SOIL STEWARDSHIP

Rattan Lal!Carbon Management and Sequestration Center!The Ohio State University!Columbus, OH 43210 USA!

MANKIND AND THE ENVIRONMENT “Mankind is on the horns of a dilemma.

For whether we like it or not, our collective way of life has become unsustainable and we need to do something about it – and soon.

The choices we have already made about the way we lead our lives have been slowly eating away at the very support system that

enables us to live and breathe. This cannot, and should not, go on.

We need to make some tough decisions, we need to make them now and we need to act on them as one, with total and undivided

commitment – today and in the future. Faced with facts we cannot argue against, we need to consider our

priorities and accept that we have to make certain sacrifices; we need to start putting ‘life’ ahead of ‘lifestyle’.”

IMO, World Maritime Day (2009)

-38

18,000 BC 6,000 BC 14,000 BC 10,000 BC 2,000 BC AD 2,000 -42 -40

-36 -34

Warm & Wet

Cold & Dry

δ18

(0%

)

8,000 BC Beginning of Agriculture

1750 Anthropocene

EARTH’S HISTORIC TEMPERATURE AND THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE

(Fagan, 2004)

Time

THE LONG SUMMER

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION: CENTERS OF ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE

Region 1000 Yr BP Crops Domesticated 1. Near East/Fertile Crescent 9-14 Eincorn, Emmer, Barley, Pea,

Vetch, Lentil 2. Northern China 9 Rice 3. Papua New Guinea 6-9 Sugarcane, root crops 4. Central Mexico

(Aztecs, Mayans) 7-8 Maize, squash, gourds, beans,

cocoa 5. Indus Valley 7.5-11 Wheat, Barely, Jujuba 6. West Africa 4.5 Yam, Cassava 7. Horn of Africa 5-7 Teff, Coffee, Cucumber tree,

Yeheb nut 8. Eastern North America

(Cherokees) 4-5 Cranberries, Chenopod, Marsh

Elder, Maple Sugar, Tobacco, Squash, Sunflower, Knotweed, Little barely, Maygrass

9. Western North America (Pueblo Dwellers)

6 Amaranth, Pine Nuts

10. South America (Incas) 7 Potato, Beans, Coca

Region 1000 Yr BP Crops Domesticated 1.  Near East/Fertile Crescent 9-14 Eincorn, Emmer, Barley, Pea,

Vetch, Lentil 2.  Northern China 9 Rice 3.  Papua New Guinea 6-9 Sugarcane, root crops 4.  Central Mexico 7-8 Maize, squash, gourds, beans, (Aztecs, Mayans) cocoa 5.  Indus Valley 7.5-11 Wheat, Barely, Jujuba 6.  West Africa 4.5 Yam, Cassava 7.  Horn of Africa 5-7 Teff, Coffee, Cucumber tree,

Yeheb nut 8.  Eastern North America 4-5 Cranberries, Chenopod, Marsh

(Cherokees) Elder, Maple Sugar, Tobacco, Squash, Sunflower, Knotweed, Little barely, Maygrass

9.  Western North America 6 Amaranth, Pine Nuts (Pueblo Dwellers)

10. South America (Incas) 7 Potato, Beans, Coca

Projected CO2 concentration and global mean temperature

CO2 (ppm) Δ T (°C) 450 +2.0 525 +3.0 800 +5.0

1750

Land (Temp. 15°C)

Atmosphere CO2 280 ppm

Atmosphere CO2 525 ppm

2100

Land (Temp. 18.0°C)

GLOBAL WARMING

Atmosphere CO2 390 ppm

2010

Land (Temp. 15.6°C)

1.0 1800

1.3 1850

1.7 1900 1.8

1910 1.9 1920

2.1 1930

2.3 1940

2.5 1950

3.0 1960

3.7 1970

4.4 1980 5.3

1990

6.1 2000

7.0 2011

7.5 2020

8.1 2030

8.6 2040

9.2 2050

10 2100

I = P x A x T

P = Population A = Affluence T = Technology

THE ANTHROPOGENIC DRIVER

SOIL, WATER, WASTE NEXUS

Soil

Natural Resources

Water Waste

Runoff Percolation

Soil Water Storage

Green Water

Grey Water

Black Water

Waste Water Use

Compost Sludge

Crop/Animal/Tree Residues

THE CENTURY DROUGHT OF 2012

nj.com

Drought decreased production in 2012 by 30-60% in the U.S.

+ 1°C = 10-17% decline in grain yields in the world

Reduction in crop yield in SSA by 8-22%

TYPES OF DROUGHT

Meteorological: Long-term deficiency of precipitation Hydrological: Decline of water in rivers, reservoirs, aquifers, etc. Pedological: Reduction in soil water storage Agronomic: Low availability at critical stages of crop growth Ecological: Low water availability because of land use conversion Sociological: Demand of a community exceeding supply due to water deficit

ON-SET OF ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS (Ruddiman, 2005)

A trend of increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration began 8000 years ago, and that in CH4 5000 years ago, corresponding with the dawn of settled agriculture with attendant deforestation, soil cultivation, spread of rice paddies and raising cattle.

ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS (Pg) BY CARBON CIVILIZATION

I.  Land use (i)  Prehistoric :320 (ii) 1750-2010 :136 (iii) 2010-2030 :30

II. Fossil Fuel combustion (i) 1750-2010 :200

(ii) 2010-2030 :190

These emissions have and will affect the ecosystems from which we derive food, feed, fiber, fuel and shelter.

II. Oil Consumption •  87.4 m bbl/day •  0.6 gallons/day (3 gallon/day USA)

III. Gas Use •  8.1 b m3/day

THE CARBON CIVILIZATION

Drinking water need = 0.6 gallon/day

Beer consumption in Ohio: 0.1 gallon/day

I. Coal Production (Mt/yr) •  1860: 132 Mt/yr •  2010: 3731 Mt/yr

DEGRADED LAND (BAI et al., 2008)

Category Quantity

Degrading Area 3.5 Bha Territory 23.54 (%)

GLOBAL SOIL DEGRADATION (109ha) •  Water Erosion : 1.09 (Oldeman, 1994) •  Wind Erosion : 0.55 (Oldeman, 1994) •  Salinization : 0.85 (FAO, 2005)

•  Survival and desperation. •  Purposely overuse of resources (subsidies). •  Human greed and corruption, desire to produce and consume in a “world without limit” and expectations: competition, territory and power. •  Ignorance and misunderstanding about functioning of soil ecosystems: unsustainable soil use and management based on lack of knowledge (The Groundnut Scheme of Tanganyka in the 1950s)

CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

GLOBAL SOIL EROSION & DYNAMICS OF SOIL ORGANIC CARBON

1500 x 1 0 15 C

1.1 x 10 15 g/ y r

5.7 x 10 15 g/ y r C

3.99 x 10 15 g/ y r

0.57 x 10 15 g/ y r

decomposition and emission to the atmosphere

Stored within the terrestrial ecosystem

Displaced due to erosion

Transported to the ocean

In world soil

Desperateness Increase in erosion risks between 1980s and 2090:

Africa….+36% World....+14%

THE GULLIED LAND IN WEST AFRICA

Urbanization and Land

•  It takes 40,000 ha to provide accommodation and infrastructure to 1 million people

•  Annual increase of 75 million people, takes ~3 Mha of prime land out of production

•  By 2015, 236 cities in the world will be ≥ 10 million people

•  A city of 10 million requires 6000 tones of food/day

USING TOP SOIL FOR BRICK MAKING IN ASIA TO ACCOMMODATE RAPID URBANIZATION

•  Feeding 7 billion in 2010 takes cropland area size of South America

•  Feeding 9.2 billion in 2050 would take the land area of South America & Brazil

•  Land grabs in 2011 mostly in Africa: 57 Mha (140 million acres)

FUTURE FOOD DEMAND

REQUIRED CEREAL YIELDS AND PRODUCTION TO MEET FUTURE DEMANDS

(WILD, 2003)

Year Yield (Mg/ha) Total Production (106M) 2005 2025 2050

3.27 3.60 4.30

2240 2780 3255 (6.00)

(4.40) (4553) (3629)

(with change to animal-based diet)

GLOBAL WATER USE (Kondratyev et al., 2003)

Year Total Agricultural Industrial Urban Agriculture as ------------------------109m3/yr------------------------ % of Total

Year Total Agricultural Industrial Urban Agriculture as ----------------------109m3/yr------------------- % of Total

1900 430 350 30 20 81.4 1940 870 660 120 40 75.9 1950 1190 860 190 60 72.3 1960 1990 1510 310 80 75.9 1970 2630 1930 510 120 73.4 1975 3080 2100 630 150 68.2 1985 3970 2400 1100 250 60.5 1995 4750 2760 1560 320 58.1 2000 6000 3400 1900 440 56.7 Increase 14.0 9.7 63.3 22

Year Total Agricultural Industrial Urban Agriculture as ----------------------109m3/yr------------------- % of Total

1900 430 350 30 20 81.4 2000 6000 3400 1900 440 56.7 Increase 14.0 9.7 63.3 22

1900 430 350 30 20 81.4 2000 6000 3400 1900 440 56.7

Increase

14.0

9.7

63.3 22

TUBEWELL IRRIGATION IN PUNJAB, INDIA

Rapid depletion of the ground water in the Indo-Gangetic Plains is partly attributed to subsidies and free electricity.

No one protects or safeguards an

undervalued resource.

GLOBAL FERTILIZER USE (IFDC, 2004)

Year

Fertilizer Use (106 Mg) Total N P K

Year

Fertilizer Use (106 Mg) Total N P K

1950 <10 - - 10 1960 11.6 10.9 8.7 31.2 1970 31.8 21.1 16.4 73.3 1980 60.8 31.7 24.2 116.7 1990 77.2 36.3 24.5 138.0 2000 80.9 32.5 21.8 135.2 2003 84.7 33.6 23.2 141.6

Year

Fertilizer Use (106 Mg) Total N P K

1950 <10 - - 10 1960 11.6 10.9 8.7 31.2 2000 80.9 32.5 21.8 135.2

1950 <10 - - 10 1960 11.6 10.9 8.7 31.2 2000 80.9 32.5 21.8 135.2

•  Five countries (Morocco, China, SA, USA and Jordan) control 90% of the P reserves •  High P causes anoxia in coastal ecosystems

Is there a peak soil? Are there endangered soils?

HUBERT CURVE

1. Reduce post-harvest losses

: 10-40% (Developing countries) 2. Minimize food waste

(farm à fork à landfill)

: 20-40% (Developed countries)

3. Reduce diversion of food to biofuels

: ~1/3 of corn in U.S.

4. Prefer plant-based diet : 6-8 kg grain/kg of meat on grain-fed livestock

5. Per capita grain consumption

: India= 170 kg/yr USA = 635 kg/yr

Diet

STRATEGIES OF FEEDING 10 BILLION

1.  Promote an efficient use of food produced: 2.  Adopt climate-resilient sustainable intensification of agriculture

More than one-fourth of all the water we use worldwide is taken to grow over one

billion tons of food that no one eats (Global Water Week, 2012)

WASTED RESOURCES

WASTED FOOD GRAINS DUE TO LACK OF STORAGE FACILITIES

Wasted Morsels

SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT

•  Replace what is removed, •  Respond wisely to what is changed, and •  Predict what will happen from anthropogenic and natural perturbations

Country/ Region

Crop

Yield (Mg/ha) Present Potential Gap

India Wheat 3 7.5 4.5 Rice 5 8.8 3.8

SSA Maize 0.7 4.5 3.8 Lobell et al. (2009)

YIELD GAP OF MAJOR CROPS

RESIDUE REMOVAL FOR COMPETING USES

N 36 15 51

NUTRIENTS REMOVED PER Mg OF CORN GRAINS AND STOVER (kg/ha)

….. Calculated from Bundy ( 2012 )

Nutrient Grains Stover TOTAL N 36 15 51 P 8 2 10 K 9 37 46

Ca 0.3 8.7 9 Mg 2.3 6.3 8.6 S 2.7 2.1 4.8 Zn 0.03 0.05 0.08 B 0.007 0.03 0.04

Mn 0.02 0.1 0.12 Fe 0.02 0.33 0.35

Cu 0.003 0.026 0.03

TOTAL

58.4

71.8

130.2

Nutrient Grains Stover TOTAL

TOTAL 58.4 71.8 130.2

P 8 2 10 K 9 37 46

“Soil biota is the bioengine of the Earth”

There is no such thing as a free biofuel from crop residues.

ECONOMICS OF RESIDUE REMOVAL FOR BIOFUEL

ALCOHOL OR HUMUS

“I am arguing against indiscriminant conversion of biomass and organic wastes to fuels. The humus capital, which is substantial, deserves being maintained because good soils are a national asset”.

……Hans Jenny (1980)

ATMOSPHERIC BROWN CLOUD CAUSED BY TRADITIONAL BIOFUELS

(NYT 4-16-09)

TRADITIONAL BIOFUEL FROM ANIMAL MANURE

More plant nutrients are burnt in dung as household fuel than chemical fertilizers

used/yr in India.

Crop Yield Increase (Kg/Ha/Mg C) Maize 100 - 300 Soybeans 20 - 50 Wheat 20 - 70 Rice 10 - 50 Sorghum 80 - 140 Millet 30 - 70 Beans 30 - 60

30-50 million tons/yr in developing countries

CROP YIELD INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN SOC BY 1 Mg C/Ha

(LAL, 2005)

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

It involves any activity that reduces the negative impacts of climate change through anticipatory or reactive strategies

take advantage of new and beneficial opportunities that may be presented.

and/or

N, P, K, Zn, H2O"

TOWARDS C-NEUTRAL AGRICULTURE

Nano-enhanced Materials

Plants which emit molecular-based

signals No-till Farming

NPP

5 x

10-9

Pg

C/h

a

12.5 x 10-12 Pg C/ha/y v

NPP

5 x

10-9

Pg

C/h

a/y

+ 2

ppm

CO

2/y

THE NPP OF A CORN FIELD IS 400 TIMES THE ANNUAL INCREASE IN ATMOSPHERIC C POOL

NBP≅3PgC/yr

Most cost effective option

SOIL AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Sustainable Soil

Management

1. Causes of Soil

Degradation

•  The biophysical process of soil degradation is driven by economic, social and political forces. •  Vulnerability to degradation depends on “how” rather than “what” is grown.

2. Soil Stewardship

& Human Suffering 3.

Nutrient, Carbon, &

Water Bank

4. Marginality Principle

5. Organic vs. Inorganic

Nutrients 6. Soil Carbon

& GHG Effect

8. Soil as Sink for

Atmospheric CO2 7.

Soil vs.

Germplasm

9. Engine of Economic Development

10. Traditional Knowledge &

Modern Innovations

•  When people are poverty stricken, desperate and starving, they pass on their sufferings to the land.

•  It is not possible to take more out of a soil than what is put in it without degrading its quality. •  Only by replacing what is taken can a soil be kept fertile, productive, and responsive to inputs.

•  Marginal soils cultivated with marginal inputs produce marginal yields and support marginal living. •  Recycling is a good strategy especially when there is something to recycle.

EX NIHILO NIHIL FIT (NOTHING COMES FROM NOTHING)

1. Nothing is appropriated: There are always trade offs (give and take). Law or Concept Implications

2. Nothing is permanent: Everything is in a dynamic equilibrium and a transient state. 3. Nothing is absolute: All processes, properties and values are relative to a baseline. 4. Nothing is a panacea: There is no silver bullet, there is a multitude/ menu of options. 5. Nothing is universal: Soil/site/region specificity is an important consideration which cannot be overlooked. 6. Nothing tangible is free: Under valuing a commodity leads to “Tragedy of the Commons”. 7. Nothing is empty (vacuum) in nature: All space is occupied, pores in solid rock contain water or air and injecting something (liquid CO2), fracking solutions can create shock waves. 8. Nothing is given or for granted: It is the judicious use and management which produce goods and services. 9. Nothing is a waste: Everything in nature has a use. 10. Nothing is nothing: There is no such thing as nothing.

• Humans have not had to deal with such a drastic climate change since 10-12 millennia ago

• Now the humans, with population of 7.2 billion and projected to be 10 billion, have to deal with it and increasingly so in the future

• Yet, there is no consensus as in Rio +20

Illustration by Lincoln Agnew, NYT 4/21/2013

CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN RESPONSE

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS IN AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT Judaism : The word “homo” (man) is derived from the Latin word “humus” or the decomposed organic matter in soil, which is the essence of all terrestrial life. The Hebrew phrase “Tikkun Olam” means “repairing/restoring the world”.

Gita : “It is important to care for hills and cows and protect the forests”. (10:35; 500-1000 BC)

Buddhism : “One should not break even the branch of a tree that has given one shelter”. (Petavatthu II, 9, 3)

Christianity : The word “Adam” (man) is derived from the Hebrew word “adama” meaning “earth” or “soil”

Greek

: The daughter of Earth goddess “Gaea” named Themis (goddess of Law), and her descendent Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility

Romans : The Earth goddess (Tellus) was related to the goddess of fertility and harvest (Ceres).

Quran : “It is He who produces gardens. With trellises and without, and dates, and cultivated land with produce of all kinds, and olives and pomegranates, similar (in kind) and different (in variety): Eat of these fruits in their season, but render the dues that are proper on the day that the harvest is gathered. But waste not by excess: For God loves not the wasteful”. (Quran 6:141)

Judaism : The word “homo” (man) is derived from the Latin word “humus” or the decomposed organic matter in soil, which is the essence of all terrestrial life. The Hebrew phrase “Tikkun Olam” means “repairing restoring the world”.

Hinduism : Human body is made of “Kshiti (soil), Jal (water), Pawak (energy), Gagan

(sky/space), Sameere (air)” (Prasna Upanishad) Sikhism : Air is the Guru, water is the Father, and soil is the Great Mother of all. (Gurbani) Buddhism : “One should not break even the branch of a tree that has given one shelter”

(Petavatthu II, 9, 3) Christianity: The word “Adam” (man) is derived from the Hebrew word “adama” meaning

“earth” or “soil” Greek : The daughter of Earth goddess “Gaea” named Themis (goddess of Law), and

her descendent Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility Romans : The Earth goddess (Tellus) was related to the goddess of fertility and harve

(Ceres)

Islam : “He created the man of clay like the potters” (Suhrah Al-Rhman, verse 14)

“We made from water every living thing” (Quŕan 25:54)

“Do not overuse water even if you are on a running river” (Prophet Mohammad)

Khalil : Trees are poems (rubbiat) that earth writes upon the sky. We fell them down Gibran and then turned them into paper, so that we may record our emptiness.

1. Wealth without work

GANDHI’S 7 SINS OF HUMANITY

7. Science without humanity

6. Religion without sacrifice

5. Politics without principle

4. Commerce without morality

3. Knowledge without character

2. Pleasure without conscience

TRILEMMA OF OF SOIL DEGRADATION (Rates per Minute)

Causes •  Population increase: 150 people (births 250, deaths 100) •  CO2 carbon increase: 6150 ton •  Tropical deforestation: 25 ha •  Urban encroachment: 5.5 ha

Effects •  Soil degradation: 10 ha •  Deaths from hunger: 16 people (incl. 12 children) Consequences

•  2.5kg/capita/day municipal waste (USA) •  Political instability •  Civil strife

10. Humanity without conscience

GANDHI’S SINS OF HUMANITY Continued…

8. Technology without wisdom 9. Education without relevance