multi cellular organisms including human beings need a mechanism

which co-ordinates the different functions of individual at the levels of systems,

tissues and cells. This communication and co-ordination between various actions/

functions in human body, complementing actions of various systems with one another

is the essence of multicellularity. Such mechanism of co-operation, communication,

regulation and sometimes complementation is also one among prerequisites for

bringing synergism in functions of human body.

Prayojana of Ayurveda is dhatu samya. This samya/homeostasis in

dehadhatus is the karya of Ayurveda. Maintenance of this homeostasis in healthy and

restoration/re-establishment of it in a diseased is to be achieved by chikitsa. External

milieu i.e. loka has its influence on internal milieu i.e. purusha. Any changes,

transformations in external milieu influence the condition of internal milieu and

enforce changes in it. This external milieu continuously undergoes changes because of

kala and is bound to influence homeostasis of internal milieu. A mechanism is


2

essential to protect and maintain homeostasis of purusha by preventing the influence

from changes in external milieu. Sometimes factors from internal milieu itself may

reason for vitiation. Such a mechanism is very essential for healthy life. This

mechanism in addition helps to fasten recovery of homeostasis after its derailment /

vaishamya.

These necessities/requirements for initiation, maintenance of ayu, co-

ordination between shareera and manas and its protection from influencing harmful

factors are to be fulfilled for healthy life and longevity. For this purpose of initiation

and maintenance of these mechanisms a dravya should be adhara. Ayurveda believes

in karya karana siddhanta. These mechanisms being karyas need to have a

dravya/structural basis. Ayurveda has established the concept of ojas for this purpose.

Dehadharaka samyoga dharana, sarva cheshtasu apratighata, deha sthiti nibandhana

are few of the functions attributed to ojas. Thus the concept of ojas has its own

importance and a very essential role extending from utpatti to mruthyu, ie., in all the

three stages of human life utpatti, sthiti and laya.

With advances in the field of applied sciences, modern medicine is also

accepting holistic nature of life. Newer and newer understandings of body

mechanisms are emerging. Newer roles of substances that were conventionally

accepted as a part of only one system in human body are emerging in this era.

Multifaceted actions of various body components are being understood and accepted

in modern medicine. This prompts or re-ascertains the quest for searching a modern

equivalent entity to ojas. A critical survey and analysis of these advances may not

only help to find an equivalent for concept of ojas but also to understand and utilize

this concept in a greater and better manner.

Among various functions of ojas one is bala poshana. Bala is karya and ojas

is karana. One of the biggest problems in front of medical fraternity in this era is

treatment of immuno-deficiency disorders. Immunity is capacity of human body to get

protected from harmful stimulus. Scope of immunology which was limited to mere

infectious diseases has evolved largely to take metabolic disorders, autoimmune

disorders, tumor immunology, and transplants of human organs under its preview.


3

This highlights the need of hour to understand concept of ojas with its all

aspects in order to elicit better understanding of these immunological diseases from

Ayurvedic perspective. This will help in strengthening chances of better treatment

options for these immunological disorders by applying Ayurvedic principles of

management.

Ojas has got a vital role not only in swasthya rakshana/protection of health but

also in achievement of extra-ordinary status of health, which is called as positive

health. A prima-facie overview of available literature on ojas in Ayurvedic classics

sometimes may lead to doubts/ambiguities by virtue of different versions available in

explanation of ojas. Sthira and sara gunas of ojas, quoting ojas as upadhatu and mala

of shukra and also shukra vishesha are few of such versions. An attempt to understand

the reason of difference in various different classics, as well as different citations of

same classic is also necessary for comprehensive understanding of concept of ojas.

Hence taking above all points into consideration an attempt is designed to

study this very important and the unique concept in Ayurveda. A literary survey of

available Ayurvedic literature would help to create foundation for all the works on

ojas and thus a fundamental study is designed to understand concept of ojas.

This dissertation is a humble attempt to compile, analyze and represent

concept of ojas in conventional methodology of description. An attempt to find

equivalent concept from modern medicine has also been undertaken in order to

understand concept of ojas in a better way and its presentation in front of modern

world.

Thus in nutshell this study aims at understanding concept of ojas along with its

role in trividha avastatas of life, effort for better understanding of so called different

schools of thoughts, finding an equivalent from modern medicine and understanding

practical utility of this concept .


4

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

1. To understand and explain precisely the fundamental concept of ojas on the

basis of available Ayurvedic literature.

2. To co relate different schools of thoughts about the concept of ojas in

Ayurvedic literature.

3. To study the concept of ojas in the light of modern medical literature in an

attempt to find a parallel entity to it.

4. To evaluate the utility of this concept in day to day practice.


5

REVIEW OF AYURVEDIC LITERATURE

Aarogya is the moola of for achieving dharma, artha, kama and moksha.

Protection of aarogya of a healthy person and achievement of aarogya in a diseased

individual is Aim of Ayurveda. The concept of ojas has a very important role to play

in achievement of this aim. Ayurvedic Samhitas are having vast material related to

concept of ojas but it is scattered in various different contexts. Compilation of these

various references collectively is necessary for comprehensive description of ojas.

Thus this chapter aims to compile available literature on ojas and represent it in

conventionally accepted form of description.

Utpatti of word “Ojas”

The word Ojas is derived from dhatu “Ubje-Bale”. By aadesha of sutra

“Ubje-bale balopascha ll” lopa of “Ba-kara” takes place. Now the dhatu becomes

“Uj”. While making krudanta by “Asun” pratyaya in Unadi prakriya; by aadesha of

sutra “Sarvadhatubhyo asun ll” and word becomes “Uj+Asun”. Now by aadesha of

“Sarvadhatukardhadhatukayoho ll” “U-Kara” undergoes vruddhi and becomes “O-

Kara”. Now word becomes “Oj+Asun”. By aadesha of sutra

“Upadesheajnanunasikaha ll” lopa of “U-kara” takes place. By aadesha of sutra

“Halyantam ll” lopa of “Na-kara” takes place and word now becomes “Oj+As” =

“Ojas”. This process can be shown in a flow chart as follows.1

Flow Chart 1 Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb

Ubje – Bale

“Ubje bale balopascha ll” “Ba-kara” lopa

Uj “Sarvadhatukayoho asun ll” “Asun” Pratyaya

Uj + Asun

“Sarvadhatukardhadhatukayoho ll” Gunavruddhi of “U”

Oj + Asun

“Halantyam ll” “Na-kara” lopa Oj + As

“Upadesheajanunasikaha ll” “U-kara” lopa

“Krut taddshitasamascha ll” Ojas Krudanta pratipadika of “Ubje-Bale”


6

Nishpatti of rupa “Ojaha” from word “Ojas”

“Ojas” is “Sa” karnata (i.e. ending with consonent sa) word in

napumsakalinga (neutral gender). Ojaha is prathama ekvachana of this word. In

prathma ekvachana pratyaya of napumsakalinga is “Sun”. So now word is “Ojas +

Sun”. By aadesha of sutra“Swamolruk ll” lopa of “Sun” pratyaya takes place and

word becomes “Ojas”. By aadesha of sutra “Susajusho ruhu ll” padanta “Sa-kara”

gets converted into refa i.e. “Ra-kara” and word becomes “Ojar”. By aadesha of

sutra “Kharavasanayoho Visarjaneeyaha ll” padanta “khar” pratyaya is converted to

visarga and thus “Ojaha” rupa is formed. This process can be shown in a flow chart

as follows.2

Flow Chart 2. Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas

Ojas

Prathma Ekvachana “Sun” pratyaya

Ojas + Sun

“Swamolruk ll” Lopa of “Sun” pratyaya in

Napumsakalinga Ojas

“Sasajusho rahu ll” Padanta “Sa” karasya “ra”kara

Ojar

“Kharavasanayohovisarjaneeyaha” Visarga of “ra”kara

Prathama eka vachana of word Ojas Ojaha

Other words related to Ojas

Ojaha – It is “a” karant pumlingi shabda which means odd numbers.

Oja – It is a kavyaguna which means in formation of large samasas, composite

words/samasika padas not only loose their own meaning but also collectively lead

towards one another meaning. This guna is called Ojoguna of kavya and quoted as

atma of kavya.3


7

Different meanings of word Ojas

1) Meaning of the sutra “Ubje-bale balopascha” is “ubja” dhatu when used in

meaning of bala then lopa of bakara takes place. Ojas word is formed by this

process so it has to be used in meaning bala.

2) Another meaning is “Ubje-Aarjave”. Word “Aarjava” is originated from “Ruju”

word which means sahaja in this context. So “Ubj-arjave” means

Sahaja/Prakruta/ avaikarika bala.4

3) Medini kosha gives meanings of word ojas as

a. Deeptau

b. Avashtambhe

c. Prakashe

d. Balayoho

a) Deeptau – one which is swayamprakashi

b) Avashtambha – one which maintains “Sthairya”.

c) Prakasha – “Prakarshena deeptau” which gives light/prakasha to others.

d) Balam – This enforces prakuta avastha or opposes/resists vikruti.5

4) In Yaska Nighantu 28 different words are used in meaning of bala. Infact they

stress on different aspects of bala. Those words are,

Ojaha, Pajaha, Shavaha, Tavoha, Taraha, Twaksha, Shadhaha, Badhaha,

Nrumnam, Tavirshi, Shushmam, Shushnam, Daksha, Veelu, Choutram, Shusham,

Saha, Yaha, Vadhaha, Vargaha, Vrujanam, Vruk, Majmana, Poumsyani,

Dhamasi, Dravinam, Sandrasa, Shyambarum6 .

Different Meanings of word Ojas in Sanskrit - English dictionaries

1. Bodily strength

2. Vigour

3. Energy

4. Ability

5. Power 7

6. Virility

7. The generative faculty

8. Splendour


8

9. Light

10. An elaborate form of style

11. Water

12. Metallic luster 8

Definition of Ojas

Acharya Charaka defines ojas as; a shuddha/clear substance having rakta

varna along with ishat peeta varna and residing in hrudaya is called ojas in shareera.

Acharya Chakrapani has commented on this as shuddha means shukla i.e. white,

raktam ishat means kinchit/slight rakta/ red, sapitakam means slight peeta. Thus

according to him ojas has shweta varna along with peeta and rakta as anugata

varnas. Acharya Gangadhara comments on it as ojas is shubhra/white, ishat rakta

and peeta9.

Acharya Sushruta defines ojas as param/supreme tejas of dhatus from rasa to

shukra. It is called bala as per swashastra siddhanta. Acharya Dalhana comments as

param means utkrushta, teja means sneha, as ghruta is sneha of whole milk; similarly

ojas is sneha of all dhatus in body. Acharya Chakrapani comments as here teja

means saara as in context of ghrita and madhu.11

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes as para teja of all shareera dhatus is called as ojas.

Acharya Indu comments as para word here is related to ojas and thus it is definition

of para ojas.12 Ashtanga Hrudaya defines ojas as it is para teja of shukranta (rasa to

shukra) dhatus.16 Acharya Arunadatta comments as para is utkrushta thus Ojas is

utkrushta teja of all seven deha dhatus. Acharya Hemadri comments as ojas is mala

as it is explained after other malas.13 Acharya Chandranandana comments as ojas is

pradhana moola of deha dhatus. Ojas is prakrushta dhama of saaras.14

Acharya Sharangadhara defines ojas as a substance residing in whole body

having snigdha, sheeta gunas. Acharya Kashiram Vaidya comments on this as

snigdha is sachikkana, ojas is sheeta and not ushna, sitam means shubra in colour and

as it is karana for srushti utpatti so soumya in nature. It does poshana of bala.15

Acharya Bhavamishra defines ojas as sarwasharisastha snigdha, sheeta, and

sthira substance which is somatmaka in nature and does balapushti.16


9

Gunas of Ojas

Acharya Charaka quotes that ojas is having sarpirvarna/colour like ghee,

madhu rasa/ taste like honey and lajagandha/smell like paddy at the time of utpatti in

shareera.17 Acharya Gangadhara comments as ojas when first created in body then it

is sarpirvarna and madhu rasa after words it becomes lajagandhi.18 Acharya Charaka

in another context explains about colour and nature of ojas when it is in hrudaya as

shuddha, ishat rakta peetaka. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as shuddha

means shukla/white, raktam ishat means slight reddish, sapeetakam means slight

yellowish; so ojas is having shukla varna and rakta and peeta as anugata varnas.

Second interpretation of “ishat” word can also be taken as less in quantity signifying

ashtabindukatva of ojas. Acharya Gangadhara accepts another patha as shubhram

which means shukla/white colour having ishat rakta and ishat peet varnas i.e. red and

yellow shades.19 Acharya Charaka has explained that ojas is having same gunas as

that milk. Acharya Chakrapani quotes as these sweet taste etc. ten gunas are same in

ojas and milk. Acharya Gangadhara comments as all milks are having

ojovriddikaratva still ojovardhaka guna in cow’s milk is again mentioned because of

it’s more samanata in gunas than other varities of milk.20 Acharya Charaka explains

ten gunas of goksheera as swadu, sheeta, mrudu, snigdha, bahal, shlakshna, picchila,

guru, manda & prasanna. Acharya Chakrapani comments as prasanna means

nirdosha, nirdosha is called guna by prashastata or consider prasanna as guna other

than gurvadi gunas.21

Acharya Charaka quotes ojas as madhura swabhavam.22 Acharya Charaka

quotes ten gunas of ojas as guru, sheeta, mrudu, kshlaksha, bahala, madhura, sthira,

prasanna, picchila and snigdha.23

Acharya Sushruta quotes gunas of ojas as somatmaka, snigdha, shukla, sheeta,

sthira, saram, vivikta, mrudu and mrutsna. Acharya Dalhana comments on it as

somatmaka meaning soumya, snigdha means having onctiousness, shuklam as

atishwetam. Another patha is “shukra” which signifies taila and kshaudra as anugata

varnas of ojas along with shukla. Sheeta is veerya, it is sthira as it gives sthairya to

shareera avayavas, sara means prasaransheela/ easily spreading nature, vivikta


10

means having supreme qualities and mrudu means tendere or soft to touch, mrutsam

means picchila, by word “cha” gurvadi anukta gunas are also to be included.24

Acharya Chakrapani comments as gunas of ojas are told for knowledge of

treatment. Shukla is prime or important colour and it does not have tantrantara

virodha with other anugata varnas in tantrantaras (Charaka Samhita). Sthira means

stable. “Rasam” is another patha in place of “saram” which means madhura rasa.

Vivikta means pratyagram i.e. which does not undergo paryushitata/staleness.

Mrutsna means soft to touch.25 Acharya Haranachandra Chakravarthy quotes as

sthira means one which makes a person stable in the conditions of sukha and dukha.

Sara means which moves through out body. Vivikta is nirmala/clear.26

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes gunas of ojas as mrudu, somatmaka, shuddha,

rakta, ishat sapeetakam. Acharya Indu comments as shuddha means anupahata, ishat

raktam sapeetakam means slight reddish and slight yellowish.27

Ashtanga Hrudaya explains ojas gunas as snigdha, somatmaka, shuddha, ishat

lohit peetaka.28

Acharya Kashyapa explains gunas of ojas as it is anupashtista/separated from

sheshma, aashyava (not having back colour), and rakta peeta in colour.29 Acharya

Sharangadhara quotes ojogunas as sheeta, snigdha and somatmaka.30 Acharya

Bhavamishra quotes white colour of ojas.31


11

Table No.1. Showing Gunas of Ojas

Name of the Guna C.S S.S A.S. A.H K.S Sh.S B.P. Snigdha + + + + + Sheeta + + + + Guru + Mrudu + + Kshakshna + Bahala + Madhura + + Sthira + + + + Prasanna + Mrutsna + Sara + Vivikta + Picchila + Sarpivarna + Madhurasa + Lajagandhi + Ishatrakta + + + + Ishatpeeta + + + + Somatmaka + + + + + Shuddha + + + Shukla + + +

Karmas of Ojas

Karmas of ojas in Garbhavastha are discussed under utpatti of ojas.

Acharya Sushruta explains karmas of ojas as sthiraupachita mamsata,

sarvachestasu apratighata, swaraprasada, varnaprasada, bahyanam karanam

aatmakarya pratipatti and abhyantaranam karanam aatmakarya pratipatti. Acharya

Dalhana comments on this as these are prakruta/physiological karmas of ojas here

stiraupachita mamsata means bala by upachaya/prosperity of all dhatus, sarva

cheshta means kaya, vacha, manovyapara, apratihgata means unimpaired power

which is seen by bhara grahanadi bala, swaravarna prasada means

nairmalya/clarity, bahya karana means karmendriyas, abhyantara karana means

jnyanendriyas or bahya means both jnyanendriyas as well as karmendriyas and

abhyantara means mana, buddhi etc.32 Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as

sthira upachita mamsatva means sarvadhatu sneharupa mamsa apyayana. Here


12

mamsa is told as it can be seen from outside. Like this stability and prosperity of all

other dhatus is to be understood. Here chesta means kaya parispanda,

apratighata/non obstuctiveness to these kriyas; bahya karana means karmendriyas

where as abhyatara karana means jnyanendriyas with manas. Atmakarya means

visargadi, budhyadi, and chintyadi vishayas of these karanas. Pratipatti means

anusthiti. Thus all indriyas are anushhita in their swakarya by ojo anugraha. It can

be understood as indriyas are bhautika, and then vishista bhutamaya ojas does bala

brumhana of vishishta indriya. Same karmas of ojas has been shown by Acharya

Charaka in vyatireka in ojo kshaya lakshanas.33 Acharya Haranachandra comments

as bahya karana means payu adi and abhyantara means chakshuradi : pratipatti

means pravrutti as “pratipathi pravruttim cha” is stated by Medini Kosha34

Acharya Sushruta further adds as if deha ayayavas are vyapta by ojas then

they are in existence/bhavati if there is abhava of ojas in deha avayavas then

nasha/sheeryana of deha avayavas takes place. Acharya Dalhana comments as

bhavati means utpadyate, sheeryante means vinashyanit/getting destructed.35 Acharya

Chakrapani accepts different patha which means its abhava causes shareera nasha.36

Acharya Haranachandra comments as “cha kara ” is for avadharana, sheeryante

means himsyante, gets destructed which is having similarity of a Acharya Charaka’s

version of tannashanna vinashyanti.37

Acharya Charaka explains preenana of sarva shareera is done by ojas.

Without ojas life of sarva bhutas/all living organisms can not be continued. If nasha

of ojas residing in hrudaya takes place then nasha of shareera will take place. It is

shareera rasa sneha and pranas are pratishita in it. Acharya Chakrapani comments

on it as this is applicable for both types of ojas; vartayanti means jeevanti, preenita

means tarpita. If kshaya of ojas takes place without kshaya of dhatus then marana

will take place. Word dhari means jeeva dharaka samyoga pradhanata. Shareera

rasa sneha means shareerasaara saara; words rasa and sneha here mean saara

which means saara of shareeradhatus. Acharya Gangadhara comments as

sarvajantus can have anuvartana of jeevana if preena by ojas is done. Without ojas

life of all bhutas can not be present. He accepts other patha which says that unless

and until there is no loss of ojas there can not be loss of purusha.38


13

Ashtanga Sangraha explains karmas of ojas as pranas are pratishithita in ojas

and it does preenana of deha. If there is no nasha of ojas then there will not be nasha

of deha. Acharya Indu comments that without nasha of ashtabindwatmaka ojas

nasha of shareera can not take place.39

Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes karmas of ojas as dehasthiti nibandhana. Unless

ojas is in state of normalcy, health/aarogya is maintained. When nasha of ojas takes

place nasha of shareera is fixed. Nishpatti of vividha dehasamshrita bhavas is also

done by ojas. Acharya Arunadatta comments as dehasya sthiti nibandhanam means

adhisthana/abode of jeevita. If abhava of ojas takes place then there will be abhava

of prani. In body, pranas stay in ojas. Vividha bhavas having samshraya in deha

originate form ojas. Acharya Hemadri comments as dehasya sthiti is different

avasthas of deha, and ojas is karana for these avasthas.40

Acharya Sharangadhara explains karmas of ojas as it does balaposhana of

shareera.41 Acharya Bhavamishra also quotes as ojas does balaposhana of shareera 42. He further add that vividha deha samshrita bhavas which are originated from ojas

such as utsaha, pratibha, dhairya, lavanya, sukumarata and ojas also performs

function of dehasthiti nibandhana43.

Table No.2. Showing Karmas of Ojas

Karmas S.S C.S A.S A.H Sh. S B.P Sthira upachila mamsata + Sarva chesthasu apratighata +

Swaraprasada + Varnaprasada + Bahya karanam atma karya pratipatti +

Abhyatara karanam atma karya pratipatti +

Shareera dharana + + Dehapreena + + Prana ashraya + Dehasthiti nibandhana + + Dehasamsthita bhava nishpandana + +

Shareerabala pushti + +


14

Types of Ojas

Acharya Charaka quotes as sthana of para ojas is hrudaya. Acharya

Chakrapani while commenting on this shloka says that word para means superior

which indicate two types of ojas para and apara. Para is alpa pramana and

explained by ‘hrudi tishtati ……ll” where as apara is shlaishmika ojas explained in

context of anjalimana of Shareera sthana as “Tavadeva parimana ll 44 Acharya

Chakrapani quotes ojas which is ashraya for prana is asthabindu in pramana and

having ashraya in hrudaya.45Acharya Gangadhara comments as hrudaya is sthana of

shreshtha/superior ojas which is ashta bindurupa.46

Acharya Charaka quotes that shuddha; ishat rakta sapeetaka dravya having

sthana in hrudaya is called as ojas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on word ishat as

very less quantity & indicative of ashtabinduka ojas. Acharya Gangadhara comments

on word ishat as less and it is related to rakta & sapeetaka. He further condemns two

different types of ojas and says that ashtabinduka ojas and ardhanjali ojas are one

and the same. Word bindu is having meaning as karsha which means ashtabinduka

means eight karshas. Ardhanjali means ashta karsha only so both are one and

same.47 Ashtanga Sangraha also quotes two types of Ojas as para and rasatmaka.48

Sthanas of Ojas

Hrudaya is quoted mainly as sthana of ojas by Acharya Charaka. Acharya

Chakrapani has commented on this as hrudaya is sthana of para ojas which is

astabindwatmaka. Acharya Gangadhara opines that hrudaya is seat of ojas and he

states that there are no different types of ojas as para and apara.49

Acharya Charaka in another context has quoted sthana of para ojas is

hrudaya and vahana of ojas is done by dhamanis in shareera continuously.He further

describes these dhamanis as tatphala and mahamoola. Acharya Chakrapani

commentes as sthana of apara ojas is hrudaya shrita dasha dhamanis. Acharya

Gangadhara comments as hrudaya is sthana of para ojas. 50 Acharya charaka quotes

thatdasha/ten dhamanis along with hrudaya perform vidhamana of ojas in all

shareera and hence called as ojovaha mahamula dhamanis. These mahaphala

dhamani/siras divide in bahudha means in many branches. Acharya Chakrapani


15

comments as hrudaya along with dhamanis do visarpanna of ojas through shareera.

These ten siras are attached with hrudaya and hrudaya is moolasthana of these siras

hence these siras are called mahamoola siras. Acharya Sushruta’s references

regarding dasha dhamanis are quoted by Acharya Gangadhara.51 Acharya

Chakrapani comments as these hrudayashrita dasha dhamanis divide in large number

to acquire shareera in a shape like a growing pratana / creeper and supply ojas to

complete body. Acharya Gangadhara comments as tatphala means having ojas as

phala. Mahaphala means sakta to mahat/hrudaya or these dasha siras divide in

various ways so called mahaphala. 52

Acharya Sushruta quoes as if ojas is vyapta in deha then only avayavas and

shareera can be in proper state. Acharya Dalhana comments as deha and avayavas

utpatti can take place if ojas is vyapta in complete body.53 Acharya Chakrapani

comments as ojas is hrudayasthayi still it is vyapta in sampurna deha.54 Acharya

Dalhana quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas.55

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas but it is vyapta in

shareera. Acharya Indu comments on this as ojas is seated in hrudaya but is vyapta in

shareera.56 Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes sthana of ojas as hrudaya but it is vyapi.

Acharya Arunadatta comments as sakalashareera vyapi shadbinduka ojas is having

vishesha sthana as hrudaya.57

Ashtanga Hrudaya comments as dasha moola sthita siraras do vahana of

rasatmaka ojas in all over body and all cheshtas depend on this. Acharya Arunadatta

comments on this as hrutstha meaning having ashraya in hrudaya. These siras do

vahana of ojas in all shareera. Rasatmaka means rasa swabhava/fluid nature,

nibaddha means nischayena sthita. Cheshta means vakkayamanasovyaparara.58

Acharya Kashyapa also quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas.59 Acharya

Sharangadhara quotes sarva shareera as sthana of ojas.60 Acharya Bhavamishra

quotes sthana of ojas as sarvashareera.61 Acharya Bhela has quoted twelve sthanas of

tejas/ojas. These are (rasa) shonita, mamsa, meda, asthi, majja, shukla, sweda, pitta,

shleshma, mutra and purisha.62


16

Utpatti of Ojas

Primordial creation (origination) of ojas is considered here, nutrition of ojas

will be explained under poshana.

Acharya Charaka has explained regarding utpatti of ojas as during utpatti of

shareera (garbha) ojas is first padartha to be formed.63 Utpatti of shareera takes

place in stree shareera when shukra and shonita of good qualities undergo samyoga

inside garbhashaya.64 Acharya Charaka quotes ojas as “aadisaara” of garbha. It is

present in all stages of garbha and enters hrudaya when hrudaya becomes pravyakta

/manifested. Before manifestation of hrudaya it is in the form of garbha saara.

Acharya Chakrapani comments on it as before garbha utpatti ojas is in form of saara

of shukra and shonita. After shukra shonita samyoga ojas is in the state of garbh

saara.After manifestation of hrudaya in garbha; ojas acquires it’s position in garbha

hrudaya and perform its all functions. In this way it is present and essential in all

stages garbhavastha. Acharya Gangadhara comment as ojas is saara of shukra

before shukra, shonita samyoga; after samyoga it is separated from shukra and hence

called as saara of garbha rasa. After vyaktata of hrudaya in garbha, ojas acquires its

position in hrudaya.65

Acharya Hemadri opines as, at shukra shonita samyoga garbha (saara) and

ojas (mala) are formed. Here word kitta/mala used for ojas is to show it’s inferiorty

from garbha.66 Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as addi saara of garbha and it is rasa

of garbharasa before vyaktata of hrudaya in garbhavastha. After vyaktata of

hrudaya it takes ashraya in hrudaya. Acharya Indu comments as without ojas there

will not be jeeva anupravesha in shukra and shonita, garbhasya prathama dhatu is

rasadhatu, saara of this rasadhatu is ojas. It first does ashraya in hrudaya and then

does dehavyapana.67


17

Table No. 3. Showing Sthanas of Ojas

Sthana C.S S.S. A.S A.H K.S B.S Sh.S B.P Chakrapani Gangadhara Hemadri Hrudaya + + + + + + + +

Dasha dhamanis + + + + + +

Sarva shareera + + + + + + + +

Shonita +

Mamsa +

Meda +

Asthi +

Majja +

Shukla/shukra +

Sweda +

Pitta +

Kapha +

Mutra +

Purisha +

Rasa +


18

Ojopramana

Acharya Charaka explains pramana of shlaishmika ojas as ardhanjali.There

is one pathabheda which says that this is pramana of Ojas. Acharya Chakrapani

comments as this is pramana of ojas which is other than ashtabindu ojas. This ojas is

having similar gunas as that of vishuddha shleshma and hence called as shlaishmika

ojas. It is circulated through ojovahi dhamanis. Acharya Gangadhara comments as

this is pramana of shleshmavishesha ojas. Ashta bindwatmaka ojas does not undergo

vruddhi, hrasa as its nasha leads to nasha of purusha. Bindu means karsha, so

ardhanjali means ashta karsha.68 Ashtanga Sangraha quotes two pramanas of ojas as

ashta bindwatmaka of para ojas which is hrudayastha and prasruta which is

rasatmaka. Acharya Indu comments on this as ojas do anugraha to shareera when in

prakruta pramana. Vruddhi or kshaya of ojas does dushana of shareera69.

Ashtanga Hrudaya explains pramana of ojas as swaprasruta. Acharya

Arundatta comments on this as here “swa” word indicates that it is of pramana of

anjali of specific person for him. Thus here prasruta does not mean two palas 70.

Acharya Kashyapa explains pramana of ojas is equal to pramana of kapha which is

shat/six anjali. 71.

Acharya Chakrapani quotes a tantrantara vachana which explains that

hrudayashryee ojas is ashta bindwatmaka. He further opines that para ojas is ashta

bindu pramana and apara or shalishmika ojas is ardhanjali. Acharya Arunadatta

quotes pramana of ojas as six bindus.72 Acharya Gangadhara opines that ashta bindu

and ardhanjali are one and same and it equals to ashta karsha.73 Acharya

Bhavamishra quotes pramana of ojas as ashtabindu.74

Table No. 4. Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about pramana of ojas

Name of author Para ojas Apara Ojas Ojas Shlaishmika Ojas

Charaka Samhita Ardhanjali Ashtanga Sangraha Ashta bindu Prasruta Ashtanga Hrudaya Swa prasruta Kashyapa Samhita Six anjali Chakrapani Ashta bindu Ardhanjali Hemadri Shat bindu Swa prasruta Bhavaprakasha Ashta bindu Tantrantara Vachana (Chakrapani tika )

Ashta Bindu

Gangadhara Two palas


19

Poshana of ojas

Primordial creation of origin of ojas in shareera is explained in utpatti & here

poshana i.e., nutrition will be explained.

Acharya Charaka has explained that aahara does poshana of ojas. Prasada

part of aahara rasa does poshana of ojas 75 Acharya Chakrapani comments as ojas is

sara of seven dhatus and its poshana is understood by seven dhatu poshana but still it

is mentioned separately because of its shreshtha prana dharakavta.76 Acharya

Charaka further quotes that previous dhatus are aahara for next dhatus, (dhatvohi

dhatvaahara). Thus (purva) prior dhatu is aahara for next (para) dhatu. All the

dhatus are of two types’ saara and kitta. This dhatwantara pariposhana is explained

by Acharya Chakrapani which is summarized below: 77

Table No.5. Showing Aharapariposhana karma according to Acharya Charaka

Dravya Saarabhaga Kittabhaga

Aahara Aahara rasa Purisha and mutra

Rasa Rakta Kapha

Rakta Mamsa Pitta

Mamsa Meda Khamalas

Meda Asthi Sweda

Asthi Majja Kesha and nakha

Majja Shukra Twak & akshi sneha

Shukra Garbha prasada -

Acharya Chakrapani further states another school of thought which opines as

garbhaprasadaja means ojas and condemns it.78 Acharya Chakrapani while

commenting on upadhatu varnana condemns the opinion of ojas as upadhatu, dhatu

or mala and says that there is no necessity to count it differently from seven dhatus as

it is saara of all dhatus. For this reason separate agni for ojas is also not explained.

While supporting dhatutva of shukra he explains that it does poshana of ojas.79

Acharya Sushruta explains dhatu pariposhana by help of ksheeradadhi nyaya.

This is explained as rasa gets converted in rakta and so on to become shukra.


20

Acharya Dalhana comments on it has all dhatus are of three bhagas; anubhaga,

sthulabhaga and malabhaga. Anubhaga does poshana of para/next dhatu.

Sthulabhaga is that dhatu itself and malabhaga does poshana of respective

dhatumalas. This can be tabulated in short as

Table No.6. Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to A. Sushruta

Dhatu Anubhaga Sthulabhaga Malabhaga

1. Aahara Rasadhatu Aahara rasa Purisha mutra

2. Rasa Rakta Rasadhatu Kapha

3. Rakta Mamsa Raktadhatu Pitta

4. Mamsa Meda Mamsadhatu Indriya malas

5. Meda Asthi Meda Sweda

6. Asthi Majja Asthi Kesha, loma

7. Majja Shukra Majja Akshi, twak sneha

8. Shukra Ojoposhana Shukra -

Acharya Chakrapani both opine that shukra is saara rupa so no mala forms

after shukradhatwagni vyapara 81.

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as mala of shukra dhatu which means its

poshana is done from shukra.82 Ashtanga Sangraha in another context explains as

ojas is saara of shukra, there is no mala of shukra as it is very pure. Anyamatas of

absence of shukra paka and garbha as saara of shukra are quoted 83.

Ashtanga Hrudaya also quotes poshana of ojas is done by shukra84. Acharya

Sharanghara also quote that poshana of ojas is done by shukra85. Acharya

Bhavamishra explains ojoposhana by sookshma bhaga shukra dhatu.86

Acharya Charaka explains utpatti of ojas in shareera by one simile as honey

bees collect makaranda from different fruits and flowers and nurture or convert it to

honey similarly ojas is nurtured or converted from shareera gunas .Acharya

Chakrapani comments as gunas means saarabhagas of shareera dhatus.87


21

Table No.7. Showing different views on poshana of ojas

according to various Ayurvedic classics

No Name of author Poshaka padartha Mode of poshana 1 Charaka Samhita Ahara Ahara rasa ; santata poshana

nyaya 2 Ashtanga Sangraha Shukra As mala of shukra 3 Ashtanga Hrudaya Shukra As mala of shukra 4 Anyamata

(Chakrapani tika) Shukra As Garbha Prasadaja

5 Anyamata (Chakrapani tika)

Shukra As Ashtama dhatu

6 Sushruta Samhita Ahara As per ksheera dadhi nyaya

Importance of Ojas

Acharya Charaka quotes as if nasha of ojas takes place then nasha of purusha

occurs. Acharya Chakrapani comments as if a small avavyaya/fraction of ojas also

gets destroyed it will lead to death. He further relates this to para ojas which is

situated in hrudaya88. Ojas is included under dasha pranayatanas.89 Ojas does

preenana of shareera and without ojas life can not exist. It is shareera rasa sneha

and pranas are pratishtita in ojas90. It is called as uttama pranayatana. If its abhava

occurs in shareera avayavas then decaying of these avayavas takes place.91

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as param jeevitaspada i.e., supreme seat /

abode of jeevita. Acharya Indu comments on this as when compared to other abodes

such as shira / head, ojas is more important abode of jeevita.92 Ashtanga Hrudaya

explains as unless and until ojas is in samya avastha shareera also remains in samya

avastha93. Acharya Bhela explains that until sthanas of ojas are prakruta pranee

experiences sukha and vice versa.94 Acharya Kashyapa explains as if ojovruddhi takes

place then shareera vruddhi takes place and shareera kshaya takes place if kshaya of

ojas takes palce.95

Ojovruddhi

No direct reference of ojovruddhi and its effect on body is available in

Charaka Samhita. In some other contexts ojo vruddhi is referred/quoted one among

them is; Ashwinau treated rajayakshma of Soma raja by increasing ojas by virtue of

which he attained shuddhata of manas and returned to his normal swaroopa. 96


22

No references of ojovruddhi were found in Sushruta Samhita in this course of

study. Ashtanga Sangraha explains symptoms at ojovruddhi as tushti and pusht i of

deha and exaltation of bala. Acharya Indu comments on this as ojovruddhi by

administration of jeevantyadi aushadhas. Tushti means contentment of manas and

excessive nourishment of bala.97

Ashtanga Hrudaya also quotes symptoms of ojovruddhi same as that of

Ashtanga sangraha. Acharya Arundatta comments on this as pushti means

vruddhi/increase, tushti means feeling of happiness, bala means samarthya, samyak

i.e. proper increase of these entities takes place by ojovruddhi. Acharya Hemadri

comments as tushti means santosha, pushti means sthoulyam, balodaya means shakti

utkarsha, ojovruddhi is not vikarakari/creating diseases as that of vatadi vruddhi. If

this increased ojas undergo visramasa or vyapat then it is cause for diseases as that of

vatadi vruddhi.98

Acharya Bhavamishra also explain same symptoms as that of Ashtanga

Sangraha.99

Other than these many references are available scattered in Ayurvedic

Samhitas some of them are compiled here.

Bahuoja / having more ojas is quoted as lakshana of kapha prakruti 100. In

sixth month of garbhavastha increase in varna and ojasof garbha takes place.101

Ojosaara is one among nine saaras explained by Acharya Kashyapa but

unfortunately its description is not available.102 After meticulous search of Ayurvedic

texts, no references regarding treatment of ojovruddhi were found.

Ojokshaya

Acharya Charaka has explained ojokshaya in the context of eighteen kshaya.

It is worth mentioning that after explaining kshayas of doshas, dhatus and malas

separate description of ojokshaya is available.103 Symptoms of ojokshaya are

scaredness (bibheti), durbalata, repeated worries (abheekshnam dhyayati), afflicted

status of complexion and mind (duschaya and durmana), agitated organs (vyathita


23

indriyas), dryness (rukshata) and emaciation (kshamata). Acharya Chakrapani

comments on word durmana as bala heenata of manas. He also quotes a tantratara

vachana of Jatukarna which explains that kshaya manifests because of nasha of

swagunakriya of doshadi dravyas. Acharya Gangadhara opines as agitation is seen

in all organs and not only in sense organs.104

Acharya Sushruta has explained three modes of vitiation of ojas/bala as

thrayobala doshas. They are visramasa, vyapat and kshaya.

Visramasa-: Symptoms of visramasa are sandhi vishlesha, gatra sadana,

dosha chyavana, kriya sannirodha and shrama, Acharya Dalhana comments on this

as sandhi vishlesha means vishatana in sandhis i.e. laxity in joints ,dosha chyavana

can be interpreted as bhramsha i.e., deviation of vatadi doshas from normalcy or

bhramsha of ojas by vatadi doshas. Kriya sannirodha means ishat karmahani i.e.,

slight impairment from normal functions of shareera, manas and vanee. Word cha

here indicates impairment in normal physiological functions of bala.105 Acharya

Chakrapani comments on word dosha chyavana as bhramsha of mala, mutra and or

vatadi doshas. Word cha indicates hanee in swagunakriya of ojas.106

Vyapat: Symptoms of vyapat are stabdhata and guruta in gatras (insensitivity

and heaviness in body organs), vatashopha, varnabheda, glani, tandra and nidra.

Acharya Dalhana comments on this as stabdha gatrata means loss of movements of

joints such as inability in knee joint flexion etc, varnabheda means vikruta /

pathological discolorations of body (other than gauradi varnas). Glani means

apraharsha i.e., no exultation for work. Tandra means non-perceptibility of sense

organs towards their vishayas107. Acharya Chakrapani comments as hanee of

prakruta guna karmas of Ojas is also seen in vyapat.108

Kshaya: Symptoms of kshaya are murccha, mamsa kshaya, moha, pralapa,

ajnyana and marana. Acharya Dalhana comments on world murccha as indriyas

could not function for getting vidjnyana. Moha means vaichittya i.e., state of delusion.

Pralapa means irrelevant talking109. Acharya Chakrapani comments as murccha

means sarvatha cheshta nasha i.e. complete loss of consciousness.110


24

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes same symptoms as that of Charaka Samhita.

Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes same symptoms as that of Charaka Samhita. Acharya

Hemadri while commenting on this opines as durbala means heena bala, vyathita

indriya means vyatha in hrudaya and other sthanas, duschaya means maleen kanti,

durmana means nisnehata, kshama means krushanga i.e. emaciated boy.111

In many other contexts scattered references of ojokshaya and its other forms

are available, few of them are mentioned here.

1. Ojasravana – In pitta vriddha vatakapha kshaya avastha of tridosha yugapat

vruddhikshaya bheda (Ch.Su.17/63)

2. Ojo nasha – Importance of ojas (Ch. Su. 17/64)

3. Ojo nasha – Importance of ojas (Ch. Su. 30/11)

4. Kashaya rasata of ojas – Madhumeha Samprapthi (Ch.Ni.4/4)

5. Ojopratihatva – Arishta lakshana (Ch.In.12/57)

6. Ojo nasha – Arishta lakshana (Ch.In.12/54)

7. Ojokshaya – Gramyaahara sevanajanya parinama (Ch. Chi. 1/2/3)

8. Ojoparikshaya – Rajayakshma lakshana (Ch. Chi. 8/4)

9. Ojohanee – Rajayakshma lakshana (Ch. Chi. 8/4)

10. Ojoguna kshaya – Pandu samprapti (Ch. Chi. 18/5)

11. Ojohanana – Mruthtika bhakshana janya pandu samprapti (Chi.Chi.16/29)

12. Ojasankshobha – Effect of madya on shareera (Ch. Chi. 24/25)

13. Ojobalavarna nasha – Udanavritta prana vata lakshana (Ch.Chi.28/208)

14. Ojobhramsha – Pittavritta udana vata lakshana (Ch. Chi. 28/224)

15. Ojo asthiratva – Ashtama masa garbhini avastha varnana (Ch.Sha.8/24)

16. Ojokshapana – Amla rasa atisevanajanya parinama (A.S. Su 18/17)

17. Ojovisramasa – Vriddha pitta karma (A.S.Su. 19/5)

18. Ojokshaya – Atilanghita purusha lakshana (A.S Su 24/16)

19. Ojopraksharana – Sneha vyapat (Ch.Su.13/71)

20. Ksheena Ojas – Vataja kasa lakshana (Su.U.52/8)

21. Ojovishlesha – Vikasee dravya vyakhya (Sh.S.P.K.4/20)

22. Hrutaujasa – Sannipata jwara bheda (Su.U.39/42)

This also provides an insight to a list of pathological/physiological conditions

in which there is vitiation in status of ojas.


25

Table No.8. Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various Authors

Symptom Ch.Sam. Su.Sam As.San. As.Hru.

Scared ness (bibheti), + + +

Durbalata + + +

Repeated worries (abheekshnam dhyayati), + + +

Afflicted status of complexion and mind

(duschaya and durmana),

+ + +

Agitated organs (vyathita indriyas), +

Dryness (rukshata) + + +

Emaciation (kshamata). + + +

Murccha +

Moha, +

Pralapa, +

Ajnyana +

Mamsa kshaya +

Marana +

Etiological factors / Nidana of Ojokshaya:

Acharya Charaka has explained samanya kshaya karanas as vyayama/exercise

anashana (abstinence from food intake), pramitashana (over indulgence in food item

of only one taste among six tastes), excessive exposure to vata (wind), atapa

(warmth), bhaya (fear), shoka (sorrow), rukshagunayukta peya pana, prajagarana

(excessive wakefulness), atipravritti of kapha, shonita and shukra; kala and

bhutopaghata. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as pramitashana means over

indulgence in eating food of one rasa i.e. eka rasabhyasa, atipravritti means excessive

excretion, kala means vardhakya and aadanakala. Bhutopaghata means pishacchadi

upaghata. Acharya Gangadhara comments as kapha ativartana is to be understood

as because of atiyoga of vamana, shonita atipravritti by raktamokshana i.e. siravedha

etc., shukra atipravritti by over indulgence in sexual activities. He further adds as all

hetus are not all kshayas but a relative understanding is to be done.112


26

Acharya Sushruta has explained nidanas of ojokshaya as abhighata, kshaya,

kopa, shoka, dhyana, shrama, kshudha. By these nidanas vata with vitiated pitta does

visramasa of ojas from its position/ sthanas. Acharya Dalhana classifies these

nidanas and comments as abhighatadi nidanas are responsible for visramsa of ojas

i.e. displacement from original sthanas / position. If vitiated dosha dhatus combine

with ojas (doshadushya samsarga) then properties of ojas change and it leads to

ojovyapat . Ojokshaya is quantitative loss of ojas which is because of shoka etc.

nidanas; vata and pitta separate or displace ojas from dhatus. The word dhatu can be

interpreted as hrudaya.113 Acharya Chakrapani comments as all dhatuvaha srotas are

also ojovaha and word dhatu can be taken for hrudaya in this context.114 Acharya

Haranachandra comments as here dasha ojovaha dhamanis quoted by Acharya

Charaka are to be understood as dhatuvaha srotas. He further condemns doubts

raised on whether visramsa and vyapat as part of kshaya or not and ascertains that

these are a type of kshaya only.115

Ashtanga Hrudaya and Ashtanga Sangraha quote nidanas of ojokshaya as

kopa, dhyana, shoka, shramadi. 116, 117 Acharya Hemadri comments on word aadi and

adds bhrama, trasa, katurasa and ruksha guna yukta bhojana.

Madya by virtue of its dasha gunas which are opposite to dasha gunas of ojas

causes ojokshaya. Acharya Charaka has explained it in detail which is presented in

tabular form below.118 Visha is having opposite gunas of ojas and thus by virtue of

these gunas visha vitiate ojas and causes death. This mechanism is achieved by

primary vitiation of rakta followed by all doshas, dhatus and finally hrudaya is

vitiated which leads to death. Acharya Arundatta has explained how dasha gunas of

visha vitiate ojas which is presented in a tabular form below.119


27

Table No.9. Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya, Visha

Properties of Madya Properties of Ojas Properties of Visha

Laghu Guru Laghu

Ushna Sheeta Ushna

Teekshna Mrudu Teekshna

Vikasee Kshlakshna Vikasee

Sookshma Sandra/bahala Sookshma

Amlarasa Madhura Rasa Avyakta rasa

Vyavayee Sthira Vyavayee

Aashukari Prasanna/prasada Aashukari

Vishada Picchila Vishada

Ruksha Snigdha Ruksha

Avidhiyukta gramya dharma sevana leads to ojokshaya.120 Amlarasa

atupayoga leads to ojokshaya.121 Kshara is also kshyakara/apathya for ojas.

Atilanghana causes ojokshaya122 Vikasee dravyas do vishlesha of ojas from dhatus.123

Gramyaahara and other nidanas explained by Acharya Charaka vitiate ojas

by disturbing dhatu pariposhana. Improper and impaired dhatuvyapara leads to

ojokshaya. List of these nidanas is given bellow

1. Gramyaahara.

2. Amla, lavana and katu rasa bhojana.

3. Kshara, shushka mamsa and shaka bhojana.

4. Tila, palala and pishtanna sevana.

5. Repeated vishamashana and adhyashana

6. Virudha and nava shooka and shami dhanya sevana.

7. Viruddha bhojana asatmya bhojana,

8. Ruksha, kshara, abhishyandi bhojana.

9. Klinna, guru, pooti, paryusheeta bhojana.

10. Daily indulgence / consumption of madya stree and diwaswapna.

11. Overstress to body by irregular and excessive exercise (Atimatra and vishama

vyayama)

12. Excess exposure to bhaya, krodha, shoka, lobha, moha ayasa.

These lead to impaired and improper dhatu vyapara leading to ojokshaya. 124


28

Chikitsa of Ojokshaya

Acharya Charaka has advised to avoid manasika dukha hetus in particular for

protecting ojas hrudaya, tadashrita bhavas and ojovaha dhamanis. For protection of

these bhavas one should indulge / consume hrudya/beneficial for hrudaya,

oujasya/beneficial for ojas and srotopraasadanakara dravyas. Prashama and jnyana

are also to be practiced. Acharya Chakrapani comments as hrudaya, ojovaha

dhamanis and ojas are to be protected. Prashama means shanti and jnyana means

tatvajnyana. Acharya Gangadhara comments on this as these all upayas are for ojas

rakshana. He also opines that this prashama sevana is explained in next shloka of

utkrushtatama list.125

Acharya Sushruta explains as kriya vishesha and aviruddha dravyas are to be

used for apyayana of ojas in conditions of visramsa and vyapat. Other conditions and

patients who have lost consciousness are asadhya so are to be avoided. Acharya

Dalhana comments as kriya vishesha means rasayana and vajikaranadi chikitsa.

Aviruddha means not opposite to agni and other shareera bhavas. Here bala means

shakti upachalakshana bala. Apyayana means vardhana i.e. increasing. Other

conditions mean kshaya. It is varjya as it is associated with moha.126 Acharya

Chakrapani comments as kriya vishesha means ojovardhaka and ojovishodhaka

treatment .127

Ashtanga Sangraha explains treatment of ojokshaya as jeevaneeya aushadhas,

ksheera, mamsaradi are medicines to be used. Acharya Indu comments on this as

ksheera and mamsa rasa sadhana is to be done by jeevaneeya aushadhas. Word aadi

states that other drugs of these qualities can also be used.128

Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes same line of treatment as that of Ashtanga

Sangraha. Acharya Hemadri comments on it as jeevaneeya means jeevanti etc., rasa

means mamsa rasa. Sharkara etc., dravyas are to be understood from word aadi.

Acharya Arundatta comments as jeevaneeya means jeevaneeya gana of ten drugs

comprising of jeevanti, kakolee, kshreerakakolee, meda, mahameda, mudgaparnee,

mashaparnee, rushabhaka, jeevaka and madhuka quoted in (A.H. Su. 15/8). Other


29

madhura rasa dravyas and ksheera can be used. Word aadi indicate kakandola,

atmagupta ghruta etc., drugs.129

Vidhivat Rasayana sevana leads to regularize dhatu pariposhana krama,

which brings back normalcy of dhatus and thus purify them. By samya and

utkrushtatama dhatus ojovruddhi takes place.130

Acharya Kashyapa states that if samyak sneha upayoga is done it leads to

ojovruddhi.131 He further adds as madhura, snigdha, sheeta and laghu aahara

increases ojas and hence to be given to balakas.132 He also quotes that samanata of

vatadi doshas leads to ojovruddhi.133

Other than this many aahara dravyas, aushadhas and viharas are explained in

Ayurvedic Samhitas which bring about augmentation of ojas in different contexts.

Here an attempt is made to group these scattered references under three headings of

1. Anna

2. Aushadha.

3. Vihara

Anna:

• Aahara is moola karana for poshana of ojas.

• Madhura rasa increases ojas.

• Mamsa increases / does pushti of ojas.

• Ksheera is having its ten gunas equal as that of ojas and hence increases ojas.

• Goksheera does ojovruddhi. • Goghruta is indicated for use in those who want augmentation of ojas.

• Ghruta increases ojas.

• Ghruta satmyata increases ojas in shareera.

• Shulya mamsa increase ojas and indicated in ojoheena patients.

• Mamsarasa increases ojas.

Aushadha:

• Rasnadi niruha basti is indicted for ojokheena.


30

• Mamsa basti is also indicted.

• Bala ghruta increases ojas.

• Kamadeva ghruta increases ojas.

• Nagabaladi ghruta increases ojas (A.H.U. 3/24) • Balataila increases ojas (A.S.Sh. 4/42)

• Langhana increases ojas (As chi 113).

• Shatapushpa is indicated for ojovruddhi (K.S.K. 186 page).

• Shatavari increases ojas (K.S.K. 186 page).

• Madhuka pushpadi modaka is indicated in ksheena ojas (As chi 5/31)

• Anupaajadyasthi taila is quoted as amrita for ksheena ojas patients (A.S Chi

284/47)

• Mruga shakruta is having property of ojokshaya harana (A.S.Su 69/06)

• Aindra rasayana is quoted as having param ojaskara property (Ch.Chi 1/3/28)

Punarnavadyarishta increases ojas in short duration of time (Ch.Chi.12/38)

Vihara:

• Snana is called as best / supreme entity to increase ojas (Ch.Su. 5/94).

• Ratnadharana increases ojas (Ch.Su 5/97).

• Anulepana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/63).

• Padatradharana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/72).

• Chatradharna increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/75).

• Aasana made up of bala vyayana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/82).

• Dandadharana, vastradharana increases ojas (B.S.P.K.5/102).

• Kreeda and vihara are indicated in order to avoid ojokshaya offer madya pana

(A.H.Chi9/46)


31

CONCEPTS CLOSELY RELATED TO OJAS

In Ayurvedic literature one word is used in different meanings and one has to

understand the meaning of such words by careful study of context, abhipraya of

tantrakarta and help of tantrayuktis134.

Regarding word ojas, it has been used in different meanings in different

contexts. Unfortunately this is creating ambiguity in the mind of scholars of Ayurveda

and misleading or increasing confusion in proper and clear understanding of concept

of ojas. Further more many dehadhatus of shareera having similar properties of ojas

are termed as ojas in different contexts; this has worsened the scenario little more.

Thus it is needed that a careful study of such dehadhatus of shareera for

understanding their relation with ojas on basis of comparison of guna karmas of these

dehadhatus and ojas. This will also help in understanding guna karmas of ojas in a

better manner.

This chapter is intended to take review of some important concepts which are

closely related to ojas. As main aim of this exercise is to understand relation of these

terms with ojas only relevant information of these dehadhatus with relation to ojas is

included here.

Acharya Dalhana quotes as

1. Ushma

2. Jeevashonita

3. Rasa dhatu are also called as ojas to tantrantaras135

Acharya Hemadri quotes as:

1. Dhatu teja

2. Rasa

3. Jeevashonita

4. Prakruta shleshma are the terms for which word ojas is used by vaidyas136.


32

Acharya Charaka has used word ojas for prakruta kapha and bala. Acharya

Sushruta has used word for bala. Acharya Sushruta also used this word for atmashakti

of drugs. Let us consider these contexts one by one.

Kapha and Ojas

Kapha is one among tridoshas. Kena jalena phalati iti kapha is derivation of

word of kapha which means its nourishment is done by jala. Shleshma is paryaya

used for kapha. Shlish aalingane one which has capacity to bind is called shleshma.

Gunas of prakruta kapha are guru, sheeta, mrudu, snigdha, madhura, sthira, picchila.

It is having shweta varna and madhura rasa. Sneha, bandha, sthiratva, gaurava,

vrishata, bala, kshama, dhruti and alobha are prakruta karmas of kapha. Soma by

virtue of kapha does/performs its various functions in body and hence kapha is called

Soumya.137

Sthanas of kapha are ura, kantha, shira, kloma, parvasandhis, amashaya, rasa

dhatu, medodhatu, ghrana, jivha. Ura is main sthana among these all sthanas.138

Kledaka kapha, one among five bhedas of kapha is having sthana in hrudaya and

does avalambana of hrudaya.139 Avalambana is commented as swakarmani

samarthya by commentriators.140

Acharya Charaka has called prakruta kapha as bala and it is also called as

ojas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as shleshma is hetu for shlaishmika ojas.

He also quotes as prakruta kapha is reason for bala and hence called as bala. One

more interpretation of word ojas is sarabhaga. Acharya Gangadhara opines as this

prakruta gati yukta kapha is reason for bala and hence called as ojas and bala.141

Acharya Kashyapa quotes pramana of prakruta kapha and ojas are same i.e.

six / shat anjali 142. Ojoposhana is explained as karma of kapha dosha143.

Agni /Ushma and Ojas

Acharya Charaka has quoted ushma as paryaya for agni while explaining bhutagni.144

In one another context Acharya Charaka quotes that ushma which is present in agni is

sama in samyavastha of doshas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as ushma is

paryaya of agni and it is different from agni outside body.145 Ashtanga Hrudaya

quotes ushma as paryaya for agni in context of aama.146


33

Ushma is one among karyas of pitta. Acharya Charaka explains as agni by

virtue of pitta perform different functions in shareera.147 Agni is explained as hetu for

ojas and teja148. Acharya Dalhana comments that in tantrantara, ushma is also called

as ojas149. Acharya Bhavamishra explains that ojas is of two types aagneya and

soumya150. Ojas is defined as para teja of rasadi dhatus by Acharya Vagbhata and

Acharya Sushruta151. Ushma is one among aahara parinamkara bhavas which does

pachana of aahara152.

Agni is mula of bala and hence all efforts are to be done for protection of

agni153. If agni is lost then death is result; if it is in prakruta avastha then prolonged

healthy life span is result, if it is vikruta then it leads to disease154. Samagni leads to

drudha gatrata and ojovruddhi 155. Agni is mula for bala and bala is mula for jeevana,

so in nutshell principle of chikitsa is agni pari rakshana156.

Rasa Dhatu and Ojas

Rasa is one among seven dhatus in shareera. Word rasa indicates gati. One

which is always on move is called as rasa. It is parama sookshma tejobhuta saara of

aahara. Its sthana is located in hrudaya. It does tarpana, vardhana, dharana and

yapana of whole human body by circulating through dhamanis. It enters in dhamanis

through hrudaya. It is soumya and drava in nature and does snehana of shareera157.

Tushti, pushti and rakta pushti are karmas of rasa dhatu as quoted by Ashtanga

Sangraha. Tushti is interpreted as manapreetee and preenana means ashwasana of

hrudaya158. Purusha is called as rasaja hence special precautions are to be taken to

protect rasa while consuming anna, pana and performing achara159. Symptoms of

rasakshaya are rukshata, kshama, shosha, glani and shabda asahishnuta160. Acharya

Sharangadhara quotes ojokshaya as one among karanas of glani.161

Ashtanga Sangraha explains rasatmaka ojas as second type of ojas162.

Ashtanga Hrudaya explains ten mahamoola siras which are attached to hrudaya do

vahana of rasatmaka ojas all over body. Here word rasatmaka is commented as it is

sara part of aahara and fluid in nature (drawaswabhava) 163.


34

Acharya Charaka in Nidanasthana in prameha dushya varnana context quotes

a word rasachauja which is interpreted by Acharya Chakrapani as “ojorupi rasa”.

Acharya Gangadhara opines as these two are different entities and are to be

interpreted as rasa and ojas164. Acharya Chakrapani commenting on the same word

rasauja in dushya sangraha in prameha chikitsa context accepts rasa and ojas as two

separate entitites165. Acharya Dalhana comment as in tantrantara rasa is called also

called as ojas166. Acharya Hemadri quotes tantrantara vachana from Kharanadi

which says that rasa is called as ojas167. Acharya Chakrapani quotes anyamata as

hrudayastha rasa is called as ojas168. Rasa vruddhi and rasa dushti (pradosha) are

manifested by various symptoms and diseases in human body. Rasa vruddhi

symptoms are agnisadana, praseka, aalasya, gaurava, shaitya, shlaithya of angas,

shwasa, kasa and atinidra169. Anna ashraddha, aruchi, aasya vairasya, klaibya,

jwara, are among few vikaras which are manifested due to rasa dushti171. Acharya

Charaka has used word ojas while explaining importance of purisha raksha in

rajayakshma chikitsa context. Acharya Chakrapani opines that here word Ojas is used

for rasa dhatu171.

Rakta Dhatu and Ojas

Rakta dhatu is second dhatu among sapta dhatus. Rasa dhatu undergo

ranjana, coloration to become rakta.

Jeeva shonita is explained by Acharya Dalhana as shonita which has achieved

vishuddhata by samyoga with shareera, indriya, satva and atma172. Acharya

Chakrapani comments on word jeeva shonita as jeevana hetu dhatu rupa shonita

which means that rakta dhatu which is hetu / reason for life173. Rakta is one among

dasha pranayatas. Vishuddha rakta is responsible for bala, varna, sukha and

ayusha174. If a person is having prasanna varna, indriyas and indriyarthas; avyahata

agni, tushti, pushti, bala and sukha then he is considered as having vishuddha

rakta175. Rakta is moola of deha and dharana of deha is done by rakta only so special

precautions are to be taken for protection of it. Rakta is as equal to jeeva. Word moola

is commented here reason for utpatti, sthiti and pralaya of deha176. Pramana of rakta

is eight anjali177. Normal functions of rakta are mamsa pushti; jeevana and

varnaprasadana on symptoms of rakta kshaya are affliction towards amla and sheeta


35

food, shira shaithilya and rukshata178. Rakta vruddhi is manifested by visarpa,

pleeha, vidradhi, kushtha etc diseases179. Rakta dushti or pradosha also gives rise to

many diseases few among them are raktapitta, asrugdara, kamala, shwitra and

others180.

Acharya Dalhana quotes that in tantrantara rakta is called as Ojas. Acharya

Hemadri also quotes that word ojas is used for rakta while commenting on word

jeevana which is karma of rakta. Acharya Arundatta comments as jeevana means

ojavruddhikara181.

Shukra and Ojas

Shukra is last, seventh dhatu in shareera. Word shukra is derived form

“Shuch” dhatu by “rak” pratyaya which means, very clear. Gunas of shukra are it

having madhura rasa, shukla varna and madhugandha. Other gunas include guru,

snigdha, bahala, bahu, picchila182. It is soumya in nature183. Sthana of shukra is sarva

shareera184. Karmas of shukra are dhairya, chyavana, preeti, deha bala, harsha and

beeja prayojana185. It is one among dasha pranayatas. Pramana of shukra is

ardhanjali186. Shukra is called as parama dhama of aahara and it should be protected.

If kshaya of it takes place then many diseases many occur or it many lead to death187.

Acharya Dalhana and Acharya Bhavamishra quote that shukra does

ojoposhana. Acharya Chakrapani opines that shukra do ojojanana188. He also quote

a tantrantara mata that shukra gets converted into ojas and condemn it. Acharya

Sharangadhara quotes ojas as upadhatu of shukra189. Ashtanga Sangraha and

Ashtanga Hrudaya quote ojas as mala of shukra190, 191.

Acharya Chakrapani quotes anyamata as ojas is shukravishesha192. Ashtanga

Sangraha quotes ojas as shukra saara and quotes that there is no mala of shukra193.

Bala and Ojas

Acharya Sushruta explains that ojas is called as bala according to swa shastra

siddhanta. Acharya Dalhana has quoted that though here ojas and balas are said to

be one and same it is because of the similar therapeutic measures used for both ojas


36

and bala. In paramartha their difference is clear as ojas has rupa, rasa and veerya etc

but bala is not having these and it is inferred by power/strength to lift load etc194.

Acharya Charaka has quoted prakruta kapha as bala as well as ojas 195. Balaposhana

is explained as karma of ojas by various Acharyas.

Table No. 10. Showing different concepts quoted as ojas

according to various Ayurvedic texts.

Name of concept Charaka Samhita

Sushruta Samhita

Dalhana Commentary

Hemadri commentary

Prakruta kapha + +

Bala + +

Rasa Dhatu + +

Jeeva shonita + +

Dhatu teja +

Agni / Ushma +


37

REVIEW OF MODERN LITERATURE

After complete review of concept of ojas and related concepts in Ayurveda; an

effort is necessary to find a parallel concept in modern medicine. In this era of

globalization these efforts of conveying Ayurvedic treasure of knowledge to

western world are having a grater role in achieving aim of Ayurveda Swasthasya

swastha rakshana and aaturasya vikaara prashamana (i.e. maintaining health of

healthy and curing diseases of diseased).

For this purpose meticulous review and critical analysis of modern medicine

textbooks, research papers, case studies and journals was done. Discussions with

experts in field of Ayurveda and different specialties in modern medicine were

exhaustively carried out. Different co relations done by stewards of Ayurveda and

modern medicine both in recent eras were also taken into consideration. A probable

list of entities from modern medicine which have similarities with ojas was prepared.

Basis of this was references available in Ayurvedic literature about all three;

physiological, pathological and treatment aspects of ojas with more emphasis on

physiological aspect. After surveying these references, a list of few important

concepts which are usually co related is prepared and given below.

1. Prostaglandins

2. Immunity

3. Hormones

4. Glucose

5. Vitamins

6. Properdin

7. Conduction system of heart

8. Neuro transmitters in brain

9. Testosterones

10 Nucleo - proteins etc.

Among these various concepts prostaglandins and immunity are discussed

here briefly. One more point to be noted is, this review is not intended to describe

modern concepts comprehensively. Rather it will be more focused on aspects of these

concepts having similarities and differences with that of ojas.


38

PROSTAGLANDINS

Prostaglandins (PG) were first discovered and isolated from human semen in

the 1930s by Ulf von Euler of Sweden. Thinking they had come from the prostate

gland, he named them prostaglandins. It has since been determined that they exist and

are synthesized in virtually every cell of the body.196

A prostaglandin is any member of a group of compounds derived from fatty

acids containing 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. The prostaglandins

together with the thromboxanes form the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives.

The prostanoid class is a subclass of eicosanoids. These substances are called

eicosanoids, reflecting their origin from the 20-carbon (eicosa-) polyunsaturated fatty

acid arachidonic acid (arachidonate) and the 20-carbon derivatives of linoleic and

linolenic acids. Arachidonic acid can be prepared by human cells from linolenic acid.

Arachidonic acid is present in membranes and accounts for 5-15 % of fatty acids in

phospholipids. 197

Synthesis of Prostaglandins

Phospholipids present in cell membranes when stimulated by various stimuli

such as angiotensin II, bradykinin, epinephrine, and thrombin etc; undergo oxidation

by consumption of two oxygen molecules to form arachidonic acid by action of

phospholipase A2. Arachidonic acid is converted into endoperoxide PGG2. This

process is catalyzed by PGHS (prostaglandin H synthase) which possesses two

enzymatic activities cyclooxygenase and peroxidase. Product of cyclooxygenase

pathway is converted in to prostaglandins D, E and F. 198

Prostaglandins catabolism

Because of their very short half life period (two to four minutes) most of them

are efficiently and rapidly inactivated. About 95% of infused PGE2 (but not PGI2) is

inactivated during one passage through the pulmonary circulation.


39

Action of prostaglandins

Prostaglandins are a group of hormone- like substances; like hormones they

play a role in a wide variety of physiological processes. Prostaglandins act in a

manner similar to that of hormones, by stimulating target cells into action. However,

they differ from hormones in that they act locally, near their site of synthesis, and they

are metabolized very rapidly. Another unusual feature is that the same prostaglandins

act differently in different tissues.199

Prostaglandins show only paracrine (on cells near the secreting cell) and

autocrine (on secreting cell) actions because of very low half life period. However

prostaglandins have their effect on entire human body as they are produced in

almost all cells of human body. Another role of prostaglandins is to act as chemical

messengers.

Mechanism of action of prostaglandins

Many of the responses can be understood in light of the distribution of

prostaglandin receptors and their coupling to second messenger systems that modulate

cellular activity.

Prostaglandin Receptors: PGs act locally near their sites of formation. The

diversity of their effects is explained to a large extent by their interaction with a

diverse family of distinct receptors. All eicosanoid receptors are G protein–coupled

receptors that interact with Gs, Gi, or Gq to modulate the activities of adenylyl

cyclase and phospholipase.

Prostanoid and Platelet-Activating Factor Receptors: Newly generated

prostanoids are released by carrier-assisted diffusion to act locally on the cell of

origin or on neighboring cells. Two classes of receptors exist to transduce signals for

the eicosanoids: the well-characterized G protein–coupled receptor class and the

nuclear peroxisome proliferator activator receptors (PPAR) class, which are orphan

nuclear receptors acting directly as transcription factors after binding to the

appropriate eicosanoid. Thus, in addition to their extracellular functions, eicosanoids

act as intracellular ligands that bind to PPAR-a & PPAR-g to regulate lipid and

glucose metabolism, adipocyte differentiation, and inflammatory responses. 200


40

Table No.11 Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins with their actions 201

Types of prostaglandins

The prostaglandins are divided into groups PGE and PGF, on the basis of the

configuration of the cyclopentane ring. The number of double bonds in the side chains

is indicated by subscript numbers. A variety of prostaglandins are identified. Active

forms of prostaglandins are PGD2, PGE2, and PGF2.

Diet and prostaglandins

Average daily intake of arachidonic acid is estimated to be approximately 100-

200 mg/day that accounts for the total daily production of various PGs.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are present mainly in

marine fish. Cow’s milk contains very small amounts of linolenic acid GLA0, and

arachidonic acid.


41

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) and the ir long-chain metabolites and other

products such as prostaglandins E1 (PGE1), prostacyclin (PGI2), PGI3, lipoxins

(LXs), resolvins, protectins including neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) prevent platelet

aggregation, lower blood pressure, have anti-arrhythmic action, reduce low density

lipids LDL-C, ameliorate the adverse actions of homocysteine, show anti-

inflammatory actions, activate telomerase, and have cytoprotective properties. It has

been known to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular diseases including stroke. In

addition, various EFAs and their long-chain metabolites not only enhance nitric oxide

generation but also react with nitric oxide to yield their respective nitroalkene

derivatives that produce vascular relaxation, inhibit neutrophil degranulation and

superoxide formation, inhibit platelet activation, and possess PPAR ligand activity

and release nitric oxide, thus prevent platelet aggregation, thrombus formation,

atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, appropriate combination of

ω3 and ω6 fatty acids may even show additional benefits in the form of protection

from depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease, and enhances cognitive

function; and serve as endogenous anti- inflammatory molecules; and could be

administered from childhood for life long.202

Essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency is known to alter the immune response in

several experimental systems. Researches show that when for studying the effects of

EFAs on immunity Lewis rats were fed diets either adequate or deficient in EFAs for

70-80 days. EFA-adequate rats responded to an i.v. injection of 5 X IO8 sheep

erythrocytes with a sharp, short- lived rise in splenic levels of PGE and PGF within 2

minutes after injection. EFA deficiency resulted in a diminution of this PG response.

PG production in liver homogenates was also depressed in EFA-deficient liver.The

alterations in immune response resulting from changes in PG synthetic capacity may

be important in the etiology of certain syndromes such as the lupus erythematosus in

NZB/W mice.203


42

Flow Chart No.3. Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG

and its effects on human body.204


43

Physiological Functions of Prostaglandins

In Reproduction

Prostaglandins aid process of fertilization in following ways.

• By reacting with female cervical mucus to make it more receptive to sperm

movement.

• By possibly causing backward, reverse peristaltic contractions in uterus and

fallopian tubes to move the ejaculated sperm toward the ovaries (a few sperm

reach the upper ends of the fallopian tubes within 5 minutes where as normal

speed of sperm in female genital tract is 3mm /min).

• Of all body fluids, human seminal plasma possesses the highest concentration

of PG. The total PG content of the average human male ejaculate is 1 mg, and

comprises PGE and PGF together with their 19-hydroxylated derivatives. The

most dominant active prostaglandin, PGE, has a mean semen concentration of

73.2 µg/ml, and notably high inter-individual variation (range 2–272 µg/ml)

PG were first described in 1947 with lower concentrations of PGE being found

in couples with unexplained infertility.

• PGs are known to enhance sperm transport and increase the fertilization rate in

rabbits. Novel animal studies involving the use of intrauterine PGE infusion

have resulted in the maintenance of corpora luteal function and stimulation of

progesterone production, ensuring uterine receptivity for pregnancy

• Human in-vitro research has shown that PGE induces a relaxation response on

the non-pregnant human uterine and fallopian tube smooth muscle, whereas

PGF has been shown in vitro to create a contractile response. The in-vivo

effects from both PG are stimulatory on the myometrium Moreover; it has also

been shown that PGE is more potent than PGF on myometrial response and

that both PG inhibit tubal motility, thus suggesting that the relaxation of the

tubal isthmus is a prerequisite for sperm penetration into the Fallopian tube.

• Strikingly PGE, but not PGF, has been shown to improve significantly the

ability of human spermatozoa to penetrate zona-free hamster oocytes

• Human in-vivo research has shown the potential benefit of vaginally placed

PG in the assistance of reproductive success.

• In a research study where Prostaglandin (PG) F2 alpha and PGE were

measured in 163 semen samples from 145 men attending male infertility


44

clinic. The concentrations of seminal PGF2 alpha and PGE concentrations

were 2.78 +/- 0.24 micrograms/ml and 46.0 +/- 4.5 micrograms/ml,

respectively. Result s suggest that seminal PGs are important to the human

male fertility potential in that their levels are significantly interdependent with

specific parameters of male fertility. 205

• Another study examined whether the prostaglandin E1 analogue misoprostol

(400 µg), when placed vaginally at the time of intrauterine insemination (IUI)

improves pregnancy rates or not? It is concluded that the use of vaginal

misoprostol may improve the chance for pregnancy in women having IUI in a

wide variety f cycle types. 206

Renal physiology

• Prostaglandins increase GFR (glomerular filtration rate),

• Prostaglandins increase blood flow in the renal cortex and decrease blood flow

in the renal medulla.

• Maintenance of Vascular Function: Renal prostaglandins are thought to be

important mediators of vascular function, sodium and water homeostasis, and

renin release. Thus, prostaglandins may reduce sodium reabsorption by a

hemodynamic mechanism and /or through a direct action on tubular sodium

chloride transport. Renal prostaglandins may be of importance in

pathophysiological states associated with enhanced activity of the renin

angiotensin system. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that renal

prostaglandins protect the preglomerular vessels form excessive angiotensin

II-induced vasoconstriction.

• Prostaglandins (e.g., PGI2) may play a key role in mediating the renin-release

response to loop diuretics.

• Prostaglandins control of renin release mediating through macula densa

pathway as they are released when NaCl transport decreases and thus increase

renin release. 207

Blood and vascular System

• Prostaglandins accelerate capacity of red blood cells to pass through minute

blood vessels.


45

• PGE2 one member of this class causes dilatation of blood vessels.

• Monocytes secrete prostaglandins of the E series.

• Platelet inhibitory effects of prostaglandins are most important. The

synergistic effect of both prostacyclin and nitric oxide enhances the

antiplatelet activity.

• The changes in blood pressure associated with exercise could be due a

humoral mechanism which includes the reduction of the activity of the renin–

angiotensin–aldosterone system and of the sympathetic nervous system

activity and an increase in prostaglandins with vasodilator effect

Gastrointestinal tract

• Prostaglandins protect gastric mucosa from gastric juices and HCL and

prevent auto digestion of mucosa

• Mucus and HCO3- secreted by mucosal cells also play an important role in

protecting the duodenum from damage when acid-rich gastric juice is

secreted into it. Prostaglandins stimulate mucus secretion. HCO3- secretion is

also stimulated by prostaglandins along with local reflexes.

Induction of Menstruation

In process of onset of menstruation endometrium becomes thinner, which adds

to the coiling of the spiral arteries. Foci of necrosis appear in the endometrium,

additional spasm and then necrosis of the walls of the spiral arteries, leading to spotty

hemorrhages that become confluent and produce the menstrual flow. The vasospasm

is probably produced by locally released prostaglandins, there are large quantities of

prostaglandins in the secretory endometrium and in menstrual blood, and infusions of

PGF2a produce endometrial necrosis and bleeding. One theory of the onset of

menstruation holds that in necrotic endometrial cells, lysosomal membranes break

down, with the release of enzymes that foster the formation of prostaglandins from

cellular phospholipids.

Control of the menstrual cycle

PGF2a appears to be a physiologic luteolysin responsible for regression of the

corpus luteum (luteolysis). Regression of the corpus luteum starting 3-4 days before


46

menses is the key to the menstrual cycle. It appears that at least in some species

luteolysis is produced by the combined action of PGF2a and ET-1. In some domestic

animals, oxytocin secreted by the corpus luteum appears to exert a local luteolytic

effect, possibly by causing the release of prostaglandins.

Onset of labor

One factor responsible for the onset of labor is the increase in circulating

estrogens. This makes the uterus more excitable, increases the number of gap

junctions between myometrial cells, and causes production of more prostaglandins

which in turn cause uterine contractions. Oxytocin increases uterine contractions in

two ways:

• It acts directly on uterine smooth muscle cells to make them contract and

• It stimulates the formation of prostaglandins in the decidua. The

prostaglandins enhance the oxytocin- induced contractions.

Nervous system

• Release of prostaglandin D2 in the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus

causes increased slow-wave sleep and REM sleep whereas release of PGE2

causes wakefulness.

• Arachidonic acid metabolites have been implicated as diffusible modulators in

the CNS, particularly for LTP and other forms of plasticity.

Heart

• Prostaglandins are one of important chemical factors responsible for variations

in coronary flow by virtue of their property of vasodilation.

• Relatively high concentrations of prostaglandin E2a because of its vasodilator

action maintains patent state of ductus arterious in utero.

Respiratory system

• Prostaglandins are important constituent of surfactant which is necessary for

starting the process of respiration at time of birth.

• PGE2 is a potent broncho dilator


47

• Lung tissue is particularly active in the synthesis, metabolism, and release of a

number of prostaglandins, some of which may play a role in the regulation of

pulmonary vascular resistance. Prostaglandins I2 (PGI2) and E (PGE2) are

active pulmonary vasodilators, whereas PGF2 alpha and PGA2 are pulmonary

vasoconstrictors.

• Release of prostacyclin by endothelial cells causes relaxation of the underlying

vascular smooth muscle and prevents platelet aggregation within the

bloodstream.

Maintainers of ocular pressure

Resistance to blood flow depends on the state and caliber of the ocular arteries

and is influenced by hypertensive arterial changes and efficiency of the auto

regulation of the blood flow. Auto regulation maintains a constant ocular blood flow

to tissues during changes in perfusion pressure. Endothelial-derived molecules (i.e.,

endothelins, thromboxane A2, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide) play a role in auto

regulation by modulating vascular tone.

Although PGF2a induces constriction of the iris sphincter muscle, its overall

effect in the eye is to decrease intraocular pressure by increasing the aqueous humor

outflow of the eye via the uveoscleral and trabecular meshwork pathway

Physiology Of pregnancy

• One of reasons for hypertension in pregnancy is increase in estrogen,

deoxycorticosterone, and vasodilating prostaglandins produced by the

uteroplacental unit.

• The etiology of pre eclampsia: The etiology of pre eclampsia remains

unknown. Because of their widespread and varied effects in the human body,

prostaglandins specifically PGI2, thromboxane A2, PGE, and PGF2 have

come under much investigation as possible etiologic factors. The vasodilating,

platelet-disaggregating prostaglandins (PGI2 and PGE) are increased during

normal pregnancy and may account for many of the observed hemodynamic

changes, which begin as early as the first trimester. In contrast, a relative

increase in the vasoconstricting, platelet-aggregating prostaglandins


48

(thromboxane A2 and PGF2 is seen in pre eclampsia. The disruption in the

delicate balance between these two opposing pairs of prostaglandins may play

an important role in the causation of pre eclampsia.208

• Blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance in pregnancy: Systemic

arterial pressure begins to fall during the first trimester, reaches a nadir in mid

pregnancy, and returns toward pregestational levels before term. Because

diastolic blood pressure decreases substantially more than systolic pressure,

the pulse pressure widens. Reduction in blood pressure is caused by a decline

in systemic vascular resistance due to reduced vascular tone, probably

mediated by gestational hormonal activity, increased levels of circulating

prostaglandins, and atrial natriuretic peptides, as well as endothelial nitric

oxide,

Immunity

• Prostaglandins cause vasodilatation, mediate extravasation and pain sensation,

potentiate inflammatory mediators, and influence cellular and humoral

immunity.

• Phagocytes orient toward the chemo attractant source in the extra vascular

space after getting stimulated from chemo attractants and opsonins.

Prostaglandins increase sperm motile activity (chemokinesis), and migrate

them directionally (chemotaxis) into tissues. The process of migration into

tissues is called diapedesis and involves the crawling of neutrophils between

post capillary endothelial cells that open junctions between adjacent cells to

permit leukocyte passage. Diapedesis involves platelet/endothelial cell

adhesion molecule (PECAM) 1 (CD31), which is expressed on both the

emigrating leukocyte and the endothelial cells. The endothelial responses by

vasodilators which include prostaglandin E and I. Cytokines regulate some of

these processes [e.g., TNF-induction of VEGF, interferon (IFN) inhibition of

prostaglandin E].

• PGE2 also may play a role in T- lymphocyte development by regulating

apoptosis of immature thymocytes.


49

• PGD2, a major product of mast cells, is a potent chemo-attractant for

eosinophils and induces chemotaxis and migration of Th2 lymphocytes (T

helper cells)

• Prostaglandins are potent lipid molecules that affect key aspects of immunity.

The original view of prostaglandins was that they were simply

immunoinhibitory. Recent researches review focus on findings concerning

prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and the PGD2metabolite 5-deoxy-Delta (12, 14)-

PGJ2, and their divergent roles in immune regulation.

• Role of prostaglandins in process of apotosis is being stressed and researches

are on going for therapeutic usage in activating immune response against

tumor cells.209

Physiology of gastric secretion

Gastric defenses against acid: The stomach protects itself from acid damage by a

number of mechanisms that require adequate mucosal blood flow, perhaps because of

the high metabolic activity and oxygen requirements of the gastric mucosa. One key

defense is the secretion of a mucus layer that protects gastric epithelial cells. Gastric

mucus is soluble when secreted but quickly forms an insoluble gel that coats the

mucosal surface of the stomach, slows ion diffusion, and prevents mucosal damage by

macromolecules such as pepsin.

Mucus production is stimulated by prostaglandins E2 and I2, which also

directly inhibit gastric acid secretion by parietal cells. PGE2 and PGI2 are the major

prostaglandins synthesized by the gastric mucosa. They bind to the EP3 receptor on

parietal cells and stimulate the Gi pathway, hereby decreasing intracellular cyclic

AMP and gastric acid secretion. PGE2 also can prevent gastric injury by

cytoprotective effects that include stimulation of mucin and bicarbonate secretion and

increased mucosal blood flow.210

Bone remodeling

Bone remodeling is regulated by several circulating hormones, including

prostaglandins and members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) super family. These

factors primarily in bone modulate the rate at which new remodeling sites are


50

activated, a process that results initially reabsorption by osteoclasts, followed by a

period of repair during which new bone tissue is synthesized by osteoblasts.

Pathological Aspects of Prostaglandins

1. Prostaglandins are mediators of inflammation which in normal limits is

essential complement of immunity.

2. Accumulation of prostaglandins is one of major causes of dysmenorrhea

3. Change in balance of two important types of prostaglandins is one of the

possible factors which cause pre eclapsia.

4. The fever produced by cytokines is probably due to local release of

prostaglandins in the hypothalamus. Intra hypothalamic injection of

prostaglandins produces fever.

5. Systemic Mastocytosis: Systemic mastocytosis is a condition in which there

are excessive mast cells in the bone marrow, reticuloendothelial system, GI

system, bones, and skin. In patients with systemic mastocytosis, prostaglandin

D2, released from mast cells in large amounts, has been found to be the major

mediator of severe episodes of vasodilation and hypotension; this PGD2 effect

is resistant to antihistamines

Pharmacological Properties of Prostaglandins

1) Cardiovascular system

• In most vascular beds, PGE2 elicits vasodilation and a drop in blood pressure,

although vasoconstrictor effects have been reported, depending on which

PGE2 receptor is activated. Infusion of PGD2 results in flushing, nasal

stuffiness, and hypotension; subsequent formation of F-ring metabolites may

result in hypertension. Responses to PGF2a vary with vascular bed; it is a

potent constrictor of both pulmonary arteries and veins but does not alter

blood pressure. PGI2 relaxes vascular smooth muscle, causing prominent

hypotension and reflex tachycardia on intravenous administration. It is about

five times more potent than PGE2in producing this effect.

• Researchers report that with prostaglandin E1, a potent vasodilator with

proven efficacy in severe heart failure when coupled with catecholamines It

can be concluded that chronic infusions with prostaglandin E1 at reduced


51

dosages is a feasible and safe therapeutic adjunct to bridge end-stage heart

failure patients and may yield desirable effects in a subset of patients in the

absence of inotropic support by dobutamine. 211

2) Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation

Low concentrations of PGE2 enhance and higher concentrations inhibit

platelet aggregation. Both PGI2 and PGD2 inhibit the aggregation of platelets in vitro.

3) Inflammation and immunity

Prostaglandins play a major role in the inflammatory and immune responses,

as reflected by the clinical usefulness of the NSAIDs. Prostanoids can exert both

kinds of activity pro-inflammatory and anti- inflammatory. Prostaglandins generally

inhibit lymphocyte function and proliferation, suppressing the immune response.

PGE2 depresses the humoral antibody response by inhibiting the differentiation of B-

lymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma cells. PGE2 acts on T- lymphocytes to

inhibit mitogen-stimulated proliferation and lymphokine release by sensitized cells

4) Fever

• Regulation of body temperature requires a delicate balance between the

production and loss of heat; the hypothalamus regulates the set point at which

body temperature is maintained. This set point is elevated in fever (from

infection, tissue damage, inflammation, graft rejection, or malignancy), as a

result of formation of cytokines such as IL-1b, IL-6, interferons, and TNF-α.

The cytokines increase synthesis of PGE2 in circumventricular organs in and

adjacent to the preoptic hypothalamic area; PGE2, in turn, increases cyclic

AMP and triggers the hypothalamus to elevate body temperature by promoting

an increase in heat generation and a decrease in heat loss.

• Aspirin and NSAIDs suppress this response by inhibiting PGE2 synthesis but

do not influence body temperature when it is elevated by factors such as

exercise or in response to ambient temperature.


52

5) Kidney and urine formation

PGs influence renal salt and water excretion by alterations in renal blood flow

and by direct effects on renal tubules. PGE2 and PGI2 infused directly into the renal

arteries of dogs increase renal blood flow and provoke diuresis, natriuresis, and

kaliuresis, with little change in glomerular filtration rate. PGEs inhibit water

reabsorption induced by vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone). PGE2 also inhibits

chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the rabbit.

PGI2, PGE2, and PGD2 stimulate renin secretion from the renal cortex, apparently

through a direct effect on the granular juxtaglomerular cells. One of major

mechanisms involved in the hypertension of renal disease is decreased production of

renal vasodilators (i.e., prostaglandins, kallikrein, and kinin).

6) Auto Regulation of Intraocular Pressure

A variety of F prostaglandin-receptor agonists have proven effective in the

treatment of open-angle glaucoma, a condition associated with the loss of COX-2

expression in the pigmented epithelium of the ciliary body.

7) Central nervous system

While various effects have been reported following injection of several PGs

into discrete brain areas, the best established biologically active mediators are PGE2

and PGD2. The induction of fever by a range of endogenous and exogenous pyrogens

appears to be mediated by PGE2. Exogenous PGF2a and PGI2 induce fever but do

not contribute to the pyretic response. PGD2 do not induce fever. PGD2 also

appears to act on arachnoid trabecular cells in the basal forebrain to mediate an

increase in extracellular adenosine that, in turn, facilitates induction of sleep. PGs

contribute to pain both peripherally and centrally. PLA2 and COX-2 synthesis are

increased at sites of local inflammation that are, in turn, associated with increased

central PGE2 biosynthesis. PGE2 and PGI2 sensitize the peripheral nerve endings to

painful stimuli by lowering the threshold of nociceptors. Centrally, PGE2 can increase

excitability in pain transmission neuronal pathways in the spinal cord. The release of

these eicosanoids during the inflammatory process thus serves as an amplification

system for the pain mechanism COX-2 has been implicated in several neurological

diseases, and clinical trials of selective inhibitors of COX-2 are ongoing in the

chemoprevention of Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and epilepsy.


53

8) Endocrine system

A number of endocrine tissues respond to PGs. In a number of species, the

systemic administration of PGE2 increases circulating concentrations of

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone, prolactin, and

gonadotropins. Other effects include stimulation of steroid production by the adrenals,

stimulation of insulin release, and thyrotropin like effects on the thyroid.

The critical role of PGF2a in parturition relies on its ability to induce an

oxytocin-dependent decline in progesterone levels. PGE2 works as part of a positive-

feedback loop to induce oocyte maturation required for fertilization during and after

ovulation.

9) Bone remodeling-

PGs are strong modulators of bone metabolism. PGE2 stimulates bone

formation and reabsorption through osteoblastic and osteoclastic activities affecting

bone strength and composition.

Therapeutic Aspects of Prostaglandins

Induction of labor and Therapeutic Abortion: There has been intense interest in

the effects of the PGs on the female reproductive system. When given early in

pregnancy, their action as abortifacients may be variable and often incomplete and

accompanied by adverse effects. PGs appear, however, to be of value in missed

abortion and molar gestation, and they have been used widely for the induction of

midtrimester abortion. Systemic or intravaginal administration of the PGE1 analog

misoprostol in combination with mifepristone or methotrexate is highly effective in

the termination of early pregnancy. PGE2 or PGF2a are used to facilitate labor by

promoting ripening and dilation of the cervix.

Researchers show that there is some evidence that different parts of the uterus

respond differently to prostaglandins. The upper part at times shows spasm while the

lower part is inactive or relaxes. These and other variable responses suggest that there

is no easy explanation of the physiological and pathological actions of the

prostaglandins. Prostaglandins do reach the blood stream after sexual intercourse and


54

are probably absorbed directly from the vagina. They are probably destroyed during

circulation of the blood. It is not known whether they reach the amniotic fluid after

intercourse. 212

Gastric Cytoprotection

Prostaglandins are inhibited by NSAID s which results in reduced protection

to gastric mucosa from auto digestion from gastric juices increasing susceptibility to

peptic ulcers. The capacity of several PG analogs to suppress gastric ulceration is a

property of therapeutic importance.

Impotence

PGE1 (alprostadil) may be used in the treatment of impotence. Intracavernous

injection of PGE1 causes complete or partial erection in impotent patients who do not

have disorders of the vascular system or cavernous body damage. The erection lasts

for 1–3 hours and is sufficient for sexual intercourse. PGE1 is more effective than

papaverine. The agent is available as a sterile powder that is reconstituted with water

for injections (CAVERJECT), although it has been superseded largely by the use of

PDE5 inhibitors, such as sildenafil, tadalafil, and vardenafil.

Maintenance of Patent Ductus Arteriosus

One of the important historical milestones in development of pediatric

cardiology (in late 1970s) is the introduction of prostaglandinsE1 for the treatment of

ductus-dependent pulmonary or systemic circulation. It provided a means of securing

adequate oxygenation or systemic perfusion in a number of neonates. As a result,

pediatric cardiologists and pediatric cardiovascular surgeons are not obliged to

perform emergency diagnostic cardiac catheterizations or palliative or reparative

operations in very ill, severely hypoxemic, and acidotic infants

The ductus arteriosus in neonates is highly sensitive to vasodilation by PGE1.

Maintenance of a patent ductus may be important hemodynamically in some neonates

with congenital heart disease. PGE1 (alprostadil, PROSTIN VR PEDIATRIC) is

highly effective for palliative, but not definitive, therapy to maintain temporary

patency until surgery can be performed.


55

In patients with congenital heart disease whose survival is duct dependent, the

availability is compulsory and the application of prostaglandins as a palliative

medicament. The prostaglandins have made a revolution in saving children's lives in

neonatal cardiology. Few diseases where prostaglandins are used are listed bellow.

a) Maintenance of a patient in cardiac shock

b) In critical coarctation of the aorta

c) In obstructed total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage

d) Treatment hypoplastic left heart syndrome with a ventricular septal defect.

e) Pediatric heart transplantation

f) Tricuspid atresia, stenosis, and regurgitation

g) Pulmonary stenosis

h) Pulmonary atresia and ventricular Septal Defect

i) Aortic arch anomalies

j) Congenitally corrected transposition of the Great Arteries

k) Aortic Stenosis

l) Tetralogy of Fallot.

m) Pulmonary Hypertension

n) Claudication and peripheral vascular disease

Puerperium

After delivery of the fetus or after therapeutic abortion, a firm, contracted

uterus greatly reduces the incidence and extent of hemorrhage. The prostaglandin

analog misoprostol may be used in normotensive patients for this purpose.

Use as an Autonomic Agent in the Glaucoma

PGF2a analogs appear to lower IOP by facilitating aqueous outflow through

the accessory uveoscleral outflow pathway. The mechanism by which this occurs is

unclear.

Gastroduodenal Mucosal Defense

Epithelial cell regeneration is regulated by prostaglandins and growth factors

such as EGF and TGF. In tandem with epithelial cell renewal, formation of new

vessels (angiogenesis) within the injured microvascular bed occurs. Both TGF and


56

vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are important in regulating angiogenesis in

the gastric mucosa. Prostaglandins play a central role in gastric epithelial

defense/repair. The gastric mucosa contains abundant levels of prostaglandins that

regulate the release of mucosal bicarbonate and mucus, inhibit parietal cell secretion,

and are important in maintaining mucosal blood flow and epithelial cell restitution.


57

IMMUNITY

Resistance of the body against the pathogenic agents is known as immunity.

The term immunity refers to a state of insusceptibility to disease, more specifically to

infectious disease. The molecules, cells and tissues that participate in inducing

immunity collectively constitute the immune system and its reaction to the entry of

any "foreign substance" (infectious or otherwise, harmful or harmless) is called

immune response.

Figure No.1. Showing schematic representation of different layers of

Immunity in human body.214

The human immune system has evolved over millions of years from both

invertebrate and vertebrate organisms to develop sophisticated defense mechanisms to

protect the host from microbes and their virulence factors. The normal immune

system has three key properties: a highly diverse repertoire of antigen receptors that

enables recognition of a nearly infinite range of pathogens; immune memory, to

mount rapid recall immune responses; and immunologic tolerance, to avoid immune


58

damage to normal self- tissues. From invertebrates, humans have inherited the innate

immune system, an ancient defense system that uses germ line–encoded proteins to

recognize pathogens. Cells of the innate immune system, such as macrophages,

dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes, recognize pathogen-associated

molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are highly conserved among many microbes and use

a diverse set of pattern recognition receptor molecules (PRRs). Important components

of the recognition of microbes by the innate immune system include (1) recognition

by germ line–encoded host molecules, (2) recognition of key microbe virulence

factors but not recognition of self-molecules, and (3) non recognition of benign

foreign molecules or microbes. Upon contact with pathogens, macrophages and NK

cells may kill pathogens directly or, in concert with dendritic cells, may activate a

series of events that both slow the infection and recruit the more recently evolved arm

of the human immune system, the adaptive immune system.215

Adaptive immunity is found only in vertebrates and is based on the generation

of antigen receptors on T and B lymphocytes by gene rearrangements, such that

individual T or B cells express unique antigen receptors on their surface capable of

specifically recognizing diverse antigens of the myriad infectious agents in the

environment. Coupled with finely tuned specific recognition mechanisms that

maintain tolerance (non reactivity) to self-antigens, T and B lymphocytes bring both

specificity and immune memory to vertebrate host defenses. Here the cellular

components, key molecules and mechanisms that make up the innate and adaptive

immune systems will be reviewed. How adaptive immunity is recruited to the defense

of the host by innate immune responses will be also discussed.

There are two fundamentally different types of responses to invading

microbes. These are innate immunity and acquired immunity.


59

Figure No.2. Schematic presentation of Immune mechanism.216

The Innate Immune System

In general, the innate immune system consists of three major components

1. Phagocytic cells, which eliminate microorganisms by ingesting and degrading

them;

2. Soluble plasma proteins and glycoproteins that bind microorganisms and

target them for phagocytosis (i.e., opsonization) or for attack by the

complement system, leading to microbial death by cytolysis; and

3. Natural killer (NK) cells, a subset of primitive T cells pivotal for cell-mediated

destruction of tumor cells and virally infected cell.

4. Complement system component s.


60

Table No.12. Showing major components of the innate immune system.217

Name of the Group Name of the Components Pattern recognition receptors (PRR)

C type lectins, leucine-rich proteins, scavenger receptors, pentraxins, lipid transferases, integrins

Antimicrobial peptides Alpha and beta deensins , cathelin, protegrin, granulsyin, histatin, secretory leukoprotease inhibitor, and probiotics

Cells Macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells(NK), NK-T cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells, basophils, and epithelial cells

Complement components Classic and alternative complement pathway, and proteins that bind complement components

Cytokines Autocrine, paracrine, endocrine cytokines that mediate host defense and inflammation, as well as recruit, direct, and regulate adaptive immune responses

Macrophages

Monocytes enter the blood from the bone marrow and circulate for about 72

hours. They then enter the tissues and become tissue macrophages. Their life span in

the tissues is unknown, but bone marrow transplantation data in humans suggest that

they persist for about 3 months. It appears that they do not reenter the circulation.

Some of them end up as the multinucleated giant cells seen in chronic inflammatory

diseases such as tuberculosis. The tissue macrophages include the Kupffer cells of the

liver, pulmonary alveolar macrophages, and microglia in the brain, all of which come

from the circulation. Macrophages become activated by lymphokines from T

lymphocytes. Activated macrophages migrate in response to chemotactic stimuli and

engulf and kill bacteria by processes generally similar to those occurring in

neutrophils. They play a key role in immunity .They also secrete up to 100 different

substances, including factors that affect lymphocytes and other cells, prostaglandins

of the E series, and clot-promoting factors .

Dendritic Cells

Human dendritic cells (DCs) are heterogenous and contain two subsets,

myeloid DCs and plasmacytoid DCs. The maturation of DCs is regulated through

cell-to-cell contact and soluble factors, and DCs attract immune effectors through

secretion of chemokines. When dendritic cells come in contact with bacterial

products, viral proteins, or host proteins released as danger signals from distressed


61

host cells ,infectious agent molecules bind to various TLRs and activate dendritic

cells to release cytokines and chemokines that drive cells of the innate immune

system to become activated to respond to the invading organism, and recruit T and B

cells of the adaptive immune system to respond thus, dendritic cells are important

bridges between early (innate) and later (adaptive) immunity.

Large Granular Lymphocytes/ Natural killer cells

Large granular lymphocytes (LGLs) or NK cells account for approximately 5–

10% of peripheral blood lymphocytes. NKs cells are non adherent, non phagocytic

cells with large azurophilic cytoplasmic granules. NKs cells express surface receptors

for the Fc portion of IgG (CD16) and for NCAM-I (CD56), and many NK cells

express some T lineage markers, particularly CD8, and proliferate in response to IL-2.

NK cells arise in both bone marrow and thymic micro environments.

Functionally, NK cells share features with both monocytes-macrophages and

neutrophils in that they mediate both antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity

(ADCC) and NK cell activity. .

Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils)

Granulocytes are derived from stem cells in bone marrow. Each type of

granulocyte (neutrophil, eosinophil, or basophil) is derived from a different subclass

of progenitor cell, which is stimulated to proliferate by colony-stimulating factors.

During terminal maturation of granulocytes, class-specific nuclear morphology and

cytoplasmic granules appear that allow for histological identification of granulocyte

type.

Neutrophils

Neutrophills express Fc receptors for IgG (CD16) and receptors for activated

complement components (C3b or CD35). Upon interaction of neutrophils with

opsonized bacteria or immune complexes, azurophilic granules (containing

myeloperoxidase, lysozyme, elastase, and other enzymes) and specific granules

(containing lactoferrin, lysozyme, collagenase, and other enzymes) are released, and

microbicidal superoxide radicals (O2–) are generated at the neutrophil surface. The


62

generation of superoxide leads to inflammation by direct injury to tissue and by

alteration of macromolecules such as collagen and DNA.

Eosinophils

Eosinophils express Fc receptors for IgG (CD32) and are potent cytotoxic

effector cells for various parasitic organisms. In Nippostrongylus brasiliensis

helminth infection, eosinophils are key cytotoxic effector cells in removal of these

parasites. Key to regulation of eosinophil cytotoxicity to N. brasiliensis worms are

antigen-specific T helper cells that produce IL-4, thus providing an example of

regulation of innate immune responses by adaptive immunity antigen-specific T cells.

Basophils

Basophils and tissue mast cells are potent reservoirs of cytokines such as IL-4

and can respond to bacteria and viruses with anti pathogen cytokine production

through multiple TLRs expressed on their surface. Mast cells and basophils can also

mediate immunity through the binding of anti pathogen antibodies. This is a

particularly important host defense mechanism against parasitic diseases. Basophils

express high-affinity surface receptors for IgE (FcRI) and, upon cross- linking of

basophil-bound IgE by antigen, can release histamine, eosinophil chemotactic factor

of anaphylaxis, and neutral protease; all mediators of allergic immediate

(anaphylaxis) hypersensitivity responses.

Mast cells

Mast cells are heavily granulated wandering cells that are found in areas rich

in connective tissue, and they are abundant beneath epithelial surfaces. Their granules

contain heparin, histamine, and many proteases. The heparin appears to play a role in

granule formation. They have IgE receptors on their cell membranes, and, like

basophils, they degranulate when IgE-coated antigens bind to their surface. They are

involved in inflammatory responses initiated by immunoglobulins IgE and IgG. The

inflammation combats invading parasites. In addition to this involvement in acquired

immunity, they release TNF-a in response to bacterial products by an antibody-

independent mechanism, thus participating in the nonspecific natural immunity that


63

combats infections. Marked mast cells degranulation produces clinical manifestations

of allergy up to and including anaphylaxis

The Complement System

The complement system, an important soluble component of the innate

immune system, is a series of plasma enzymes, regulatory proteins, and proteins that

are activated in a cascading fashion, resulting in cell lysis. There are three pathways

of the complement system:

1. Classic activation pathway activated by antigen/antibody immune complexes,

2. MBL (a serum collectin) activation pathway activated by microbes with

terminal mannose groups,

3. Alternative activation pathway activated by microbes or tumor cells.

The series of enzymes of the complement system are serine proteases.

Activation of the classic complement pathway via immune complex binding to C1q

links the innate and adaptive immune systems via specific antibody in the immune

complex. The alternative complement activation pathway is antibody- independent and

is activated by binding of C3 directly to pathogens and "altered self" such as tumor

cells. In the renal glomerular inflammatory disease IgA nephropathy, IgA activates

the alternative complement pathway and causes glomerular damage and decreased

renal function. Activation of the classic complement pathway via C1, C4, and C2 and

activation of the alternative pathway via factor D, C3, and factor B both lead to

cleavage and activation of C3. C3 activation fragments, when bound to target surfaces

such as bacteria and other foreign antigens, are critical for opsonization (coating by

antibody and complement) in preparation for phagocytosis. The MBL pathway

substitutes MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) 1 and 2 for C1q, C1r, and C1s

to activate C4. The MBL activation pathway is activated by mannose on the surface

of bacteria and viruses.

The three pathways of complement activation converge on the final common

terminal pathway. C3 cleavage by each pathway results in activation of C5, C6, C7,

C8, and C9, resulting in the membrane attack complex that physically inserts into the

membranes of target cells or bacteria and lyses them.


64

Figure No.3. Showing Schematic representation of complement system 218

Thus, complement activation is a critical component of innate immunity for

responding to microbial infection. In general the cleavage products of complement

components facilitate microbe or damaged cell clearance (C1q, C4, C3), promote

activation and enhancement of inflammation (anaphylatoxins, C3a, C5a), and promote

microbe or opsonized cell lysis (membrane attack complex).

Properdin or factor P

Properdin is a globulin protein found in the blood serum of higher animals. In

the complement system, an innate-immunity series of proenzymes dissolved in the

circulation, it is also called "Factor P". It participates in some specific immune

responses. It plays a part in tissue inflammation as well as the engulfing of pathogens

by phagocytes. In addition it is known to help to neutralize some viruses. As a

component of the alternative pathway for complement activation (otherwise known as

the "properdin pathway"), it complexes with another protein, C3b, to stabilize the

alternative C3 convertase (C3bBb) that then cleaves more C3. The alternative

pathway is not dependent on antibodies. This branch of the complement system is


65

activated by IgA immune complexes and bacterial endotoxins, polysaccharides, and

cell walls, and results in producing anaphylatoxins, opsonins, chemotactic factors, and

the membrane attack complex, all of which help fight pathogens. Recent studies show

it’s important role in apotosis , cancer pathology, renal graft rejection etc but these

concepts are still in experimental stage . Properdin participates in two distinct

complement activation pathways: one that occurs by the standard model and one that

proceeds by the properdin-directed model.219

Cytokines

Cytokines are hormone- like molecules that act, generally in a paracrine

fashion, to regulate immune responses. They are secreted not only by lymphocytes

and macrophages but by endothelial cells, neurons, glial cells, and other types of cells.

Most of the Cytokines are initially named for their actions, eg, B cell-differentiating

factor, B cell-stimulating factor 2. Once the amino acid sequence of a factor in

humans is known, its name is changed to interleukin. Thus, for example, the name of

B cell-differentiating factor was changed to interleukin-4. Some of them have

systemic as well as local paracrine effects. For example, IL-1, IL-6, and tumor

necrosis factor a cause fever, and IL-1 increases slow-wave sleep and reduces

appetite.

Another super family of cytokines is the chemokine family. Chemokines are

substances that attract neutrophils and other white blood cells to areas of

inflammation or immune response. Over 40 have now been identified, and it is clear

that they also play a role in the regulation of cell growth and angiogenesis. The

chemokine receptors are serpentine receptors that act via heterotrimeric G proteins to

cause, among other things, extension of pseudopodia with migration of the cell toward

the source of the chemokine.


66

Table No. 13. Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their description 220

Cytokine Cellular Sources Major Activities Clinical Relevance Interleukin-1 Macrophages Activation of T cells

and macrophages; promotion of inflammation

Implicated in the pathogenesis of septic shock, rheumatoid arthritis, and atherosclerosis

Interleukin-2 Type 1 (TH1) helper T cells

Activation of lymphocyes, natural killer cells, and macrophages

Used to induce lymphokine-activated killer cells; used in the treatment of metastatic renal-cell carcinoma, melanoma, and various other tumors

Interleukin-4 Type 2 (TH2) helper T cells, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils

Activation of lymphocytes, monocytes, and IgE class switching

As a result of its ability to stimulate IgE production, plays a part in mast-cell sensitization and thus in allergy and in defense against nematode infections

Interleukin-5 Type 2 (TH2) helper T cells, mast cells, and eosinophils

Differentiation of eosinophils

Monoclonal antibody against interleukin-5 used to inhibit the antigen- induced late-phase eosinophilia in animal models of allergy

Interleukin-6 Type 2 (TH2) helper T cells and macrophages

Activation of lymphocytes; differentiation of B cells; stimulation of the production of acute-phase proteins

Overproduced in Castleman's disease; acts as an autocrine growth factor in myeloma and in mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis

Interleukin-8 T cells and macrophages

Chemotaxis of neutrophils, basophils, and T cells

Levels are increased in diseases accompanied by neutrophilia, making it a potentially useful marker of disease activity

Interleukin-11 Bone marrow stromal cells

Stimulation of the production of acute-phase proteins

Used to reduce chemotherapy- induced thrombocytopenia in patients with cancer


67

Cytokine Cellular Sources Major Activities Clinical Relevance Interleukin-12 Macrophages and B

cells Stimulation of the production of interferon ? by type 1 (TH1) helper T cells and by natural killer cells; induction of type 1 (TH1) helper T cells

May be useful as an adjuvant for vaccines

Tumor necrosis factor a

Macrophages, natural killer cells, T cells, B cells, and mast cells

Promotion of inflammation

Treatment with antibodies against tumor necrosis factor a beneficial in rheumatoid arthritis

Lymphotoxin (tumor necrosis factor ß

Type 1 (TH1) helper T cells and B cells

Promotion of inflammation

Implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus

Transforming growth factor ß

T cells, macrophages, B cells, and mast cells

Immunosuppression May be useful therapeutic agent in multiple sclerosis and myasthenia gravis

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

T cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, and B cells

Promotion of the growth of granulocytes and monocytes

Used to reduce neutropenia after chemotherapy for tumors and in ganciclovir-treated patients with AIDS; used to stimulate cell production after bone marrow transplantation

Interferon-a Virally infected cells

Induction of resistance of cells to viral infection

Used to treat AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, melanoma, chronic hepatitis B infection, and chronic hepatitis C infection

Interferon-ß Virally infected cells

Induction of resistance of cells to viral infection

Used to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses in multiple sclerosis

Interferon-? Type 1 (TH1) helper T cells and natural killer cells

Activation of macrophages; inhibition of type 2 (TH2) helper T cells

Used to enhance the killing of phagocytosed bacteria in chronic granulomatous disease


68

Overview of Adaptive Immunity

In contrast to innate immunity, adaptive immunity is flexible, specific, and has

immunological memory, that is, it can respond more rapidly and vigorously on a

second exposure to an antigen. Immunologic memory provides a more powerful

response to a repeated exposure to the same foreign substance or antigen. Adaptive

immunity is more complex because it provides the ability to respond very specifically.

The primary blood cell elements of the adaptive immune system are T lymphocytes

and B lymphocytes.

For many years, innate and adaptive immune responses were studied as

separate systems because of their different mechanisms of action. However, it is now

understood that synergy between the two systems is required to provide adequate

immune reactivity against invading pathogens. Innate immune responses, through

their barrier and relatively broad types of actions, represent the first line of defense

against pathogens. The adaptive response becomes evident a few days later because it

requires time for sufficient antigen-specific receptors to be generated through clonal

expansion/proliferation. There are multiple interactions occurring between the two

systems, which results in the co amplification of each respective response and leads to

the ultimate destruction and elimination of the invading pathogen. Adaptive response

can be further classified as cell mediated and humoral. These two components work in

tandem to achieve complete protection against stimuli.221

T lymphocytes

T cells arise from the stem cells in the bone marrow and then migrate to the

thymus (hence the designation "T" cells) for their maturation and differentiation. T

cells perform several key functions, including

• Providing helper signal to B cells for antibody production,

• Regulating the quality and quantity of the immune response,

• Generating effector cells that can either kill infected/neoplastic cells directly

or through increasing the phagocytic function of cells including macrophages.

Most of these functions are carried out by the cells themselves or through

secreted molecules, namely, lymphokines. For performing these diverse functions T

cells have several subsets. These subsets inc lude,


69

• T helper (TH) cells,

• Cytotoxic or cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs), and

• Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) T cells (TDTH).

The TH subset, besides carrying CD3, also carries the CD4 molecule

(CD3+CD4+ cells). Most of the TDTH cells are also CD4+ (CD3+CD4+ cells). The

CTLs carry CD8 molecule (CD3+CD8+ cells).When stimulated under different

experimental conditions, CD4+ TH cells produce different sets of cytokines.

When naive CD4+ TH cells (cells that have never been in contact with

antigen) are stimulated, they mainly produce a T-cell growth factor called interleukin-

2 (IL-2). On further antigenic stimulation they differentiate into so-called THO cells

that produce a large variety of cytokines. If the stimulation is continued, they further

differentiate into either of two functional subsets called TH1 and TH2 cells. Thus,

TH1 cells mainly secrete IL-2 and interferon-g (IFN-g). They are the main effector

cells in cell-mediated immune response against intracellular infective agents. They

also help B cells in producing IgM and IgG antibodies that are effective in activating

the complement cascade facilitating engulfment by phagocytic cells.

On the other hand, TH2 cells produce interleukin-4 (IL-4) which is known to

induce IgE production; IL-5 which is an eosinophil-activating factor; and IL-10 and

IL-13 which together with IL-4 modulate cell-mediated immune response (suppressor

action). This subset, therefore, is involved in immunity against helminthic infections

and allergic reactions. T cells also show a number of accessory molecules on their

surface. Most of them are members of the Ig or integrin superfamily. These molecules

play important roles in the physiological functions of T cells like i) binding of T cell

to ligands on other cells, thus increasing the strength of their adhesion; ii) facilitate

interaction of T cells with other cells, like antigen-presenting cell, or vascular

endothelial cells, proteins, proteoglycans, etc.222

B lymphocytes

The second major class of lymphocytes is called B cells because in birds they

were first shown to mature and differentiate in a gut-related organ called bursa of


70

Fabricius. In mammals, there is no anatomical equivalent of the bursa. Rather, the

early stages of maturation and differentiation of this cla ss of lymphocytes occurs in

the bone marrow itself. Lymphocytes possessing cytoplasmic or cell-surface

immunoglobulin molecules (sIg) are called B cells. Other surface molecules on the B

cells include MHC class II molecules, CD19 to CD22 molecules, Fc receptors,

complement receptors, and receptors for lymphokines involved in growth of B cells.

B cells are the precursors of the antibody-producing plasma cells.223

B cell triggering requires two signals. The first signal is the binding of the

specific antigen with the immunoglobulin molecule on the B cells surface that acts as

the specific antigen receptor for B cells (sIg). In addition, however, B cells require a

second ‘helper’ signal from the specific T cell. Antigens that cannot trigger B cells

without T helper signal are called T-dependent antigens. However, certain antigens

have the capacity to trigger B cells without T cell help (T- independent antigens). Most

T-dependent antigens are proteins; T- independent antigens are mostly polymeric

carbohydrates with a repeating unit structure. Also, some of other T-independent

antigens have the capacity to non-specifically stimulate B cells, the so-called non-

specific B cell mitogens. B cells differentiate and mature into plasma cells under the T

‘helper’ influence. Plasma cell, unlike B cell, is an end-stage cell with a short life-

span that is devoted entirely to antibody synthesis. It loses its sIg and all the other B-

cell surface structures and develops abundant cytoplasm with rough endoplasmic

reticulum necessary for the synthesis of large amounts of antibody molecules that are

secreted into the circulation.

Humoral secretions of Adaptive Immune system

Immunoglobulins

The human immunoglobulins are a family of proteins that confer humoral

immunity and perform vital roles in promoting cellular immunity. Five distinct classes

or isotypes of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE) have been identified in

human serum on the basis of their structural, biological, and antigenic differences.

IgG and IgA have been further subdivided into subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and

IgG4 also subclasses IgA1 and IgA2 on the basis of unique antigenic determinants.

Multiple allotypic determinants in the constant region domains of human IgG and IgA


71

molecules as well as kappa (?) light chains indicate inherited genetic markers. Finally,

there are several immunoglobulin-associated polypeptides such as secretory

component (SC) and J chain that have no structural homology with the

immunoglobulins, but serve important functions in immunoglobulin polymerization

and transport across membranes into a variety of secretions (e.g., saliva, sweat, nasal

secretions, breast milk, and colostrum). This diversity of the immunoglobulin

components of the humoral immune system provides a complex network of protective

and surveillance functions.224

General Structural Properties of Immunoglobulins

Immunoglobulins are functionally defined as glycoproteins that possess the

ability to bind to substances (antigens) those have elicited their formation. As a group,

the immunoglobulins are composed of 82–96% polypeptides and 4–18%

carbohydrate, and they account for approximately 20% of all proteins in plasma. The

basic component of each is a symmetric unit containing four polypeptide chains. The

two long chains are called heavy chains, whereas the two short chains are called light

chains. There are two types of light chains, ? and ?, and eight types of heavy chains.

The chains are joined by disulfide bridges that permit mobility, and there are

intrachain disulfide bridges as well. In addition, the heavy chains are flexible in a

region called the hinge. Each heavy chain has a variable (V) segment in which the

amino acid sequence is highly variable, a diversity (D) segment in which the amino

acid segment is also highly variable, a joining (J) segment in which it is moderately

variable, and a constant (C) segment in which the sequence is constant. Each light

chain has a V, a J, and a C segment. The V segments form part of the antigen-binding

sites (Fab portion of the molecule. The Fc portion of the molecule is the effector

portion, which mediates the reactions initiated by antibodies.

Two of the classes of immunoglobulins contain additional polypeptide

components. In IgMs, five of the basic immunoglobulins units join around a

polypeptide called the J chain to form a pentamer. In IgAs, the secretory

immunoglobulins, the immunoglobulins units form dimers and trimers around a J

chain and a polypeptide that comes from epithelial cells, the secretory component

(SC).


72

Figure No. 4. Showing components of immunoglobulin 225

Immunoglobulin G

In healthy adults, the four polypeptide chain IgG monomer (150,000 MW)

constitutes approximately 75% of the total serum immunoglobulins. It is the main

immunoglobulin molecule in the body, accounting for approximately 70% of the total

serum immunoglobulins in normal serum. It is freely distributed and exchanges

between the intravascular and extravascular spaces, percolates freely the tissue spaces

and returns to the circulation through the thoracic duct. It is the only immunoglobulin

molecule capable of crossing the placenta. This provides protection for the fetus and

newborn. However, it usually does not enter living cells and does not cross the blood-

brain barrier except in inflammation in the subarachnoid space where local synthesis

of IgG has been demonstrated. IgG plays a central role in immunity against pyogenic

and other bacterial infections. It is the main neutralizing antibody and also plays a

central role in the opsonic process of enhanced phagocytosis. The IgG class of

antibodies can be involved in causing immunologically mediated diseases through

type II or type III hypersensitivity mechanisms.

Human IgG has been subdivided into four subclasses on the basis of unique

antigenic determinants. Relative subclass percentages of the total IgG in serum are

IgG1, 60–70%; IgG2, 14–20%; IgG3, 4–8%; and IgG4, 2–6%.IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4

possess an MW of approximately 150,000, whereas IgG3 is heavier. IgG3’s highly

rigid hinge region promotes accessibility of proteolytic enzymes to sensitive Fc


73

cleavage sites, which results in an increased fractional catabolic rate and a shorter

biological half life (7–8 days) than has been observed for IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4 (21–

24 days). In terms of complement activation, IgG1 and IgG3 are the most effective,

whereas IgG4 due to its compact structure does not readily activate the classical

pathway of complement. IgG4 is responsible for immune inflammation. Moreover,

IgG4 antibodies have the ability to interfere with immune inflammation caused by the

interaction of complement-fixing IgG subclasses with antigen. Researchers in the

field of allergy have speculated that IgG4 antibodies also scavenge antigen that

prevents mast cell-bound IgE antibody from being cross- linked by antigen, and thus

blocking IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reactions in atopic individuals who have

undergone immunotherapy. Other important structural and biological differences

among the human IgG subclasses relate to their Fc receptor binding, and the different

binding sites on the constant region domains for rheumatoid factors, complement

components, and bacterial proteins (protein A and protein G).226

Immunoglobulin M

IgM is a pentameric immunoglobulin of approximately 900,000 MW that is

composed of a J chain and five IgM monomers. Pentameric IgM constitutes

approximately 10% of serum immunoglobulins in healthy individuals. Along with

IgD, monomeric IgM is also a major immunoglobulin that is expressed on the surface

of B cells where it serves as an antigen receptor. IgM antibodies are clinically

important because they predominate as an antigen receptor in early immune responses

to most antigens. It is predominantly found in the intravascular compartment. It has

10 identical antigen-combining sites that account for some of its special properties.

Firstly, it is several- fold more efficient in activating complement cascade than IgG

antibodies. This property makes IgM especially effective in carrying out lysis of

foreign cells. Secondly, due to its size, it is highly efficient in linking particulate

matters together (e.g. agglutination that facilitates phagocytosis). IgM antibodies are

highly efficient in activating the classical complement pathway.227

Immunoglobulin A

It is the predominant immunoglobulin in colostrum, saliva, tears, bronchial

secretions, nasal mucosa, prostatic fluid, vaginal secretions, and mucous secretions of


74

the small intestine. It constitutes approximately 20%of the total serum

immunoglobulins. In terms of complement activation, IgA poorly activates the

classical pathway. This process has been hypothesized as a host mechanism for

attenuating inflammatory responses induced by IgG antibodies at the mucosal surface.

In contrast, IgA reportedly activates the alternative pathway of complement to provide

some direct protective functions. IgA, once bound to a bacterial or parasitic surface

antigen, may bind CD89 (IgA receptor) on inflammatory cells (monocytes,

macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils), leading to their destruction by means of

antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Moreover, its binding to viral

or microbial surface antigens may restrict the mobility of microorganisms and prevent

their binding to mucosal epithelium. Finally, secretory IgA can play an important first

line of defense in antigen clearance by binding to antigens that leak across an

epithelium and transporting them back across to prevent their entry.228

It is found in three molecular forms. In the blood it is present in monomeric 7S

form. Immunologically, its main role is in providing immunity at the mucosal surface

in the form of dimeric 10S secretory antibody. This form of IgA is synthesized and

secreted by plasma cells in the laminae propriae underlying most mucosal surfaces in

the body (gut, respiratory tract, genito-urinary tract) and transported across the

epithelial surfaces into the various body fluids, e.g. saliva, tears, colostrum, intestinal

juice, bile, respiratory secretions and genital secretions. The third form of IgA is 11S

secretory IgA that has incorporated a peptide called secretory piece, during its passage

through the epithelial cells. The secretory piece makes the molecule relatively

resistant to proteolytic digestion by enzymes in the gut. Secretory IgA is central to

immunity against enteric pathogens including enteric bacteria and viruses.

To summarize, IgA’s unique structure resists proteolysis and it functions to

block uptake of antigen, bacterial or viral attachment, limit inflammation induced by

classical pathway complement activation, and promote microbial destruction through

ADCC by binding to leukocyte receptors.


75

Immunoglobulin D (IgD)

IgD is a four-chain monomer of approximately 180,000 MW with a long hinge

region that increases its susceptibility for proteolytic cleavage. Although IgD is

normally present in serum in trace amounts (0.2% of total serum immunoglobulin), it

predominantly serves as a membrane-bound antigen receptor on the surface of

immature human B lymphocytes. Despite suggestions that IgD may be involved in B-

cell differentiation, its principal function is as yet unknown. Its main function seems

to be in regulating the maturation of B cells.229

Immunoglobulin E

IgE (190,000 MW) is a unique immunoglobulin that circulates in serum as a

four-chain monomer. Although IgE constitutes only 0.004% of the total serum

immunoglobulins, it possesses a clinically significant biological function by binding

through its Fc region to the alpha chain on high-affinity receptors (FceR1) on mast

cells and basophils.On subsequent exposure to relevant protein allergens from trees,

grasses, weeds, pet dander, molds, foods, or insect venoms, IgE antibodies on mast

cells become cross-linked. This process triggers the production and release of

vasoactive mediators (e.g., histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes) that can

induce mild to severe immediate type I hypersensitivity reactions in sensitized atopic

individuals. IgE is believed to play an important role in immunity against helminthic

infections. Total serum IgE is commonly expressed in international units per milliliter

(IU/mL) or converted to mass units using 1 IU = 2.44 ng of protein. Recently,

International System of Units have proposed units in which1 SI = 1 µg/L; however,

these units have not been widely adopted in clinical immunology laboratories that

perform allergy testing.230


76

Table No.14 Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig) 231

Ig Class IgG IgM IgA IgD IgE

Serum concentration (mg/ml)

8-16 0.5-2 1.5-4 Trace – 0.5 Trace

Molecular weight

15,000 900,000 60,000 (dimmers and polymers

185,000 200,000

Physiological role

Main antibody against infection immunity against microbes in tissues and extra vascular Spaces

Main intravascular antibody, important role in immunity in circulation

Mucosal immunity

Role B cell maturation step

Immunity againt helminthic infection

Tissues of the immune system

Lymphoid tissue of the body can be classified as follows:

• Stem-cell containing organs: the bone marrow in adults, the foetal liver

• Primary (central) lymphoid organs: thymus

• Secondary (peripheral) lymphoid organs: lymph nodes; spleen; gut, mucosa-

associated and skin-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT, MALT and SALT);

and other lymphoid collections. Bone marrow

In foetal life the liver is the main source of stem cells. In adult life bone

marrow is the only source of stem cells. White blood cells produced in the bone

marrow, except lymphocytes, are functionally mature and ready to participate in the

defense function. Lymphocytes require a specialized microenvironment and cytokines

for their maturation and differentiation. These requirements are provided by the

thymus, besides providing stem cells, the bone marrow also acts as a primary

lymphoid organ for the maturation and differentiation of B cells in mammals.232


77

Primary (central) lymphoid organs

Thymus

The thymus develops from third part of the fourth pharyngeal pouch. The

relative size and activity of the thymus in relation to body size peaks in the neonatal

period. With the onset of puberty and rise in sex hormone levels the thymus starts to

atrophy. Adrenal steroids also cause its atrophy (as seen during stress). However, the

thymic cortex remains a life- long source of T lymphocytes. The thymic cortex

contains mostly immature, proliferating, short-lived lymphoid cells that leave the

cortex without entering the medulla. On the other hand, the medulla contains mature

elements that are long- lived. The thymus also has a network of epithelial cells. The

epithelial cells elaborate thymic hormones that regulate the process of differentiation

of thymocytes into immunocompetent lymphocytes. While residing in the thymus

lymphocytes also acquire surface membrane markers necessary for the functioning of

mature T cells. During this process they acquire the capacity to differentiate between

self and non-self that is the key to immunological tolerance.233

Secondary (peripheral) lymphoid organs

Lymphocytes that differentiate and mature into immunocompetent T and B

cells migrate out from their primary lymphoid organs into the blood circulation, and

enter the secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes; spleen, gut, mucosa, skin-

associated lymph tissue). In secondary lymphoid organs there is an orderly

arrangement of T and B lymphocytes in separate areas, called thymus-dependent and

thymus- independent areas, respectively.234

Lymph node

The lymph node consists of a cortex and a medulla. The cortex is further

divided into outer cortex and the deeper areas called paracortex. The outer cortex is

mainly populated by B cells. The paracortex only contains loosely packed T cells. The

medullary area consists of strands of connective tissue surrounded by T and B cells

called medullary cords separated by large medullary sinuses containing mostly plasma

cells and ordinary phagocytic macrophages. Foreign antigens detained in lymph nodes

are phagocytosed, processed and presented predominantly to immunocompetent T

cells, leading to a predominantly cell-mediated immune response.


78

Spleen

The lymphoid tissue in the spleen is mostly localized in the white pulp region

a sheath of lymphoid tissue surrounding the splenic arterioles. It has been termed

periarteriolar lymphatic sheath (PALS). The basic arrangement of specialized T and B

areas found in lymph nodes is also retained in the lymphoid tissue in the spleen. Thus,

PALS consists of loosely packed T cells (comparable to the paracortex of lymph

nodes) interspersed with irregularly scattered lymph follicles that mostly consist of B

cells and the antigen-presenting interdigitating cells. The region in the spleen that is

called red pulp, along with the splenic sinuses, is comparable to the medulla of lymph

nodes. These splenic areas are mostly populated with phagocytic macrophages and

plasma cells. However, unlike lymph nodes that functions as filters in the path of

lymphatics, the spleen acts as a filter in the path of blood circulation. It detains

foreign antigens (mostly microbial cells that may have gained access in the

circulation) and generates a predominantly humoral immune response against them.235

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

The mucosal lining of the gut, respiratory and genitourinary tracts provide the

main portals of entry to disease-producing micro-organisms. To protect the body

against such infections nature has provided diffuse or semi-organized mucosa-

associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). This may either be present in the form of a

single discrete follicle in the lamina propria or in the form of organized site-specific

multifollicular aggregates extend ing in the submucosa, e.g., Peyer’s patches, appendix

and tonsils.

Peyer’s patches, found in the lower intestine, contain both T and B cells with a

higher proportion of the latter that are precursors of IgA-synthesizing plasma cells.

The ingested antigens are transported to the lymphoid tissue in the lamina propria,

processed and presented to CD4+ TH cells which provide help to B cells to mature

into IgA-secreting plasma cells. These plasma cells re-enter the circulation and

populate the lamina propria throughout the intestinal mucosa. Similar lymphoid

collections are also seen under the mucosal lining of the tonsils, respiratory and

genito-urinary tracts and under the conjunctival lining of the eyes.236

Thus a modest review of modern concepts with special reference to their

relation with ojas has been carried out.


79

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

As it was literary study following were the materials used

Charaka Samhita and its commentaries

• Ayurveda Deepika

• Jalpakalpataru Teeka

• Charakopaskar teeka

Sushruta Samhita and its commentaries

• Nibandh Sangraha Teeka

• Bhanumati Teeka

• Sushrutartha Sandipani Teeka

Ashtanga Sangraha with Shashilekha Teeka

Ashtanga Hrudaya with its commentaries

• Sarvanga Sundari Teeka

• Ayurveda Rasayana Teeka

• Padartha Chandrika Teeka

Sharangadhara Samhita with its commentaries

• Deepika Teeka

• Gudhartha Deepika

Bhavaprakash Samhita

Madhava Nidana

Kashyapa Samhita

Rasa Vaisheshika Sutras

Bhela Samhita and many other Samhitas, along with their translations in Hindi,

English were studied. Recent period textbooks and other publications were also

studied in the course of study.


80

Many books from modern medicine of following subjects

• Physiology

• Pathology

• Pharmacology

• Medicine

• Cardiology

• Immunology

• Along with other reviews, archive issues of journals were used to review

concepts in modern medicine.

Sources of Materials

The literary sources for the present work are obtained from

• Library, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore

• Library, Mysore Medical College & Research Institute, Mysore.

• Library, J.S.S. Medical College, Mysore.

• Internet.

Methods

• Meticulous review of available Ayurvedic Samhitas and textbooks was done

in order to compile literature related to concept of ojas.

• Re arrangement of various opinions, different schools of thoughts was done in

order to understand them in a better manner.

• Review of modern textbooks, journals and internet articles was done to find

parallel entities.

• Previous works, published opinions of different scholars were studied in this

regard to get a comprehensive idea.

• Discussions with large number of scholars and experts in the field of Ayurveda

were carried out.

• Based on this ground work a list of various concepts from modern medicine

having similarity with concept of ojas was prepared.


81

• Exhaustive discussions were carried out with experts of various specialties in

modern medicine for understanding their views on presence of such concepts

in modern medicine.

• Expert opinions were also taken in consideration and reviews of modern

medicine were cross checked for any mistakes or additions if any from these

experts.

• Many journals including high impact international journals were referred for

getting recent advances in these fields from internet and other sources.

• Interactions with large number of scholars, experts in the field of Ayurveda

and renowned experts in different specialties in modern medicine were

conducted as a part of study.

• Discussion on various different schools of thoughts and an attempt to

understand this concept in a better way was carried out.

• Tantrayuktis, different vadas and nyayas were applied in different occasions in

order to achieve better understanding.


82

DISCUSSION

Discussion on Title:

Title of the study was selected as “Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas”.

From the perspective of Ayurveda Siddhanta ojas is a unique concept in Ayurveda. It

is given importance above doshadhatumalas, which are functional basis of human

body. It is one among those factors on which existence of life depends. Among all

functional entities ojas is unique in its sense that its increase above the normal limit is

also beneficial for human life. Doshadhatumalas when in equilibrium are beneficial

for human life. Increase as well as decrease both qualitatively and quantitatively in

doshadhatumalas is cause for disease. In this context ojas differs from these and

stands high / above of these as its increase above equilibrium is also helpful to body.

Though being quoted as saptadhatusaara it has been quoted as separate entity.

Some schools of thoughts consider ojas as upadhatu, some as dhatumala and some as

ashtama/eighth dhatu. Few references quote rasadhatu, raktadhatu, prakruta kapha,

ushma etc. as ojas. About types of ojas current accepted version mainly depends on

opinion of Acharya Chakrapanidatta and direct references of ojas types are scanty in

Ayurvedic literature. Sthana of ojas is hrudaya as well as complete human body.

Quantification of ojas is also available factors affecting status of ojas are also quoted

and range from different daily regimens to iatrogenic effects of panchakarma

procedures. Treatment procedures, drugs are quoted for augmentation of ojas.

Involvement of ojas in certain diseases is also widely quoted. In spite of this much

vast literature available on ojas, in this era of evidence based medicine comprehensive

description of concept of ojas is yet not achieved.

Bala is usually quoted as Ayurvedic equivalent of immunity, ojas being reason

/ karana for bala is in turn responsible for maintenance of bala. In case of decreased

bala treatment also focuses on augmentation of ojas which in turn increases bala.

Modern concept of immunity has grown from mere infectious diseases to

autoimmune disorders, tumor immunology, and rejection of transplanted organs

taking under its preview. Recent trends in field of immunology are focusing on role


83

of immune system in all most all tissues / systems of human body. At the same time

new multidimensional roles of substances conventionally quoted as members of

immune system are being discovered with help of recent advances in this field.

In this changing scenario it is high time to study concept of ojas in its totality.

For this purpose available Ayurvedic literature on concept of ojas, study of specific

diseases involving ojas in their pathophysiology, study of effect of treatment

procedures used in these diseases on ojas and utility of ojas augmentation in treatment

of these diseases are few aspects which are needed to be studied. This will not only

help to understand concept of ojas but may also improve chances of better treatment

options for managing these diseases. Role of ojas in maintaining healthy status as

well as positive health is also one of the important aspects in prophylaxis of diseases.

Thus comprehensive study of concept of ojas is needed and much more at this

time when immunological disorders are one of biggest problems in front of medical

fraternity.

As a student of Ayurveda, aaptopadesha is one important pramana for us to

study any concept. A complete review of all different school of thoughts/versions of

Ayurvedic scholars on ojas is first and foremost work to be done in this regard. This

review will not only help in understanding different views but also important to

understand different aspects of ojas in turn enriching utility of concept of ojas.

For understanding diseases and the intricate pathology, relation between karya

and karanarupi disease and to prevent diseases also understanding of ojas plays a

vital role. This may prove beneficial to understand possible mode of action of drugs /

formulations used for augmentation of ojas.

An attempt to find out modern co-relation if any; is also necessary to explain

this concept to students, researchers and easy understanding to modern world. Thus

for these necessities a thorough literature survey of Ayurvedic literature regarding

ojas is selected as topic for this study. As it forms foundation /basis of all works on

ojas its title was designed as “Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas”.


84

Discussion on Paryayapadas of Ojas

Bala word is used by Acharya Sushruta for ojas as synonym, at various other

places we find words ojas and bala used in same line / pada of shloka by which it can

be understood that these are two different entities. Few contexts of such usage as an

example are quoted bellow.

a) Ahara is moola for ojas, bala, varna and

b) Avyapanna i.e. proper rutus/seasons are reason for increase in bala and ojas.

Thus above description clears that ojas and bala are separate entities, still a

question remains why ojas is called as bala. One important point to be noted here

ojas is quoted as bala but bala is not called as ojas. Reason for this is Ayurveda

accepts satkaryavada siddhanta of Sankhya philosophy. According to satkaryavada,

karya (product) is not a separate/different entity from karana (cause) but it is a

rupantara / transformation of karana. Thus there is no difference between karana

and karya.237 In another words there is nothing separate entity which can be called

karya. To further emphasize this; karya is quoted as karana. In the case of ojas and

bala, ojas is karana and bala is karya, to show that bala is not different from ojas;

ojas is called as bala. Other terms such as rasa, rakta, prakruta kapha and ushma are

also quoted as ojas but clearly are different entities from ojas. Those uses are limited

to specific contexts and cannot be generalized. Dharee and mahat are two words used

for ojas by Acharya Charaka. These are paryayas used for hrudaya and are used to

indicate function of para ojas which is hrudayashrayee. So thus word ojas does not

have any generalized paryaya padas used in Ayurvedic literature.

Regarding different words related to ojas, only “Sa’ karanta napumsaka lingi

word is used in Ayurveda. Meaning of which as per lexicons and grammar is bala.

But as bala is a technical term having its own meaning in Ayurvedic science, its better

to take sapta dhatu saara as meaning of word ojas which can be translated as essence

of body.

Acharya Sushruta has used word Ojas in meaning of prabhava/aatmashakti

(innate strength) of drugs.238


85

Ojo Swaroopa

Few questions are to discussed before approaching to definition and other

descriptions. These are;

• Is Ojas dravyarupa or shaktirupa?

• It is panchabhautika or not?

• Is it vyakta or avyakta?

• Is is separate from doshadhatumalas or is a part of them?

One more question is ojas a dravya? If the answer is yes then it is vyakta or

avyakta? In Ayurveda certain dravyas are quoted as avyakta example vata. We can

understand / infer vata only by its karmas and its pratyaksha is not possible. In case

of such dravyas any descriptions regarding varna / color, pramana / quantity, and

gandha /smell are not available in Ayurvedic classics.

Regarding vata we don’t find mention of varna, gandha or pramana where as

for other two doshas pitta and kapha; varna, gandha or pramana etc. are explained.

In case of ojas its color sarpi varna; smell as lajagandha and taste as madhu rasa are

explained. Quantity of ojas is also described. Karmas of ojas are also described. Thus

as ojas has gunas and karmas it must be a dravya. Further description of

pratyakshagamya gunas with quantification signifies towards its vyakta nature. Thus

ojas is vyakta dravya.

In description of eighteen kshayas Acharya Charaka has quoted kshayas of

doshas, dhatus and malas and after these kshayas, ojokshaya is quoted separately

which clearly signifies that ojas is separate entity from these doshadhatumalas.

Various description regarding ojas as upadhatu and mala of shukra are also

available but these are limited to certain contexts.

Thus ojas is separate entity from dosha-dhatumalas, upadhatus and bala.

It has close relations with manas and hrudaya. It is also very closely related to

dhatu saaras.


86

Thus ojas is panchadhautika, vyakta dravya which is separate dravya in

shareera different from dosha, dhatumalas and upadhatus and bala etc.

Discussion on Definition

Acharya Charaka while defining ojas covers sthana and varna of ojas giving

more emphasis on its colour. Acharya Sushruta quotes definition of ojas giving more

emphasis on its relation to sapta dhatus. Other definitions of different Acharyas are

various versions revolving around these two central themes. By further extending

purview of Acharya Charaka’s version that ojas is carried by ojovaha dhamanis

through human body by, it is very clear that this description is about ura pradeshastha

hrudaya only. Word hrudaya may have different meanings according to contexts but

in this context of sthana of ojas hrudaya is heart, which is situated in thoracic cavity.

Few supports of this are;

• Vahana of ojas from dasha ojovaha dhamanis all over shareera starting from

hrudaya

• Intimate / close relation between hrudaya and ojas

• Vitiation of ojas by madya and visha in hrudaya.

Thus from above versions it can be inferred that ojas is a dravya soumya in

nature having gurvadi dasha gunas situated in hrudaya and formed from saptadhatu

saara having functions of deha dharana.

Being reason for bala it is quoted as bala also but this is to show similarities

between them. Basic difference between these two entities is ojas is dravya rupa but

bala is karma rupa.

Gunas of Ojas

Twenty gurvadi gunas explained in Ayurvedic classics are called as shareera

gunas. They form basis of application of samanya vishesha siddhanta in shareera.

Among twenty gunas ten gunas such as guru, sheeta, snigdha, mrudu, picchila,

manda, sthira, shlakshna, sandra are anabolic in nature and opposite ten gunas such

as laghu, ushna, ruksha, kathina, khara, sara etc, are catabolic in nature. Acharya

Charaka quotes all ten guru etc anabolic gunas as gunas of ojas. This is symbolic

representation, which is meant to explain anabolic nature of ojas. Other Acharyas


87

also give emphasis on soumya nature of ojas. Madhura rasa, bahala and prasanna

gunas further support this claim.

In another way guru guna can be interpreted as having heavy molecular

weight. Sheeta guna can be understood as veerya of ojas, snigdha guna of ojas can be

interpreted as it is having more fat / lipid content. Mrudu, shlakshna gunas explain

about its soft touch and smooth texture, which also signify towards major lipid

context of ojas. Rasa/taste of ojas is quoted as madhura in one context and in another

context it is quoted as having madhu rasa. Rasa of madhu/honey is madhura rasa and

kashaya anurasa. Thus there is no difference in two opinions. Sthira is quoted as

guna of ojas by Acharya Charaka at the same time Acharya Sushruta quotes sara

guna. All Acharyas accept that ojas is supplied to all body by dhamanis from

hrudaya. Here sthira guna is explained as nature of ojas i.e. structurally or chemical

stability nature and sara for its movement or circulation through human body.

Another way of interpretation can be sara word explains motion/movement of ojas

through human body, during movement ojas helps to achieve stability or sthairya in

all deha dhatus.

Bahala indicate sandra i.e., dense or viscous means having more viscosity.

Bahala is quoted as shukra guna in another context where, Acharya Gangadhara has

commented it as sandra, the same can be implied in this context by angatavekshana

tantrayukti. Acharya Chakrapani comments on vivikta guna as which does not

undergo staleness. This in another way can be interpreted as ojas is produced,

utilized and metabolized continuously. This cycle goes on and there is no storage of

ojas. In other words ojas is biologically active for very small period of time. Soumya

swaroopa/nature of ojas can be interpreted as it is mainly made up of soma i.e. having

predominance of someeya tatvas. Madhura rasa is also quoted as having created

from soumya guna atireka. Pruthvi and jala are predominant mahabhutas in creation

of madhura rasa, so applying this in context of ojas it can be said that ojas is having

predominance of jala and prithvi mahabhutas; which is quoted or explained by its

soumya swaroopa. Acharya Haranachandra comments on guna sthira as one which

keeps human being stable / sthira in sukha and dukha i.e. maintains homeostasis in

human body. This can be interpreted as ojas maintains, sustains highest quality of


88

health and protects the human body from both the types of external stimuli sukha /

good or dukha / bad. In Ayurvedic classics, word sukha is used for arogya and dukha

for roga, so ojas is one which stabilizes sukha i.e., aarogya and sustains pranas of

pranee in dukha or vyadhi. Another support for this is if ojas becomes asthira then

there may be loss of life, as in asthama masa of garbha avastha. Color of ojas is

predominantly white but having yellow and red as shades or accessory colors. White

color here represents its contribution from shukra and reddish yellow represent

contribution from artava.

A chart of gunas of ojas, their brief description is tabula ted bellow.

Information from different classics is compiled and quoted in a tabular form.

Table No.15 Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of Ojogunas

Gunas of Ojas Mahabhuta predominance Karma

Snigdha Prithvi + Jala Kledana

Sheeta Jala Stambhana

Guru Prithvi + Jala Brumhana

Mrudu Jala + Aakasha Shlathana

Picchila Jala Lepana

Manda Prithvi + Jala Shamana

Sthira Prithvi Dharana

Shlakshna Jala Ropana

Sandra Jala Prasadana

Thus in short gunas of ojas can be explained as predominantly lipid containing

substances having high molecular weight with higher density and viscosity. It is the

potential of human body to sustain from external stimuli and is anabolic in nature.

Physical properties such as color are symbolic representation of contribution from

shukra and shonita in utpatti of ojas.

Karmas of Ojas

Sthira and upachita mamsata is one of the important karma of ojas. This can

be interpreted as qualitative supremacy of mamsa, which is reflected from word


89

upachita. Sthira can be interpreted as physiologically stable having capacity to

overcome stress and or other strains. Acharya Chakrapani has rightly quoted that

description of mamsa sthirata and upachitata is a symbolic representation and it

should be applied for all other dhatus also, by pradesha tantrayukti. Thus ojas does

karma of bringing upachitata i.e., prosperity / increase in all dhatus. Ojas makes these

dhatus strong/stable; to overcome from effects of other factors deviating them from

normalcy.

Sarvacheshtasu apratighata is also an important karma of ojas. Word sarva is

interpreted as kaya, vacha and manas meaning vyaparas of all the thereof them. Thus

ojas helps all these three components for carrying their functions / actions. This can

be understood in two ways; one ojas directly participating in all these actions or

secondly it indirectly stimulate / regulate / control / govern these actions. Second

mode seems to be more logical and also supported by karma of shareera dharana.

Swaraprasada and varnaprasada are functions of ojas, Acharya Kashypa has quoted

that swara reflects status of saara of a person 239. In another way it can be said that

saara is responsible for good or pure swara. Ojas being saptadhatu saara brings

about clearness / prasada of swara. Varnaprasada means clearness in varna i.e. color

of body. Vishuddha rakta is one among causes of varna 240. Ojas being saptadhatu

saara also includes rakta saara and hence does karma of varna prasadana. Another

way of interpretation is twacha does prakashana of varna. Twacha is upadhatu of

mamsa. Bringing sthiratva and upachitata in mamsa is karma of ojas; prakruta

avastha of mamsa helps twacha to maintain its normal functions thus plays a role in

varna prasadana. Similarly, ojas also help in proper functioning of upadhatus also.

Ojas helps bahya and abhyantara karanas to perform their functions.

Different versions of interpretation of these are;

a) Bhaya karanas means karmendriyas, abhyantara karanas means

jnyanendriyas.

b) Bhaya karanas means karmendriyas and jnyanendriyas and abhyantara

karanas means manas, buddhi etc.

c) Bhaya karanas means karmendriyas and abhyantara karanas means

jnyanendriyas and manas


90

Among the three; third version seems to be more appropriate as all

karmendriyas and jnyanendriyas cannot function without manas. Manas is

anuvidhayee of ojas. Increase in ojas increases capacity of manas to perform its

normal functions241. Thus ojas is responsible for pratipatti of manas in swakarya.

Jnyanendriyas and karmendriyas are dependent on manas for their kriya and manas is

dependent on ojas thus it can be said that jnyanendriyas and karmendriyas are

dependent on ojas for their functions.

Shareera dharana is also one of the karmas of ojas. In this same sense

Acharya Charaka has used words dharee and mahat for ojas. Dharee means which

does dharana of shareera and prevents it from decaying. Acharya Chakrapani in

context of word dharee in ayu paryaya opines as, one which protects body from

putrefaction is called as dharee242. It can be applied in this context. Acharya

Chakrapani is also of opinion that ojas is called as dharee because it maintains jeeva

dharaka samyoga. Definition of ayu is samyoga of shareera satva, atma and indriyas.

Acharya Hemadri has quoted one more important function of ojas as it helps in decent

of jeeva in garbha. Thus it can be said that ojas has a role in initiating and

maintaining samyoga of atma, manas with deha and indriya in order to initiate and

maintain ayu. For explaining this very important function word dharee is used in

karma of ojas.

Deha preenana is one among functions of ojas. Ojas is supplied all over body

by dhamanis and this does preenana of whole body. Acharya Charaka quotes that ten

ojovaha dhamanis do vidhamana of ojas through their various branches. Thus

preenana of ojas is achieved with the help of its spreading or flowing through

complete body starting from hrudaya then coming to ten ojovaha dhamanis and then

all over body through various branches of these dhamanis. Ashtanga Hrudaya

provides nearly same explanation but the only difference is this moving type of ojas is

quoted as rasatmaka. Rasatmaka word has two meanings one it is originated from

aahararasa and another as it is fluid in nature. Thus ojas which is formed from

aahararasa and having fluid nature is supplied to body. It is spread / distributed all

over body from hrudaya through dasha ojovaha dhamanis and their branches. Vyana


91

vayu helps / performs movement of ojas through human body as that of rasa

vikshepana.

Ojas is one among dasha pranayatanas. Pranayatanas are ashraya for prana.

Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as supreme / superior most jeevitaspada. Aspada

means place, position/ abode. When compared to other abodes such as shira; ojas is

supreme / superior abode of jeeva. This in turn emphasizes that ojas while moving

from hrudaya to sarva shareera for tarpana of shareera also goes to shira pradesha

and do tarpana of it. Shira is ashraya for pranas and indriyas243. Shira tarpana /

preenana is done by ojas and hence ojas is supreme ashraya of prana. Dehasthiti nibandhana is also among important karmas of ojas. Nibandhana

word means act of fastening or binding together. This in other words can be called as

coordinating among various functions. This can be explained as ojas does

coordination and / or fasten various functions essential for deha sthiti. Deha to

maintain its sthiti needs a wide range of functions / karmas. Human body is a very

complex system where millions of millions actions / functions are going on, there

must be coordination among these actions. In fact these actions are interdependent

and collectively maintain deha sthiti. Ojas is sara of sapta dhatus and present all over

body. Thus it coordinates all different actions of different deha dhatus and does

nibandhana of deha sthiti i.e regulation of body mechanisms. In another words ojas

performs functions as a tissue binder. Ashtanga Hrudaya explains one more function

of ojas as nishpandana of vividha deha samshrita bhavas. Acharya Bhavamishra

quotes these bhavas as utsaha, pratibha, dhairya, lavanya and sukumarata. Ojas not

only regulate body mechanisms at somatic level but also at the level of psyche.

Among these bhavas pratibha and dhairya are manasika bhavas, which are created

from ojas. Lavanya, sukumarata are related to complexion of body and those are also

originated from ojas.

Shareera balapushti is one among karmas of ojas specifically quoted by a

Acharya Sharangadhara and Acharya Bhavamishra. Shareera bala can be interpreted

as bala of shareera. Shareerika bala and manasika bala are two different entities.

This is also clear from ojo kshaya lakshanas explained by Acharya Charaka. These

lakshanas include durbala and durmana separately. Acharya Chakrapani comments


92

on word durmana as manobala viheena. Acharya Sushruta’s version of quoting ojas

as bala includes both shareerika and manasika bala. Thus it is not different or new

function but separately mentioned in later period Acharyas. Ojas is not only ashraya

of manas but also controls manas. Word anuvidhayeena means one which is

following or going behind by force.

Types of Ojas

Ashtanga Sangraha is only text among brihat trayee which provides reference

for two types of ojas directly. Acharya Charaka has quoted word para from which

Acharya Chakrapani explains two types of ojas as para and apara. Acharya Charaka

explains shlaishmika ojas and explains its pramana. Two types of ojas quoted by

Ashtanga Sangraha are para and rasatmaka. Word rasatmaka shows two things one

rasa / fluid nature and another utpatti from aahararasa. Another way of interpretation

of rasatmaka is having similarity with rasa dhatu. Rasa dhatu is soumya in nature and

ojas is also soumya in nature. So it can be interpreted as having predominant

properties and karmas soumya in nature.

Acharya Charaka quotes shlaishmika ojas in the context of pramana of ojas

which is commented by Acharya Chakrapani as poshana of apara ojas is done by

shleshma. Another interpretation of this word shlaishmika can be is having similar

gunas and karmas as that of shleshma. This view can be supported from another

context where Acharya Charka quotes prakruta kapha as ojas. Thus shlaishmika ojas

is having predominant gunas and karma similar as that of shleshma. Shleshma is

soumya in nature or in another words soma does / performs its functions by virtue of

kapha in shareera. Thus rasatmaka of Ashtanga Sangraha and Shlaishmika of

Acharya Charaka are meaning one and the same.

Acharya Chakrapani’s opinion of para and apara is accepted and gives

answer to many questions regarding oja kshaya lakshanas and their effects on human

body. Apara ojas as per Acharya Charakapani is nothing but shlaishmika ojas quoted

by Acharya Charaka. Thus para and apara are only two types of ojas. Apara is also

quoted as shlaishmika or rasatmaka.


93

By meticulous observation of gunas and karmas of ojas no separate gunas or

karmas are quoted for two different types of ojas. Both of the types have same gunas

similarly in the context of karmas we don’t find a division between these karmas

among two types of ojas. This suggests that though ojas is having two different types

there is not much difference in gunas of these two types. Regarding karmas of ojas

both these types collectively take part in all these functions. The only evident

difference between these two types is change in pramana and sthana. Thus it seems

more logical that two types of ojas are not two different dravyas having structural

variations but a single dravya having two different sthanas and pramanas with basic

similarity of guna and karmas. Owing to difference of sthanas and pramanas ojas is

quoted as having two types.

Acharya Bhavamishra while quoting classics classifies ojas as of two rupas/

forms aagneya and soumya. If gunas and karmas of ojas are observed, its mahabhuta

predominance is seen, it signifies towards soumya nature. Acharya Bhavamishra’s

opinion is not about types but methods of description. This can be interpreted as agni,

jeevashoneeta, teja are also quoted as ojas. He while summarizing the different

schools of thoughts in his purvavarti/ prior period has observed this and quoted in

above fashion. In consecutive shloka he quotes ten soumya gunas of ojas. Thus

Acharya Bhavamishra’s opinion is regarding various trends of descriptions of ojas in

Ayurveda classics and not about types of ojas. Agni, rakta, ushma and dhatu teja

being called as ojas in different context is already reviewed and will be discussed in

due course. Thus ojas is a soumya dravya having two types, para and apara. Apara

also called as rasatmaka or shlaishmika.

Deha preenana is also one among functions of ojas. Ojas is supplied all over

body by dhamanis and does preenana of whole body. Acharya Charaka quotes that

ten ojovaha dhamanis do vidhamana of ojas through their various branches.

Sthanas of Ojas

Acharya Charaka quotes the sthana of ojas as hrudaya; word used by

Acharya Charka is “tishthati” which means it stands, resides in hrudaya. Sthana of

apara ojas is hrudaya and dasha ojovaha dhamanis.


94

Acharya Chakrapani comments, sthana of apara ojas is dasha ojovaha

dhamanis. Acharya Sushruta has an opinion that whole shareera can maintain its

proper state, if and if only they are vyapta by ojas thus signifying sarva shareera as

sthana of ojas. Other Acharyas also quote that either hrudaya or sarva shareera as

sthana of ojas. Hrudaya in this context is ura pradesha sthita dwyangula visteerna

avayava only. This is evident from discussion in Chakrapani teeka where it is

described how hrudaya is having two anguals vistara is ashraya of shadangas.

Acharya Charaka has quoted hrudaya as sthana in two versions, one is that,

hrudaya helps some other avayavas for their normal functions and hence these

avayavas are called as pratishtita in hrudaya. In another condition hrudaya called as

sthana, which means it is not functional /regulatory site but is structurally or directly

seated in hrudaya. Shadangas are example for first and ojas is example for second

version. Thus ojas is structurally present in hrudaya and hence hrudaya is sthana of

para ojas. This is regarding para ojas.

Apara ojas is being liquid in nature and is distributed all over shareera

through dhamanis; hence sarvashareera is called as sthana of ojas. Thus hrudaya

when quoted as sthana of ojas has two meanings

1. It is sthana of para ojas

2. It helps in movement of apara ojas in all body and hence to show importance

of hrudaya in movement of ojas through shareera hrudaya is called as sthana.

Sarva shareera is sthana of apara ojas as it is supplied all over body by virtue

of dasha dhamanis. For this same reason dasha ojovaha dhamanis are called as

sthana of ojas.

Acharya Bhela quotes twelve sthanas of ojas/tejas, which are pitta and kapha,

rasadi sapta dhatus and three malas, i.e. purisha, mutra and sweda.

This can be interpreted, as doshadhatumalas are physiological basis of

shareera. Vata among these entities is not having vyakta rupa. Ojas helps dehadhatus

to maintain their karya. In swastha avastha these doshadhatumalas are called as

dhatus as they have functions in deha dharana. Thus in swastha avastha ojas helps

these dosha, dhatu and malas to perform their functions.


95

In another way ojas karmas are seen through these doshadhatumalas as these

doshadhatumalas reflect karmas of ojas and hence are called as sthanas. Pakwashaya

and adho shareera are called as vata sthanas because vata karmas are seen more in

these areas. Applying the same these all doshadhatumalas are called as sthanas of

ojas. Exclusion of vata from these can be understood as vata being avyakta cannot be

ashraya for another vyakta draya i.e. ojas. Further extending this thought these

sthanas can also play a role in pareeksha of ojas also.

Utpatti of Ojas

Acharya Charka quotes that ojas is first padartha to be created in shareera. At

the time of utpatti/creation it will have sarpi varna, laja gandha and madhu rasa. This

shloka is not accepted by Acharya Chakrapani. He does not comment on this shloka

but just gives a passing remark that this shloka is not widely accepted as a part of

Charaka Samhita. Talking view of other opinions, Acharya Hemadri very clearly

indicate that the same ojas which is mala of shukra enters in garbha and becomes

reddish yellow by contact with (anuviddhatva) with artava and acquires place in

garbha hrudaya.

Acharya Chakrapani in another context comments that ojas is present in saara

of shukra and shonita before garbha janana. Acharya Gangadhara opines that only

shukra contains ojas. One more point to be noted is Acharya Dalhana quotes another

patha which accepts beeja rupi sara of female body which is quoted as “stree

vishesha vasa” equal to ojas which is “soma rupi sara of male body”. This “stree

vishesha saara” is reason for mardava, sukumarata, alparomata, utsaha, drushti,

sthiti, pakti, kanti, and deepti etc. It also undergoes threevidha kshaya as that of ojas.

Ojas is quoted as upadhatu/mala of shukra. This shows its close relation with

shukra and aartava samyoga. Ojas is formed as kitta and garbha is formed as saara

as quoted by Acharya Hemadri. Thus by reviewing these all opinions, it can be

inferred that ojas which is a part of shukra/semen which is deposited in female genital

tract after sexual intercourse. This ojas is termed as mala after garbhotpatti. If ojas is

not present at time of shukra shonita samyoga then jeeva cannot descend in shukra.


96

Thus ojas which is present in nara shukra helps descend of jeevatma. It is

obstructed by aartava and it becomes first bhava in garbha. In short ojas is carried

from male body along with shukra into female body which becomes a part of garbha.

This is nothing but transformation of ojas which is quoted by Acharya Charaka as

utpatti.

Pramana of Ojas

As previously discussed all different descriptions of types of ojas are just

change in terms used but principally are pointing towards only two types, Para and

Apara.

Pramana of para ojas: There are two references one ashtabindu and another

shadbinbu, shadbinbu pramana is quoted by Acharya Arunadatta. Ashtabindu

pramana is quoted in Ashtanga Sangraha, Acharya Chakrapani, tantrantara vachana

in Chakrapani teeka and Acharya Hemadri. One point to be noted is if avayava nasha

means little part of this para ojas also gets destroyed then death is the result. This

explains that shadbinbu and ashta bindu can’t exist at the same time. One another

possibility is, there may be difference in definitions of bindu by two Acharyas. It is

well known that in ancient India various different mana paddhatis (system of

measurement) were co-existing. One famous example quoted in Ayurvedic textbooks

is Kalinga mana and Magadha mana. According to Kalinga mana one yava is equal

to twelve sarshapa and according to Magadha it is equal to eight sarshapas.244 Thus

reason for difference in pramana of para ojas may be

a) Change in definition of bindu

b) Usage of different mana paddhatis.

One more important thing is Acharya Hemadri quote the same pramana of

ojas in very first moment of garbhavastha. In another context it is said that this para

ojas does not undergo vruddhi or kshaya if at all it does undergo kshaya then death is

result.

Thus pramana of para ojas is constant throughout the life. Here one more

important point to be noted is bindu, the measuring unit of ojas also changes

according to growing age and ratio in increase of ojas and size of bindu is maintained.


97

This is a hypothesis for finding a logical solution on basis of literature available.

Further observational and experimental studies are needed to find the truth.

Pramana of apara ojas: Regarding pramana of apara ojas, swa ardhanjali and swa

prasruta are two references available. Beauty of this quantification lies in word swa,

which means when measured by one’s own hands. Regarding differences between

ardhanjali and prasruta, two prasrutas make one anjali 245. Ardhanjali also means

half of anjali so though these two are different words they mean the same measure.

Acharya Kashyapa quotes six-anjali pramana of ojas, which is equal to that of

prakruta kapha. It may be some another dravya, having similar properties that he

wants to quote as ojas. Another possibility is Acharya Charaka quotes pramana of

kapha as six anjali and uses word ojas for it. This might have reflected in quoting

same pramana of ojas. Acharya Gangadhara quotes pramana of ojas as two palas or

eight karshas. According to mana paribhasha one prasruta is made up of two palas

or eight karsha. Thus in prakruta shareera of young well grown healthy individual

average pramana of ojas is two palas. Though it is very clear that person-to-person

variations are there but still Acharya Gangadhara has done an effort towards

generalization, which is also necessary for easy understanding of Shastra vachana.

His opinion that bindu means karsha and eight bindus mean eight karshas hence

ardhanjali and ashta bindu is one and same; needs more elaboration. In

conventionally accepted paryayas of karsha, bindu was not found as paryaya in

Ayurvedic Samhitas or lexicons.

Thus concluding; para ojas has pramana of ashta bindu as widely accepted

version by more number of Acharyas. Shat bindu pramana of Acharya Arunadatta

may be because of difference in measur ing methods or different definitions of bindu.

Apara ojas has pramana of ardhanjali or prasruta in a person when measured by

one’s own hands.

Poshana of Ojas

Ahara does poshana of ojas. Different modes of action through which it

occurs are;

1. Aahara rasa directly does ojoposhana as quoted by Acharya Charaka.


98

2. Poshana of ojas which is saptadhatusaara from saara parts of each dhatu

3. Poshana /utpatti of ojas by ahara rasa through parinama paksha nyaya by

steps of rasa rakta, mamsa and so on.

Ojovardhaka drugs/aaharas by their prabhava does follow first path and

augment ojas in a shorter span of time. Acharya Charaka has quoted one simile

which says that ojas sambhriyana is done by gunas in shareera, word gunas

interpreted as saara by Acharya Chakrapani gives clue that dhatu saaras also have

important role in poshana of ojas. Verb sambhriyate is originated from dhatu

sam+bhruy-bharane which mean fulfilling others and also getting fulfilled. In fact it

indicates a union or action which benefits the contributors, receiver as well as donor

to fulfill their necessities. One more point to be noted in this simile is there are

different varieties of phalas and pushpas from which madhu is created. Though these

phalas and pushpas may have different gunas varnas and rasas they collectively yield

one product which is honey. In the similar manner though different dhatu saras have

different gunas but they synergistically contribute in formation of ojas. At the same

time these dhatu saaras also get nurtured /benefited from ojas, thus dhatusaras and

ojas are very closely associated with each other. One more question remains to be

answered is how does poshana of ojas takes place by parinama paksha / kshiradadhi

nyaya. If seen from another aspect parinama paksha is related to utpatti as milk is

converted into curds similarly the saara bhaga of shukra is ojas in other words shukra

is converted into ojas. This is related to utpatti of apara ojas it can be further

supported by views of Acharya Chakrapani quoting ojo janana as karma of shukra

dhatu.

Regarding poshana of para ojas it is also done by ahara rasa, next question is

apara ojas created from shukra dhatu has been quoted as upadhatu as well as mala.

Ashtanga Sangraha, Acharya Chakrapani, Acharya Dalhana, quote that there

is no mala formation after shukra dhatvagni vyapara, still other references from

Ashtanga Hrudaya and Ashtanga Sangraha quote ojas as shukra mala. Acharya

Sharangadhara quotes ojas as upadhatu of shukra, Acharya Hemadri has supported

that ojas is termed as mala in the context of garbha utpatti. Here garbha with saara


99

and ojas is kitta. The same can be understood in above said context, in another way

regarding sarvadaihika shukra there is no mala formation but in the context of nara

shareera vishesha shukra at the time of garbha utpatti ojas is mala formed. Word

mala indicate here that ojas is inferior or less important in comparison with garbha

which is termed as saara.

Acharya Sharangadhara quote ojas as upadhatu of shukra, by reviewing

complete list of upadhatus quoted by Acharya Sharangadhara, it is evident that raja

and sthanya are also quoted as upadhatus. It is also said that these upadhatus are

formed in specific periods also.246 Applying this in the context of ojas, it can be

interpreted that ojas in a specific condition is called as upadhatu of shukra. Nara

shareera vishesha shukra when deposited with ojas in female genital tract is helped

by ojas in the process of jeeva utpatti. Upadhatus are those which compliment/help

their respective dhatus in normal functioning, for example twacha being upadhatu of

mamsa compliments lepana function of mamsa. Similarly ojas helps shukra in its

karma of garbha utpatti and hence in this limited context is called as upadhatu of

shukra. Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as mala of shukra in one context, which is

related to garbha utpatti, and condemns mala formation from shukra in another

context which is related to sarvadaihika shukra thus there is no virodha among these

two opinions.

Summarizing all above discussion it can be said that both para and apara ojas

get their poshana from ahara rasa. Apara ojas is created from sarvadaihika shukra in

human body, references quoting ojas as mala of shukra are related in the context of

garbha utpatti and those related to mala with a purpose to show its inferior position

when compared to garbha. References regarding ojas as upadhatu are related to nara

shareera vishesha shukra and are restricted in the context of garbha utpatti, before

utpatti of garbha.

Importance o Ojas

Importance of Ojas in Swasthyarakshana: Ojas is saptadhatusaara and its samyata

is very essential to maintain samya in shareera. It is one among factors which

regulates/coordinates different functions in human body and thus facilitate samya

avastha to be maintained. Ojas helps to deha dhatus in performing their own


100

functions. Thus if ojas is in samyavastha it helps to overcome some vitiating factors

which may vitiate these deha dhatus from normalcy. As quoted earlier ojas has very

close association with dhatu saaras and in turn helps dhatu saaras to function at

optimum levels. Increased dhatu saara functions are basis of next level of swasthya.

This level is called as positive health which can be achieved by augmentation of ojas.

In Vyadhitasya Vyadhiparimoksha: Acharya Charaka has explained one way to

light vitiated doshas as augmentation of bala247. Thus increased bala itself is enough

to pacify / conquer doshas. This approach is of more importance when there are

limitations in controlling doshas by vigorous treatment modalities because of effects

of vyadhi karshana on shareera. Thus ojas has an important role to play in both

1. Swasthasya swasthya rakshana

2. Aaturasya vikaara prashamana

Ojokshaya

One important aspect is to understand appearing differences in description of

ojo kshaya in views of Acharya Charaka and Acharya Sushruta.

Acharya Charaka has quoted ojo kshaya lakshanas and also quoted condition

called ojo nasha. Acharya Sushruta quotes three methods of vitiation of ojas as

visramsa, vyapat and kshaya. Acharya Dalhana has tried to differentiate nidanas of

ojo kshaya in three different groups.

Along with the lakshanas quoted, swagunakarma hanee is seen in vyapat and

visramsa as quoted by Acharya Dalhana and Acharya Chakrapani. Ojokshaya

lakshanas quoted by Acharya Charaka are nothing but swagunakarma kshaya of ojas.

Thus visramasa and vyapat have symptoms of Acharya Charaka’s kshaya along with

some other symptoms. Other symptoms are because of involvement vatadi doshas in

causing visramsa and vyapat.

In ojo kshaya according Acharya Sushruta it is quantitative loss which is

explained as ojo nasha by Acharya Charaka. Thus, visramsa and vyapat are different

stages of Acharya Charaka’s ojo kshaya where as ojo kshaya by Acharya Sushruta

resemble ojo nasha of Acharya Charaka.


101

Through Acharya Charaka has not quoted visramsa and vyapat directly under

heading of Ojokshaya. In the descriptions at various other contexts words/actions

which are nearer or similar to ojo visramsa and vyapat are found few of them are:

1. Ojosravana – Vruddha pitta vatakapha kshaya avastha of tridosha yugapat

vruddhi-kshaya bheda causes sravana of ojas.

2. Ojobhramsha – Pitta vritta udana vayu lakshansa include Ojobhramsha.

3. Ojopraksharana – It is one among sneha vyapat.

Thus Acharya Charaka also explained similar modes of vitiation as that of

visramsa or vyapat in different contexts and not collectively included in one heading

as that of Acharya Sushruta. This shows that these three modes are accepted by both

acharyas and it is just difference is style of quoting as per their own methods and

requirements of bodies of texts.

Among the symptoms some are shareerika, some are manasika and some are

both shareera manasa. Shareerika symptoms are afflicted status of complexion,

emaciation, dryness in body, agitated organs, and mamsa kshaya. Manasika

symptoms are scaredness, repeated worries, afflicted status of mind. Shareera manasa

lakshanas are moha, pralapa, ajnyana, murccha and marana.

These are three important classes in which ojas have essential functions for

maintenance of swasthya.

1. Shareerika functions

2. Manasika functions

3. Shareeramanasika i.e coordination of shareera and manas.

Etiological Factors of Ojokshaya

Etiological factors cause kshaya of ojas which can be understood on the basis

of samanya vishesha siddhanta. These nidanas increase gunas that are opposite to

gunas that of ojas and thus create kshaya of ojas.

Prajagara increases rukshata in shareera342. Anashana, excessive exposure to

vata atipravrutti of kapha, shukra and shonita, vardhakya and aadankala among


102

nidanas cause vata vruddhi in shareera which increases ruksha, chala, khar, etc

gunas which are vishesha to ojas and lead to ojo kshaya. This is also supported from

references quoting ojokshaya in vardhakya which is vata pradhana avastha of life.

Pramitashana hampers dhatu pariposhana and thus reduces saaras of dhatus and

leads to ojo kshaya. Excessive exposure to aatapa, bhaya and shoka also vitiate ojas

by vitiating pitta and vata respectively. Kopa leads to ojo kshaya by causing pitta

vruddhi.

Shrama, bhrama, trasa, katurasa sevana also increase vata in shareera and

cause ojo kshaya. Visha and madya also vitiate ojas by guna vishesha. Atilanghana

increases vata and causes ojo kshaya. Amla rasa atyupayoga increases pitta and

vitiate ojas.

Another mechanism by which there is vitiation of ojas is impaired dhatu

pariposhana krama. Ojas being saptadhatusara depends upon dhatus and their saara

bhagas. Any decrease or vitiation in these is also reflected in ojas. Gramyahara

causes ojo kshaya in this manner.

Chikitsa of Ojokshaya

Principles of chikitsa of ojo kshaya can be explained as

1. Avoiding etiological factors

2. Avoiding manasika dukha hetus which cause vitiation in hrudaya and ojas.

3. Indulgence with ojovardhaka and hrudya bhavas.

4. Practicing prashama and jnyana for increasing manobala.

5. Intake of ojovardhaka ahara and vihara.

6. Rasayana and vajikarana prayoga.

Dravyas such as jeevantyadi ten drugs, milk, ghee, mamsa, mamsarasa,

atmagupta and kalpas like Aindra rasayana increase ojas by guna samanya. Other

dravyas which have samana gunas with ojas can also be used for ojo vruddhi.

A comparative chart of gunas of ojas, their actions on doshas and dravyas that

increase these gunas are summarized bellow in a tabular form.


103

Table No.16 Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas

No. Name of Guna

A. Karma Other Karmas

M. B. Dominance

Doshika action

Examples

1 Guru Heaviness

Brumhana Tarpana, Balya, Upalepa, Trupti

Prithvi + Jala

Kapha? Vata?

Masha, Vidarikanda Mushali, Godhuma,

2 Sheeta Cold

Stambhana Murccha, trishna nasha, Snigdha

Jala Kapha? Vata? Pitta?

Chandan, Lotus, Coconut

5 Snigdha Kledana Snehana, Mardava, Balavarnakara

Jala Vata? Kapha?

Taila, Ghruta, Majja, Etc.,

7 Manda Dullness

Shamana Yatrakara, Chirakari, Alpakaryakara

Prithvi + Jala

Kapha? Pitta?

Amrita, Kutaja ghana,

10 Sara Mobility

Prerane Vata malapravartana

Vayu Vata? Swanapatri, eranda taila, garlic

11 Mrudu Softness

Shlathane Dahanashana, sravarodhaka

Jala + Aakash

Kapha? Taila, Vasa

13 Picchila Slimness

Lepana Jeevana, Balya, Sandhanakara

Jala Kapha? Isabagol, Godugdha

15 Kshlashna Smoothness

Ropane

dhatu vruddhi Jala Kapha? Dugdhapashan, Navaneeta

18 Sthoola Samvarane Balya Srotorodha

Prithvi Kapha? Vata?

Mamsa, Cream of milk, Dadhi

19 Sandra Solidity

Prasadane Sthulata , Jala Kapha? Bala, Navaneeta

Not only aushadhas and aharas but certain viharas also increase ojas and their

action is mainly by prabhava. Another way in which these viharas help in increasing

ojas is they protect human body from exposure to nidanans of ojokshaya.

Eg. Vastra dharana from vatasevana, chatradharana from aatapasevena.

Role of snana can be explained as manaprasadana, shouchajanana etc. gunas

of snana help in ojo vruddhi.

Role of rasayana in ojo vruddhi can be explained as rasayanas are mode of

obtaining prashasta dhatus. Samyak dhatu pariposhana increases dhatu saarata and

by virtue of which ojo vruddhi takes place. Some rasayana kalpas increase ojas in a

shorter duration of time by prabhava, which is another way of ojo vruddhi. Same can

be considered for vajeekarana dravyas. Gramyaharadi nidanas lead to increase in

shithilata of dhatus which in turn does srotosanga and thus leads to improper dhatu


104

pariposhana. Rasayanas purify srotas and regulate dhatu pariposhana krama.

Srotoprasadaka drugs are indicated in ojokshaya.

Regarding role of manasa bhavas in ojo vyapara it is very clear that vitiation

in manasa bhavas vitiates ojas as in hetus of ojo kshaya. Close relation between

manas and ojas is also evident in lakshanas of ojo kshaya. This may be because both

these dravyas have ashraya in hrudaya and thus because of this close affiliation

vitiation in one of them is reflected in another. Applying this in chikitsa, prashama

and jnyana regulate vitiation of manas and in turn helps ojas to maintain or regain its

normalcy.

Concepts closely related to Ojas

After discussion on concept of ojas now concepts having similarity with ojas

are being discussed here.

Kapha and ojas:

It is very clear that kapha and ojas are to different dravyas. Various reasons

for which kapha is quoted as ojas are:

• Vishuddha shleshma has similar gunas and karmas as that of ojas

• Ojas poshana is done by prakruta kapha

• Ojas is reason for bala; it is one among karmas of kapha also hence kapha

being karana for bala is called as ojas.

Agni/ ushma and ojas

Agni is called as ojas possible reasons for this may be:

• Agni is moola for bala, ojas and bala are considered abhedarupa because of

karyakarana sambandha in them.

• Role of agni is essential in aahara pachana and dhatvagni vyaparas which are

basic necessities for formation of ojas.

• Vitiation / mandata of agni causes disease / roga which afflicts ojas.

• Samagni does ojo vruddhi.


105

Rasa dhatu and ojas

Rasa dhatu is called as ojas the possible reasons may be:

• Tushti and preenana are among karmas of rasa dhatu which are also karmas

of ojas.

• Rasa dhatu while undergoing dhatu parinamana gets converted into ojas.

• Rasa dhatu is saara of aahara and its sthana is hrudaya same as that of ojas.

• Rasa dhatu is also very important for healthy life and has many gunas same as

that of ojas.

Rakta dhatu and ojas

Rakta dhatu is quoted as ojas. Probably reasons may be:

• Rakta dhatu is moola of jeeveeta as that of ojas

• Rakta dhatu does dharana of ojas

• Rakta dhatu is among dasha pranayatanas and pranas are seated in it.

Shukra and ojas

Various possible reasons for which shukra is quoted as ojas are:

• Shukra does ojoposhana. Thus shukra becomes karana and ojas becomes

karya. To show abheda in karya karana, shukra is called as ojas.

• In tantrantara, ojas is called as special type of shukra which denotes intense

similarities in them.

• Very close relationship and association in between ojas and shukra.

Bala and ojas

In many place we find use of these two terms in same sentence / pada of

shloka which clearly indicate they are separate entities.

Few examples of this are in Sushruta Samhita are:

• Ahara is mula for bala and ojas.

• If rutus are avyapanna then it leads in betterment of prana, ayu, bala, veerya

and ojas.

• Shulyamamsa increases shukra, bala, medha, agni, mamsa and ojas (Su.Sa.Su.

46/353).


106

• Anulepana increases preeti, ojas and bala (Su.Sa.Chi. 24/63).

• Rasnadi niruha basti increases bala, shukra, mamsa and ojas

(Su.Sa.Chi.38/71-75).

Other Acharyas have also used these two terms in same manner at many

places. Shareerika bala or physical strength which is seen by strenuous work and

active movements of body is bala.

At the same time there is one more type of bala/power in shareera which

works as vyadhi utpadavirodhi and vyadhipratyaneeka bala. This bala is very

essential and inferred by capacity of maintaining state of health also after exposure to

nidanas along with higher/stable mental faculties which sustain higher levels of

stress/ external variables, this bala can be called as ojas. Thus at certain places we

find words bala and ojas used for each other. Depending upon context it is better to

understand as the word bala means physical strength when related to physical work,

as in context of:

1. Balam vyayama shaktya

2. Bala pariksha in panchakarma

3. Durbala in ojokshaya lakshanas.

Thus bala means physical strength which is quoted and described by Acharya

Charaka in the context of saara pariksha prakarana.

The same word bala when used in meanings of disease preventive aspect,

vyadhi kshamatva etc then it means ojas. For example:

1. Bala is capable for bringing doshas to normalcy.

2. As in ojas definition in Sushruta Samhita.

Thus the word bala is used in Ayurvedic literature for both

1. Physical strength and

2. Disease preventive strength.

As per the context meaning is to be understood.


107

Table No. 17. Showing Differences in ojas and bala

Bala Ojas It is adravya rupa It is dravya rupa

Bala does not have rupa, rasa, veerya,

etc

Ojas is having these physical properties

There is no vishesha sthana of bala Vishesha sthana of ojas is hrudaya

Bala is of three types sahaja, kalaja and

yuktikruta

Ojas is of two types para and apara

Thus in nutshell among various reasons for quoting these above said concepts

important once are:

1. karya karana sambandha of these concepts with ojas

2. Similarity in karmas of these concepts with that of ojas

3. Ojas is supreme, most important dravya in shareera, so by adhikarana

siddhanta to emphasize importance of these various concepts they are quoted

as ojas.


108

Discussion on Modern Concepts

After having discussed the concept of ojas and its various dimensions now it is

time to find similarities and differences with modern concepts, which were reviewed

earlier.

Prostaglandins :

Prostaglandins are derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids having heavy

molecular weight. As they are fats it signifies towards snigdha guna as well as

somatmaka nature of ojas. Heavy molecular weight of prostaglandins is having

similarity with guru guna of ojas.

Prostaglandins are present/produced in every cell of the body which is similar

to the sthana of ojas i.e. sarva shareera. As the same dravya ojas, when working

synergistically with other dehadhatus performs different functions similarly

prostaglandins have different functions in different body tissues. Diversity in

functions is dependent on receptor to which it binds. These various receptors can be

considered as a part of dehadhatus, avayavas of human body which bind with

prostaglandins to elicit a wide range of different actions / functions.

Though prostaglandins are present in nearly every cell of body, their

maximum concentration among body fluids is in semen. In the case of ojas also it

holds well even though it is described as sapta dhatu saara its close association of

shukra is very well evident from descriptions in Ayurvedic classics. Seminal

prostaglandins are produced in seminal vesicles, which are part of reproductive

system. Thus largest production site of prostaglandins in the body is male

reproductive system. Reproductive system can be roughly compared with shukravaha

srotas. Ojas poshana is done from sapta dhatu saara but to highlight predominance

or importance of shukra among various sites of production it is quoted that shukra is

ojojanaka. Similar understanding can be adopted in production of prostaglandins and

it can be said that among various sites of production of prostaglandins seminal

vesicles are most important and hence can be quoted as site of production. Functions

of prostaglandins in erection of penis, increasing viability of semen, in making female


109

genital tract more receptive for sperms, helping sperm for capacitisation and finally in

penetration of ovum prove its vital role in process of fertilization. This can be

compared to karma of ojas, which is explained as it helps jeeva to descend in other

words helps in formation of shukra shonita samyoga. Deficiency of prostaglandins in

infertile men further strengthens these claims.

Role of prostaglandins in implantation of ovum, maintenance of pregnancy

and pivotal role in physiology of pregnancy shows that they are not only essential in

fertilization but also in maintenance and development of fetus. This can be compared

to role of ojas as garbha saara and its importance in garbha vruddhi. Change in

relative proportion of prostaglandins being doubted as cause of pre-eclampsia, which

is most common (more incidents are prevalent) in eighth month of pregnancy can be

compared to ojo asthiratva in ashtama / eighth month of garbha avastha. However it

still needs more studies to conclude, as role of prostaglandins in pre-eclampsia is not

completely known. Role of prostaglandins as therapeutic agents for abortion further

supports these claims. Role of prostaglandins in maintaining patency of foramen ovale

in foetal life can be compared to function of garbha hrudaya sthita ojas.

Role of prostaglandins as a controller of coronary blood flow, its inhibitory

actions on platelets aggregation and thus in turn clot formation can be compared to

karmas of ojas, which does dharana of hrudaya. In a scenario when complete

understanding of cardiac physiology is not achieved and role of prostaglandins in it

being extensively studied, it cannot be said that prostaglandins are most important

regulator of cardiac physiology but at the same time it cannot be overruled.

According current researches it is very clear and accepted that they are one of

important regulators of cardiac physiology. As far as pharmacology and therapeutics

of neonatal cardiology are concerned prostaglandins are very important life saving

drugs. As it plays an important role in medicine it may have similar role in physiology

too.

Renal prostaglandins and their different functions at various levels in kidneys

is a topic in limelight in almost all renal pathologies. It has been proved that

prostaglandins protect kidneys from damage in many renal diseases. This can be

compared to avasthambhana / supporting of deha avayavas by ojas.


110

Prostaglandins function as both extra cellular and intracellular ligands and thus

help in glucose metabolism. Energy source for human body is mainly glucose

oxidation thus prostaglandins help human body to get energy. This can be compared

to tushti and pushti karmas of ojas.

Role of prostaglandins in vasodilatation necessary for penile erection, their

role in induction of menstruation and control of ovulation shows that they are vital for

normal functions of reproductive system in human body. These can be compared to

karma of ojas vividha deha samshrita bhava nishpandana.

Prostaglandins protect gastric mucosa from possible harm by gastric secretions

which can be compared with deha sthirikarana function of ojas.

Role of prostaglandins in immunity can be compared to bala pushti or

balajanana karya of ojas.

Role of prostaglandins in innate immunity can be compared to activation of

vyadhi utpatti pratibandhaka bala which is karya of ojas. Prostaglandins are

mediators of inflammation, and process of inflammation acts as stimulus for

triggering immune response. This can be compared to activation of vyadhi

pratyaneeka bala, which is nothing but karya of ojas. Prostaglandins stimulate

endocrine actions. Few of them are:

1. Increase in circulating concentration of GH growth hormone.

This can be compared with function of ojas as deha vruddhi hetu quoted by

Acharya Kashyapa.

2. Increase in action of adrenals.

It can be compared to dhairya, utsaha and pratibha nishpandana, which is

karma of ojas as quoted by Acharya Bhavamishra.

3. Prostaglandins increase/stimulate insulin secretion.

They also act as chemical messengers in various reactions and this can be

compared with dehasthiti nibandhana karma of ojas.

Thus to summarize prostaglandins and ojas similarities it can be tabulated as

follows.


111

Table No.18 Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of

Ojas and Prostaglandins

Name of Property Ojas Prostaglandins

Snigdha + +

Guru + +

Sheeta + +

Soumya Nature + +

Sandra + +

Shlakshna + +

Vivikta (Shorter biological

active life)

+ +

Table No.19 Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins

Name of Function Ojas Prostaglandins Part of narashukra (semen) + + Functions in garbha utpatti + + Role in garbha poshana and dharana

+ +

Role in cardiac physiology + + Asthiratva, as cause of preterm labor

+ +

Dehasthiti nibandhana + + Deshasamshrita bhavas nishapandana

+ +

Protect human body from external harmful stimulus

+ +

Deha dharana + + Deha preenana + +

Table No.20 Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins

Title Ojas Prostaglandins

Close relation with shukra + +

Utpatti from ahara + +

Thus these are few of similarities between prostaglandins and ojas. One more

point to be noted is there are certain differences also; one among them is certain

varieties of prostaglandins are mediators of inflammation which may be cause of

allergic diseases and some other conditions. This scenario has created an impression


112

in medical fraternity, as there are two types of prostagland ins one which is good and

another which is bad. In fact there is no such classification of prostaglandins. All

prostaglandins are essential only provided they are in appropriate amount in body.

Disease creating prostaglandins are also essential when in normal limits. This can be

compared to ojo vruddhi which is associated with vatadi vruddhi which can also

create diseases. One more point to be noted is increase does not always mean vruddhi.

It is some times result of reaction of body to pathologies interfering with normal

conditions. Increased quantity of immunoglobulins in AIDS , increased temperature in

inflammation are few of the examples where quantitative increase is seen but it is in

fact response of body to external stimulus . Thus these quantitative increases from

modern science can not be always compared to vruddhi of Ayurveda. Another

important difference is apara ojas is supplied thourgh ojovaha dhamanis all over the

body, current knowledge of prostaglandins does not explain any such phenamenon.

Regarding deficiency and increase not much literature is available. Ongoing

researches have shown impaired immune response in prostaglandin deficiency which

is similar when compared to bala kshaya by ojokshaya. Various researches are going

on which are supposed to bring out a more comprehensive picture of role of

prostaglandins in human body.

Method of approach to understand anatomy, physiology, process of disease

formation and treatment are entirely different in modern medicine and Ayurveda.

Owing to these differences it’s very difficult to find descriptions of same type of

dravya in both these literatures. No perfect matching can be done but still an attempt

is done here. It can be said that in above said contexts there is high degree of

similarity in ojas and prostaglandins and prostaglandins is nearer equivalent of ojas.

Immunological basis of Human Body

Various scholars of Ayurveda have compared immunity with bala. Immunity

is a process/karma. As per Ayurveda, karma has to be associated with dravya.

Karma is not independent but it is always having ashraya in dravya. Thus the action

or function of immunity must and should have structural basis in human body. Here

the structural basis will be a dravya and function will be karma/karya. In the similar


113

manner bala / immunity is karya, where as structural basis of immunity can be

compared to ojas.

Different structural basics of immunity are:

1. T Lymphocyes

2. B Lymphocytes

3. Natural Killer Cells

4. Macrophages

5. Dendrite Cells

6. Neutrophills

7. Eosinophils

8. Mast Cells

9. Basophils

10. Epithelial cells

11. Thymus

12. Lymph nodes

13. Spleen

14. Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue. (MALT)

15. Bone marrow

These are among the body components which have a role to play in immunity.

As previously quoted ojas is formed from saaras of different dehadhatus. These cells

can be compared to deha dhatus, which synergistically give rise to function of

protection of human body i.e deha dharana in the form of ojas. Concept of dhatu

saaras is those parts of dhatus having more pureness. Naturally these are having more

strength or purity of gunas as well karmas of corresponding dhatus. One example of

this is rakta dhatu does function of jeevana in deha among various fractions of rakta

dhatu those which are having more important role in this function can be called as

rakta dhatu saara. Modern co- relation of rakta dhatu is it self a point of discussion

but it is out of purview of this study, so accepting established co relation it can be

compared to blood of modern science. Among various components of blood

hemoglobin has important role in carrying oxygen which can be compared to jeevana

function of rakta and thus hemoglobin can be called as rakta dhatu saara .Similarly


114

various organs, tissues which help in process of immunity can be compared to deha

dhatus. Relation between these various body components and their co relations in

Ayurvedic view are taken as basis to ascertain these components in relation to sapta

dhatus. Current widely accepted versions of co-relations are consolidated and taken

from various Shareerakriya text-books including Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr.

R.R.Desai), Abhinava Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr. P.V. Sharma), Ayurvedeeya

Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr. K.P. Vyas) and many others are taken as basis of this

comparison.

Table No. 21. Table showing Comparison of Structural basis of Immune structures

Name of Structure Organs from modern medicine

Approximate Ayurvedic Equivalent

Bone Marrow Bone Marrow Majja, sarakta meda

Thymus Thymus Kantha (Kapha sthana)

Lymphocytes Lymph Rasa dhatu

Tissue Macrophages All Tissues of Body All dhatus

Dendrite cells Spleen and Lymph nodes Raktadhatu, Twak/Mamsa,

Rasa dhatu

Natural Killer Cells Lymphocytes Rasa dhatu

Granulocytes Blood Raktadhatu

Basophils Blood Rakta dhatu

Mast cells Cells of connective tissue, whole body

Asthis/Snayu, Sarvashareera

These can be compared to different deha dhatus of shareera from which

saaras come together and this saara collectively is called as sarva dhatu saara i.e.

ojas.

Fluid nature of ojas, its quantification in bindus and anjalis, circulatory nature

signifies that ojas should be a semisolid or liquid substance in nature. The humoral

secretions / components of immunity which are secreted by above quoted structural

basis can be compared to ojas.

Important two humoral secretions are:

1. Immunoglobulins

2. Cytokines.


115

Immunoglobulins

These are having high molecular weight, ranging from 15,000 to 900,000.

This can be compared to guru guna of ojas. These are glycoproteins in structure,

which signifies towards madhura rasa of ojas. Immunoglobulins attach to the antigen,

which can be compared to (Shlish aalingane shleshma) shlaishmika bhava.

Quantification of immunoglobulins in human body can be done from serum

content of human body. Serum content of human body can be roughly taken equa l to

that of plasma. Total plasma volume in a person is 5 % of body weight. Applying this

to a normal 70 kg healthy man normal plasma volume becomes 3500 ml. Thus

quantity of immunoglobulins collectively becomes 11 to 23 mg/ml of serum. (Chart

mentioned in review). Calculating it for total plasma volume it becomes (11 x 3,500)

to (23 x 3,500) mg/ml. Thus normal range/quantity of immunoglobulins collectively

of all types becomes 38,500mg to 80,500mg. Converting it from mg to grams it

ranges from 38.5gms to 80gms which can be compared to prakruta pramana of apara

ojas which is ardhanjali (80ml) 248.

Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins of heavy molecular weight, with

circulatory nature through human body as a part of plasma proteins, functioning in

immunity are having similarity with apara ojas. Total quantity of immunoglobulins

also ranges from 38-80 gms with upper limit nearer to apara ojas quantification 80

gm in a normal grown adult as an average.

Thus immunoglobulins can be compared to apara ojas in limited aspect of

balajanana or as a reason for bala. Other functions of ojas cannot be attributed to

immunoglobulins with current knowledge of immunoglobulins.

Cytokines

Cytokines are hormone like substances. They are secreted not only by

lymphocytes and macrophages but also by neurons, glial cells and many other types

of cells. The similar aspects of cytokines and ojas are fluidity in nature, capacity of

broad range of functions, actions on various tissues and whole body as sthana when

compared to that of ojas.


116

Role of cytokines in immunity is being studied extensively in modern

immunology and has brought out its usages and functions in other systems also. Here

aspects related to immune system are only discussed.

Role of cytokines in opsonization, stimulation of immune cell production,

differentiation of types of immune cells, increasing phagocytic activity,

communication between innate and acquired immunity can be compared or taken as

liquid factor responsible for initiation, maturation, fastening as well as strengthening

of immune response i.e bala and hence can be taken as cause for it. This in turn

reflects similarity with functions of ojas. Structurally cytokines are having low

molecular weights but they are strong regulators of anabolic processes in immune cell

production.

Thus among humoral components of immunity cytokines can be compared to

apara ojas which is karana for bala / immunity. In this scenario also there are many

functions of ojas other than bala poshana which remain unanswered.

In total rather than comparing one or two components of immunity, total

humoral part of immune system including both innate as well as acquired can be

understood as dhatu saaras and their collective effect is immune response (bala).

These humoral parts collectively can be compared to ojas (sarvadhatusaara). These

humoral parts work cohesively with various cells of immune system to achieve

protection from antigen. Thus ojas along with dhatu saaras provides basis of immune

mechanism which is reason for functioning of immune response i.e. bala.


117

CONCLUSION

1. Ojas as the word / name itself indicates is of utmost vital importance at the

time of srushti, sthiti and laya of the body.

2. There is no point in life right from womb to tomb where ojas is not playing a

significant role.

3. Ojas is essential for physical and mental well being of an individual.

4. What this ojas is has been debated upon for by erudite scholars right from

Acharya Chakrapani to Acharya Ranajeet Rai Desai and others; but none of

these descriptions fit into the exact and comprehensive discussion of ojas, in

this work a honest effort has been made to explore the exhaustive literary

survey of ojas from our revered classics and later period compilations.

5. Among the several etymological derivations newer and newer explanations are

latent in the meaning of ojas.

6. Among the various equivalents for ojas prostaglandins and immunological

basis are coming nearer the comprehensive description of ojas.

7. Further literary, experimental, clinical researches are essential to know the

truth in an extensive manner.


118

Recommendations for Future Studies

1. Literary studies on various concepts related to ojas such as bala, dhatu saara

can be carried out, this will help not only in better understanding of relation

between ojas and these entities but also reveal role of these factors in

controlling or increasing ojas.

2. Experimental studies for laboratory analysis of various aahara and aushadhas

quoted in classics for increasing ojas in order to find out their active

ingredients which may help in better understanding of bio chemistry of ojas.

3. Diseases which are having ojokshaya quoted in sampraptis are to be studied in

depth in order to find out role of ojas in samprapti of these diseases and will

help to do samprapti bhanga in a better manner.

4. Clinical studies to evaluate effect of ojovardhaka treatments quoted in classics

are to be carried out.

5. Various different clinical studies for evaluation of role of ojas in rasayana,

positive health, disease prevention, better treatment options, prevention from

complications and prevention of relapse of diseases are to be carried out.


119

SUMMARY

Ojas word is krudanta pratipadika of dhatu “ubje-bale”l. Lexions quote bala,

deepti, avashtamba etc., as meaning of ojas. According to Ayurvedic classics it can

be understand as essence of sapta dhatus of shareera.

Ojas is a panchabhautika vyakta dravya, snigdha and soumya in nature.

Guru, sheeta etc. ten gunas point towards its anabolic nature and colour towards

contribution from both mantruja and pitruja sides. Ojas is a separate entity from

dosha, dhatu, malas, upadhatus and bala. It can be defined as soumya dravya having

sthana in hrudaya sarva shareera which is saara of rasadi sapta dhatus.

Ojas is of two types para of apara. Para resides in hurudaya and has normal

average quantity equal to eight drops. It does not undergo vrudhi or kshaya but nasha

of this can happen, which leads to death. Apara ojas is situated in sarva shareera; its

normal quantity is swaardhanjali. This can undergoe vruddhi and kshaya; jeevaneeya

gana, ksheera are important drugs and rasayana, vajeekarana are important treatment

measures in treatment of ojokshaya. Hrudya and manaskara dravyas along with

prashama and jnana are also have a major role.

Ojas has very large range of karmas few important among them are, it helps in

initiation and maintainance of samyoga of shareera, indriya satva and atma; co-

ordination between various functions of different dehadhatus, control and co-

ordination of shareerika and manasika functions. Other functions include

dehadharana, balaposhana.

Utpatti of ojas takes place at the time of garbha utpatti from shukra and

aarthava samyoga. Its poshana is done by aahara rasa. Ojas is needed for utpatti,

poshana and vruddhi of garbha. It is having pivotal role in all the three stages of life.

Prakruta kapha, agni / ushma, jeevashonita, rasadhatu, bala are few of the

concepts which are also some times quoted as ojas, but are different from ojas.

Prostoglandins and structural basis of immune response are concepts from

modern medicine which come nearer to comprehensive description of ojas.


120

Bibliographic References

1) Bhattoji Dikhit, Siddhanta Kaumudi, Edited by Panashikar vasudeva,

Nirnayasagar Press,Mumbai,1915, fifth edition, page number 560

2) Bhattoji Dikshit, Siddhanta Kaumudi, Edited by Panashikar Vasudeva,

Nirnayasagar Press,Mumbai,1915, fifth edition, page number 76

3) Taranath Tarkavachaspathy Bhattacharya, Vachaspathya, Chaukhambha

Sanskrit Series office, 1969, Volume II, Page number 278.

4) Haricharanavasu Vindadasa.Shabdakalpadruma third edition, Chaukhamba

Sanskrit Series office,1967, Volume I,Page number 302.

5) Chakravarthy Srinivasa Gopalacharya, Shabdartha Kaustubha, Prayogika

Sanskruta karnataka shabda kosha ,Bangalore press, Bangalore, Second

edition, 1988, volume II, Page number 551.

6) Yaska, Yaska praneeta Nighantu tatha Nirukta, Motilal Banarasidas,

Satyabhushana Yogi, First edition, reprint 1985, Page number 19,20.

7) Sir Moneir Williams , Sanskrit English dictionary, Mohanal Banarasidas

Publishers, Delhi, first reprint Edition 1990, Page number 235

8) V.S.Apate, The Student’s Sanskrit English Dictionary, Motilal Banarasidas

Publishers, Delhi, Second edition, Reprint 2005, Page number - 124.

9) Agnivesha, Charaka Samhita with Ayurveda Deepika and Jalpakalpataru

commentaries, edited by Narendranath Sengupta and Balaichandra Sengupta,

Chaukhambha Publishers, Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002.Volume II, Page

number – 707, 708.

10) Sushruta, Sushruta Samhita with Nibandh Sangraha and Nyaya Chandrika

commentaries, edited by Jadavji Trikamji Acharya and Narayana Ram

Acharya, Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi, India, Ninth Ed. 2007. Page

number – 71.

11) Chakrapani Datta, Bhanumati Commentary of Sushruta Samhita, edited by

Jadavji Trikamji Acharya, Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed.

2001. Page number – 117, 118.

12) Vriddha Vagbhata, Ashtanga Sangraha with Shashilekha commentary, edited

by Shiva Prasad Sharma, Choukhambha Sanskrit series Office, Varanasi,

India, First Ed. 2006. Page number – 154.


121

13) Vagbhata, Ashtanga Hrudaya with Sarvanga Sundari and Ayurveda Rasayana

Commentaries, edited by Harishastri Paradkar, Krishnadas Academy,

Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed 2000. Page number – 189,190.

14) Chandranandana, Padarthchandrika Commentary of Ashtanga Hridaya,

Chaukkkhamba Sanskrit Samsthana, Vatranasi, India, First Ed. 1967, Page

Number - 145

15) Sharangadhara, Sharangadhara Samhita with Deepika and Gudhartha Deepika

Commentaries, edited by Parashuram Shastry, Chaukhambha Orientalia,

Varanasi, India, Sixth Ed. 2005. Page number – 46 -49.

16) Bhavamishra, Bhavaprakasha, edited by Brahmashankara Mishra and Rupalal

Vaishya, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Bhavan, Varanasi, India, Eleventh Ed,

2007. Volume I , Page Number – 58.

17) Agnivesha, Charaka Samhita with Ayurveda Deepika Commentary, edited by

Jadavji Trikamji Acharya, Rashitriya Sanskrit Samsthana, New Delhi, India,

Reprint Ed. 2006.Page Number – 103.

18) Gangadhara Ray, Jalpakalpataru Commentary of Charaka Samhita, edited by

Narendranath Sengupta and Balaichandra Sengupta, Chaukhambha Publishers,

Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002. Page number – 708,709.




number – 707, 708.




number – 1061 ,1062..








122







number – 71, 72.



2001. Page number – 119.

26) Haranachandra Chakravarthy, Sushrutartha Sandipani Commentary of

Sushruta Samhita Chaukhamba Surbharti Prakashan, Varanasi, India, First Ed.

2000. Volume I , Page number – 159.






Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed 2000. Page number – 189.

29) Vruddhaveejka, Kashyapa Samhita, edited by Hemaraja Sharma,

Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, India, Reprint Edition, 2006. Page

number – 41.



Varanasi, India, Sixth Ed. 2005. Page number – 46 -49







number – 71.


123










number – 71.



2001. Page number – 119







number – 1151,1152









Varanasi, India, Sixth Ed. 2005. Page number – 46.



2007. Volume I, Page Number – 57.


124







45) Chakrapani Datta, Ayurveda Deepika Commentary of Charaka Samhita,

edited by Jadavji Trikamji Acharya Rashtriya Sanskrit Samsthana, New Delhi,

India, Reprint Ed. 2006. Page number – 103.




number – 707, 708.




number – 707.



number – 327.




number – 707.




number – 1150,1151.




number – 1153,1154.


125



Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002. Page number – 1154.




number – 71.




55) Dalhana, Nibandh Sangraha Commentary of Sushruta Samhita, edited by

Jadavji Trikamji Acharya and Narayana Ram Acharya, Chaukhambha

Orientalia, Varanasi, India, Ninth Ed. 2007. Page number – 766.









Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed 2000. Page number – 389.390.



number – 41.







62) Bhela, Bhela Samhita, edited by Girijadayal Shukla, Chaukhamba Vidya

Bhavan, Varanasi, India, First Ed, 1959. Page number – 92.


126










number – 708 , 709..

66) Hemadri, Ayurveda Rasayana Commentary of Ashtanga Hrudaya , edited by

Harishastri Paradkar, Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed.







Chaukhambha Publishers, Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002.Volume IV, Page

number – 2058.






Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed 2000. Page number – 402



number – 78.

72) Arunadatta, Sarvanga Sundari Commentary of Ashtanga Hrudaya , edited by

Harishastri Paradkar, Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, India, Reprint by 2000.

Page number – 189.


127



Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002. Page number – 708.






















number – 60.








128




























number – 71.





129




94) Bhela, Bhela Samhita, edited by Girijadayal Shukla, Chaukhamba Vidya

Bhavan, Varanasi, India, First Ed, 1959. Page number – 92.



number – 41.


















number –71.



number – 54.





130




number – 707.




number – 72.







number – 72.







number – 71.




number – 71.







number – 710.


131




number – 72.





























132










number – 1153.




number – 72,73.















number – 23.



number – 23.


133



number – 41.

























number – 725.



number – 78.


134

143) Narsimha Bhashya Rasa Vaisheshika Sutra, Indigenous Medicine, Director of

Kerala State, India, edited by N.E. Muthuswamy First Ed. 1976. page Number

– 41.

























number – 71.





135

153) Anonymous, Yogaratnakara, editor, Lakshmipathi Shastry and Bramhashankar

Shastry, Chaukhambha Prakashana, Varanasi, India, Reprint Ed, 2007. Page

Number – 2.




155) Narsimha Bhashya Rasa Vaisheshika Sutra, Indigenous Medicine, Director of

Kerala State, India, edited by N.E. Muthuswamy First Ed. 1976. page Number

– 12.







number – 59.



India, First Ed. 2006. Page number – 148,149.




number – 62.











136






Chaukhambha Publishers, Varanasi, India, Second Ed. 2002.Volume III, Page

number – 1304.


























137













number – 66.






















138


number – 350.




number – 350.




number – 67.























139







number – 71.




196) Http\\Prostaglandins.htm downloaded on Date 22-10-2008

197) Laurence L. Brunton, PhD et al Goodman & Gilman’s Manual of

Pharmacology and Therapeutics The McGraw-Hill Companies, United States

of America Copyright © 2008 page number 417

198) Robert k. Murray et al ,Harper’s Textbook of biochemistry, Appleton and

Lange, United States o f America, Twenty fifth edition 2000,Page number -

161

199) Http\\prostaglandins\Cockatoo_com - Health Glossary - Prostaglandins -

hormone- like substances with great potential.htm down loaded on Date 22-10-

2008

200) Austen et and al, Samter's Immunologic Diseases, Lippincott Williams &

Wilkins Publishers, 6th edition (September 15, 2001). Page number 156.

201) Laurence L. Brunton, PhD et al Goodman & Gilman’s Manual of

Pharmacology and Therapeutics The McGraw-Hill Companies, United States

of America Copyright © 2008 page number 425

202) Undurti N Das Lipids in Health and Disease 2008, 7:37 doi:10.1186/1476-

511X- 7-37 Submission date 30 September 2008 Acceptance date 15

October 2008 Publication date 15 October 2008 Article URL down loaded

from http://www.lipidworld.com/content/7/1/37

203) Gilbert A. Boissonneault and Patricia V. Johnston, Journal of Nutrition

113:1187-1194, 1983. The Department of Food Science and Division of

Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1208 West


140

Pennsylvania Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 Downloaded from jn.nutrition.org by

on October 28, 2008

204) Undurti N Das Lipids in Health and Disease 2008, 7:37 doi:10.1186/1476-

511X- 7-37 Submission date 30 September 2008 Acceptance date 15 October

2008 Publication date 15 October 2008 Article URL down loaded from

http://www.lipidworld.com/content/7/1/37

205) Cosentino MJ, Emilson LB, Cockett AT Prostaglandins in semen and their

relationship to male fertility: a study of 145 men Fertility and Sterility 1984

Jan;41(1):88-94) downloaded from Pubmed Results.com on October 26,2008

206) Samuel E. Brown et al Vaginal misoprostol enhances intrauterine

insemination. Human Reproduction, Vol. 16, No. 1, 96-101, January 2001 ©

2001 European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology

downloaded from Pubmed Results.com on October 26,2008

207) Edouard J. Battegay et al, Hypertension Principles and Practice, Taylor &

Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL

33487-2742 © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, U.S.A. page number

123

208) Steven A. Friedman, MD Pre eclampsia: A Review of the Role of

Prostaglandins Obstetrics & Gynecology 1988; 71:122-137 © 1988 by The

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Downloaded from

Obstetrics &Gynecology.com on October 3, 2008

209) Harris SG, Padilla J, Koumas L, Ray D, Phipps RP Prostaglandins as

modulators of immunity ,Trends Immunology 2002 Mar;23(3):144-50 , Down

loaded from Pubmed Result.htm on September 13 , 2008.

210) William F. Ganong, Review of medical Physiology, Mc Graw Hill

Publications , twenty first edition , Page number 523,524.

211) Grimm and G. Laufer Prostaglandin E1—bridge to cardiac transplantation

European Heart Journal 1997 18(2):318-329; Copyright © 1997 by the

European Society of Cardiology downloaded from Pubmed results.com on

October 11, 2008.

212) BMJ. British Medical Journal, 1975 Mar 8;1(5952):567.downloaded from

Pubmed results.com on October 11, 2008


141

213) Dinarevic S, Kurtagic S, Maksic H. Medicinki.com archive, medarch. 2000;

54(5-6):279-82Pedijatrijska klinika, Klinicki centar Univerziteta u Sarajevu,

Croatia downloaded from Pubmed results.com on October 11, 2008

214) Gurumukh S. Sainanis , A. P.I. Textbook of Medicine, Assocoation of

Physicians of India, Mumbai, Fifth Edition 1992 Page number 117

215) Dennis C. Kasper et al, Harrison,s Principles Of Medicine, Mc Graw3 Hill

Publications, U.S.A. Sixteenth Edition, page number 1908


Physicians of India, Mumbai Fifth Edition, P_age number 123



218) Austen et and al, Samter's Immunologic Diseases, Lippincott Williams &

Wilkins Publishers, 6th edition (September 15, 2001). Page number 156

219) K. Frank Austen, M.D. et and al, Samter's Immunologic Diseases Lippincott

Williams & Wilkins Publishers, 6th edition (September 15, 2001) Page

number 56


Publications , twenty first edition , Page number 524,525





number 145




Physicians of India, Mumbai, Fifth Edition 1992 Page number 126,127.



number 167




142




Physicians of India, Mumbai, Fifth Edition 1992 Page number121



number 133















237) Vachaspati Mishra, Sankhya Tatva Kaumadi, Editor Gajanan Shastri

Musalgankar, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi,India, Reprint Ed,





number – 448.



number – 51.


143
















number – 448.











Publications, twenty first Edition, Page number – 542.

Ojas ss-mys

Education

Transcript of Ojas ss-mys