Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad Barcelona 1992 – Volume III
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Transcript of Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad Barcelona 1992 – Volume III
Official Reportof the Games of theXXV OlympiadBarcelona 1992
Official Reportof the Games of theXXV OlympiadBarcelona 1992
Volume III
The organisationThe preparation of the Games
COOB'92
Director of the Report:Romá Cuyàs
Cover illustration:Original picture by Antoni Clavéproduced specially for this edition andkindly presented to COOB'92 by the artist
Graphic design:Zimmermann Asociados, S.L.
Editorial coordination andphotocomposition:Thema Equipo Editorial
COOB'92 would like to thank thefollowing companies for their help withthe preparation of this work:
And special thanks for assistance withdistribution to:
Photomechanics:Fotomecànica Barcelona; Cromoarte
Printing, binding and case:Cayfosa Indústria Gràfica
Paper:Ikonorex Special Matt de 150 gmanufactured by Zanders and distributedin Spain by Torraspapel, S.A.
Distribution:Enciclopèdia Catalana, S.A.
Published by:COOB'92, S.A.© 1992 COOB'92, S.A.
Plaça de la Font Màgica, s/n08038 Barcelona
ISBN:84-7868-107-8 (4 Volume set)84-7868-110-8 (Volume III)
DL:B-17458-93
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
2.1.
2.2.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
Contents
Editor's note by Romá Cuyàs
1. The organisation of the competitions
The sports
Objectives of the organisation
Organisation and evolution of the Sports Directorate GeneralSports organisationPlanning, control and logisticsRelations with the IFs and the NOCs
Sports organisation projectsThe technical-sports committeesAgreements with the IFsThe multi-sports blocksThe sports techniciansThe test events and the Competitions '91The organisation staff during the Games
Sports logistics projectsCalendar and timetablePublicationsThe referees training programmeSports materialEntries
Summary
2. The torch and the ceremonies
The Olympic torchObjectives, sectors and phases of the projectThe route and the association with companies and institutionsThe relays and the bearersThe convoy and the operation
The ceremoniesThe opening and closing ceremoniesThe victory ceremonies
3. The media
Press and photographersHuman resourcesPress centres
Ràdio-televisió Olímpica'92 (RTO'92)The project: from the ORTJO to the birth of RTO'92The resources of RTO'92The international signal for the GamesPersonalized coverageTelecommunications
The Communications Media CentreRental spaces at the MPCRental spaces at the IBC
4. The adaptation of the facilities
The stages of the Olympic adaptationThe scope of the project
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5.3.
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6.2.
6.3.
7.1.
7.2.
ContractingProgramming and implementing the adaptationThe human resources
5. Materials logistics
Materials managementPlanning and managing the suppliesType and surface area of the warehousesStorage, distribution and transportThe organisation at the unitsHuman resources
Import-export operationsThe operation before the GamesMaterials requiring special treatment
Uniforms
6. Technology
General considerations and evolutionThe phases of the technology projectsOrganisation and evolution of the technology projectsThe projectStrategies and adaptationThe CIOTHuman resourcesThe systems and servicesThe operation of the technology systems
ComputingArchitecture and equipmentMultiple Access to Communication and Information (AMIC)Operations Management Information System (SIGO)The Barcelona'92 results management systemInternal computingThe Alcatel project
TelecommunicationsPublic telecommunicationsPrivate telecommunicationsRadio communicationsElectronicsElectronic securityThe organisation of the telecommunications operation
7. Accommodation
The VillagesAgreements with the promotersSpace distribution and adaptation worksThe planning and organisation model for the VillagesHuman resourcesThe Barcelona Olympic VillageThe Olympic Villages in Banyoles and La Seu d'UrgellThe Parc de Mar VillageThe Vall d'Hebron VillageThe Montigalà VillageOccupation of the Villages
Hotels and shipsPlanningThe operationThe ships
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919192949596
979899
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107111113114117121122123124
127127133139145149154
157157160163167173179
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183183184185186186198199199200201
203203207209
7.3.
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
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8.6.
8.7.
8.8.
9.1.
The International Youth CampThe locationThe adaptationThe resources
8. Olympic Family Services
AccreditationsThe phases of the projectBasic criteriaThe project: scope, elements and technologyThe pre-arrival operationThe operation
ReceptionThe servicesThe Olympic area at Barcelona airportHuman resourcesThe evolution of the projectThe operations phase
ProtocolThe protocol projectStructure of the External Relations Division and human resourcesVisits and other official functionsThe protocol working partyThe grandstand at the ceremoniesVIP services
TransportThe servicesThe management of parking spaces at the unitsResourcesOrganisation during the operational phaseTraffic and transport regulations during the GamesTraffic during the Games
Health care servicesPlanning the health care servicesHuman and material resourcesThe operational plans
Language servicesTranslation and correction of textsStyle books and sports glossariesInterpretationAnnouncers
CateringCatering for competitors and officialsCatering for the judges and refereesCatering for the mediaCatering for the VIPsCatering for Team'92
MeteorologyThe preparation of the projectThe operation during the Games
9. Olympic security
Security at the GamesPlanningOrganisation during the GamesEmergenciesThe implementation of the projects
215215216217
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221221221221228231
237237237237239242
245245245246247250251
255255260261262262266
269269270271
281281282283285
287287290292295295
299299299
303
305305305307307
9.2.
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
10.6.
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
12.1.
12.2.
12.3.
Security at COOB'92COOB'92 internal securityAccess controlSecurity at the units and in the citiesHuman resources for security: internal security
10. Image and communication
Identity and designThe Barcelona'92 symbolsSignposting and the lookOther projects
The promotion of the GamesThe travelling exhibitionThe permanent exhibitionThe Cobi cartoonsThe promotion campaignsPromotional material
Relations with the mediaThe Alcatel project for Barcelona'92The official newspaper
PublicationsThe Publications DepartmentThe Publications Plan
Public informationThe human resourcesRange of informationInformation publications
The Official Report and FilmThe Official ReportThe Official Film
11. Commercial management
The commercial programmeSponsorshipThe licencesThe collectionsThe lotteriesThe concessions
The Sponsors Reception Centre
The television rights
The ticketsThe main characteristics of the ticketsPricesDistributionSales of tickets during the Games
12. Appendices
The associate companies
The COOB'92 publications
Tables, maps and photo credits
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Editor's forewordRomà Cuyàs i SolDirector ofthe Official Report
The Olympic Games are one of the most complex and demanding eventstoday. To guarantee success a high level of planning is indispensable, butso is a capacity for improvisation to deal with the incidents whichinevitably crop up in a project which simply cannot be rehearsedbeforehand. The Barcelona Games, which bore little resemblance toearlier Olympics, called for an effort of preparation and organisationwhich was without precedent in this country in terms of length or intensity.
The eleven chapters of this volume, which is entitled The organisation,describe the process of preparing and operating all the projects whichCOOB'92 mounted to produce the results described in Volume IV,Sixteen days in summer.
First of all, it talks about the sports organisation itself: the competitionsand the route of the torch and the ceremonies. The next four chapters dealwith the "material" aspects of planning: adaptation of the venues, logistics,technology and accommodation. Next comes a description of the workdone in the field of the services which the Organising Committee had toprovide for the Olympic Family, and a fundamental matter: security. Lastare the two aspects in which the Barcelona'92 organisation stood out mostnotably from earlier Olympics: image and commercial management.
To produce the book which the reader has in front of him, clarity had tobe combined with precision of information. The reports written by theorganisation project managers had be restyled with the twofold aim of thisReport in view: to supply all the information which may be of use to theorganisers of future Games and people interested in the world of sport,but to do so in a manner which will appeal to a wider audience.
Our hope is that the quantity and quality of the information —text andillustrations— in this volume do justice to the quantity and quality of thework done in the organisation of the Games which have beenacknowledged as the best in modern history.
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The sports organisationcovered the competitionsystem, the grounds and thematerial required for all theevents on the programme,including human resources,referees and judges,publications, draws andcalendar.
The sports
The 1987 edition of the Olympic Charter,which was valid for the organisation of theBarcelona Games, included a list of 24sports on the Olympic programme: the 23which had been played at Seoul (archery,athletics, basketball, boxing, canoeing,cycling, equestrian sports, fencing,football, gymnastics, handball, hockey,judo, modern pentathlon, rowing,shooting, swimming, table tennis, tennis,volleyball, weightlifting, wrestling andyachting), with the addition of badminton(an exhibition sport in Seoul). Theresponsibilities of the OrganisingCommittee of the Olympic Games(OCOG), the International Federations(IF) and the International OlympicCommittee (IOC) itself concerning thecompetitions in those sports in Barcelonawere set out in the following terms:"The OCOG is responsible for theintegration of the various sports into theprogramme, but it shall meet the wishes ofthe IFs as far as possible. The finaldecision on any conflict of views is madeby the IOC. The order of all competitionswithin each sport is the responsibility ofthe IF concerned after consultation withthe OCOG."
Following these instructions, at the end of1987 the 25 sports which were to be on theOlympic programme were made official(the 24 from the Olympic Charter plusbaseball, which had been a demonstrationsport in Seoul). At the request of the IFs,new events were introduced in severalsports and there were two new disciplines:the women's category in judo, which hadbeen a demonstration sport in Seoul,became part of the official programmeand white water slalom returned to thecanoeing competition.
The 1987 edition of the Olympic Charteralso provided for competitions in twoother sports, the so-called "demonstrationsports", which are off the officialprogramme. The rules for selection,accreditation, medals and protocol had tobe different from those for the officialones. The demonstration sports werealmost always included on the officialOlympic programme at subsequentGames. Displays of traditional orminority sports, the so-called"exhibition sports", were also allowedalongside the Games.
In the case of Barcelona, thedemonstration and exhibition sports were
selected together. Since the Candidaturephase, three demonstration sports hadbeen planned (one more than the numberprovided for in the Olympic Charter):pelota, roller hockey and taekwondo.23 applications for exhibition sports hadbeen received: bowling, seven-a-sidefootball, golf, karate, Canary wrestling,León wrestling, swimming with flippers,orienteering, parachuting, petanque,Valencian pelota, slalom canoeing,racquets, raid militaire (a long distancecross-country race on horseback), waterskiing, putting, softball, squash, sling shot,trials, skate sailing and beach volleyball.The proposals were all studied, but manywere eliminated by the technicians'reports. Some, it was suggested, could bepart of the Cultural Olympiad programmeand nine were considered viable in theory:bowling, golf, karate, parachuting,petanque, racquets, raid militaire, softball,and squash. At a later stage the list wasreduced to four: bowling, golf, softball,and squash.
But when, in December 1989, the IOCExecutive Board accepted taekwondo asthe third demonstration sport forBarcelona, COOB'92 decided not toorganise any exhibition sports and theprogramme was definitively set at 25Olympic and 3 demonstration sports.
Objectives of the organisation
From the outset, all efforts wereconcentrated on the organisation of thecompetitions themselves and the logisticalaspects most closely related to them.Consequently, a whole series of matters(from accommodation for the competitorsto ticket sales) which, at a championshipin a single sport, would have come underthe sports organisation were outside itsscope. The sheer scale of an event such asthe Olympic Games fully justified othersectors of the Organising Committeeassuming these responsibilities.
And so, for each of the 25 official and 3demonstration sports the preparatorywork covered the competition system, thevenue and sports material, the humanresources, the referees and judges, thepublications, the draws, the calendar andtimetable and the design of the finaloperation. Naturally, the otherdepartments of COOB'92 had to benotified of requirements affecting anyproject related to the preparation of thecompetitions
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All this made up the internalprogramme of the Sports Division. Butthere was also work to be done outside: aseries of committees took charge ofrelations with the world of sport,beginning with the IOC via the IFs downto the Spanish and Catalan federations.That was one of the unquestionablesuccesses of the sports organisation teamsince, as opposed to what had usuallyhappened at previous Games, thenegotiations reached a satisfactoryconclusion, thus avoiding theinvolvement of the remainder of theOrganising Committee andinterference with other aspects of theorganisation.
According to the terms of the OlympicCharter, the programming for each sportmust be done in close contact with therelevant IF and so the people in charge ofthe sports organisation coordinated theirtask with the technical delegates of thefederations over a period of three or fouryears.
The Spanish and Catalan federations, inturn, played an important part in thesports organisation with technical adviceand, most of all, through the humanresources they provided from the outset.Moreover, COOB'92 and the Spanishfederations took on an importantcommitment to train the judges andscorers for the Games. In the case of mostof the sports, the training programme gotunder way in the third quarter of 1990.
Some sports with longtraditions introducednovelties into theirprogrammes, particularly inthe women's category. Someexamples were the inclusionof the 10 km walk inathletics (1) and the LechnerA-390 class in the yachtingcompetition (2).
In Barcelona, badmintonwas an official Olympicsport for the first time.
Another novelty on theGames programme was thereturn of wild water slalomto the canoeing competition.It had not appeared sinceMunich in 1972.
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1 and 2
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Organisation and evolution ofthe Sports Directorate General
Along broad lines, the evolution of theorganisation structure up to the start ofthe operational phase may be divided intothree stages. In the first, which began assoon as COOB'92 was constituted, theSports Division was under a deputydirector general. In 1988, when a divisiondirector and a planning project managerjoined the team, the second stage beganand the tasks were divided between threedepartments: Sports Organisation,Sports Logistics and Relations with theIFs and the National OlympicCommittees (NOCs). Lastly, from thethird quarter of 1990, the Sports Divisionbecame the Directorate General of Sportsand the three departments becamedivisions.
Aside from this internal organisation,COOB'92 was assisted by a number ofsports consultancy bodies. The first onehad been constituted well before, in 1987:
it was the Sports Commission. It metquarterly and was made up of members ofevery official sports institution (theHigher Sports Council, the GeneralitatSports Department, the BarcelonaCity Council Sports Department, theSpanish Olympic Committee, theSpanish and Catalan federations). Thepurpose of the Commission was to keepthe COOB'92 Standing Committeeinformed of the progress of the sportsprojects.
Sports organisation
An in-depth on-the-spot analysis of theSeoul Games in 1988 was fundamental tothe design of the basic structure of theBarcelona sports organisation.The 27 sports projects on the Olympiccalendar (which had become 28 by April1989 with the inclusion of taekwondo asthe third demonstration sport) weredivided up into four large multi-sportsblocks.
Organisation chart of the SportsDirectorate General (1991)
15
The Sports Organisation Department alsoundertook to study and make proposalsfor the exhibition sports and to plan andorganise the test events and trial runsbefore the Games. It also had to payparticular attention to the question of thehealth of the horses as a result of theoutbreaks of African equine feverdetected in Andalusia in 1989 and 1990.The IF even contemplated the possibilityof holding the competition elsewhere(there was a precedent in Melbourne in1956, when the strict quarantineregulations prevented horses fromentering Australia and the event was heldin Stockholm), but in December 1990 theIOC Executive Board reached anirrevocable agreement to hold theequestrian events in Barcelona.
From the second half of 1991, the 28sports were redistributed in five multi-sports blocks. Once the test events wereover, COOB'92 appointed all the sportsdirectors for the competition venues.
Planning, control and logistics
The planning and projects which werecommon to all the sports and basic to thespecific organisation of each competitioncame under the authority of the SportsLogistics Department. Later on we shallbe looking at some of the projects thatwere carried out.
Two complementary projects for IFservices were also set in motion. The firstconsisted of providing logistical andhuman resources support for theorganisation of federation congresses heldat the same time as the Games: cycling,swimming, modern pentathlon andvolleyball (in Barcelona) and gymnasticsand roller hockey (in Salou). The otherwas the preparation of the draws which, inthe case of most sports, were used todecide which teams would play which orto produce the start lists for differentevents.
As a result of the outbreaksof African equine feverwhich were detected inAndalucía in 1989 and1990, there was a risk thatthe equestrian events wouldnot be held in Barcelona.
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During the organisationstage, COOB'92 heldmeetings with all theinternational federations ofthe summer Olympic sportsto show them the venues anddraft the Games calendar. Inthe photograph, one of theofficial visits by members ofthe top sportingorganisations brought thedirectors of the InternationalRowing Federation (FISA)to Banyoles (11 April 1988).
The task of the directors of the multi-sports blocks inevitably includedcoordination with the IF of the sportswithin their sphere of competence. Themeetings, convened by the director, wererun and organised by the Department ofRelations with the IFs and the NOCs,which reported back to the ChiefExecutive Officer's Cabinet.
The NOCs could also request a visit to thecity and a reception by COOB'92 in orderto see the progress of the preparations atfirst hand. Also in liaison with the ChiefExecutive Officer's Cabinet, 216 visitswere organised between 1988 and the firsthalf of 1992.
The technical-sports committees
In the second quarter of 1988, a technical-sports committee was constituted for eachsport. In each case the committee waschaired by the president of the Spanishfederation for the sport and there werethree other members: a secretary, arepresentative of the Catalan federationand an executive technician. The functionof these committees was to advise theSports Organisation Department and theother executive bodies of COOB'92.According to the requirements of eachsport, two or three meetings wereconvened each year.
Agreements with the IFs
During the first half of 1988 most of theagreements between COOB'92 and the
3 Relations with the IFs and the NOCs Sports organisation projects
3 17
International Federations were signed.They set out the essential parameters forthe events (competition system, numberof competitors, etc.) and thecharacteristics of the territorial units(competition and warm-up areas,spectator capacity, first drafts of thecalendar). In April 1989, taking advantageof the biannual congress of theAssociation of Summer OlympicInternational Federations (ASOIF) whichwas held that time in Barcelona, aprogramme of meetings with thefederations was prepared. Among otherthings, the meetings provided informationabout the work done at the differentvenues since the signing of theagreements.
The only federation with which anagreement was never signed was theHockey Federation, which never acceptedthe proposed venue; they wanted thecompetition to be held in Barcelona andnot Terrassa. As the IOC endorsed the
COOB'92 proposal, the choice waseventually imposed, but the definitivecompetition calendar was not closed untilFebruary 1992, just a few months beforethe Games.
The multi-sports blocks
When designing the basic structure of theorganisation of the 28 projects for thesports on the Olympic calendar, theSports Organisation Departmentrecognised the need to group them inbalanced blocks. The parameters takeninto account for establishing the blockswere the number of people who had to bemobilized during the competition, theinternal budget assigned, the number ofvenues involved and a subjectiveassessment of the degree of complexity ofthe organisation.
Between the first quarter of 1989 and thelast of 1991, the multi-sports blocks
After the nomination, twomeetings of the Associationof International SummerOlympic Federations(ASOIF) were held inBarcelona: the first in 1989and the second —in thephotographs— in 1991.
1 2
1 and 2
18
The work of the sportstechnicians in charge oforganising the competitionsfor Barcelona'92 began withthe observation of theGames in Seoul in 1988.
established the bases for the workcommon to all of them, deciding the areaswhere there would be tasks to be donejointly, specifying the operational schemefor each block and ensuring coordinationwith the projects of other divisions ofCOOB'92. All this was done under thesupervision of the technical-sportscommittees. Later, the blocks set thebases for the competition manuals whicheach sports technician was to draft for thefinal operations phase within theframework of the Standard OperationsPlan approved by COOB'92.
The sports technicians
The technicians of the technical-sportscommittee for each sport, appointed atthe suggestion of the IF, began their workwith an observation of the Seoul OlympicGames. So that everyone would begathering the same kind of information,the Seoul'88 Observation Manual was
drafted and a copy filled in by eachtechnician. From then until the end of1991, other competitions of interest wereselected and observed at a rate of at leasttwo per sport per year, or 214 altogether(92 in Spain, 103 in the rest of Europe and19 on other continents).
From the second half of 1989, accordingto the organisational complexity of eachsport the technicians gradually joined thefull-time staff of COOB'92. Their job wasto take charge of the organisation projectfor each of the 25 sports on the officialprogramme and the 3 demonstrationsports; from January 1991 they wereclassified as sports directors.
Over their four years of activity, thesports technicians were in charge ofdrafting the progress reports which werepresented periodically to the IFs; theychose the particular material required fortheir competition; they attended to thefederation delegations who came to
3 4
5
3, 4 and 5
19
1
2 3
20
COOB'92 organised threepre-Olympic events inyachting (1), rowing (2) andcanoeing (3), in fulfilment ofthe terms of the OlympicCharter and as part of theprogramme ofCompetitions'91.
The different programmesfor Competitions'91 (whichtook place between June andDecember of that year), hada unifying image.
The Competitions'91 were anecessary and useful trialrun for the Games for thewhole organisation.
Barcelona to see the progress of theorganisation and visit the venues; theypassed on the requirements of thecompetition (results management,construction, accreditation, etc.) to projectmanagers in other divisions; theyprepared the training programme to beheld from 11 July 1992 to the end of theGames; and, in general, they took chargeof the organisation of the pre-Olympicevent or test event in their sport in 1991.
The test events and theCompetitions'91
As well as observing competitions aroundthe world, COOB'92 was involved inorganising some itself as a way of puttingthe operational projects in progress to thetest. As early as 1990, simulations werecarried out in the form of school or localevents (some without competition) andthey were repeated in 1991 and 1992.However, most of the really important
events were concentrated in the yearbefore the Games.
First of all, top level official competitions,convened by the Spanish federations,were used to try out the sportsorganisation and other functional projects,especially the technological ones.Wherever possible, these competitionswere held at Olympic venues.
Secondly, at the same venues and on thesame dates as the Games themselves (oneyear before), the Competitions'91 wereorganised. As there were events in manysports on the same days, thesecompetitions could well be regarded as anauthentic rehearsal for the Games and apreliminary to the dress rehearsals whichwould be held two months before theopening.
The Competitions'91 brought together thepre-Olympic events which the 1987Olympic Charter specifies as obligatory
1, 2 and 3
4
5
4 5 21
A total of 5,305 peopleworked on the organisationof the competitions, most ofthem volunteers. Amongmany other functions, theorganisation staff performedtasks during the Gameswhich ranged frommeasuring (2 and 5) andresults control (1) to groundmaintenance (4) andmanaging the sportsmaterial warehouse (3).
1, 2. 3, 4 and 5
2 3
4
5
1
22
for the Organising Committee. In the caseof Barcelona, they were canoeing, rowingand yachting.
For the directors, the Sports Divisionand the other divisions of COOB'92, theCompetitions'91 were a useful trial runfor the final operation. An assessmentof the results led to a restructuring orstrengthening of some departments, theappointment over the following monthsof the teams who would manage thecompetition venues and theestablishment of the calendar fordeployment and occupation of theterritorial units.
The organisation staff duringthe Games
A list of the organisation tasks to becarried out during the Olympic Gameswas made for each sport and there was acount of the number of staff required to
ensure the smooth running of all thecompetition venues and training facilities.
Listing the tasks made it possible toestablish a common organisationstructure, headed by the sports director,for all cases. The CompetitionOrganisation Management (the sportsdirector and assistant, the competitionservice and the person in charge of theofficials and assistant) had four largedependant departments: competitioncontrol, which covered all functionsrelated to the practical aspects of theevents at the venue itself, from thepreparation and maintenance of theplaying area and results control to publicaddress systems and audio-visualproduction; sports organisation, whichmanaged the different parts of the unit—sports material store, warm-up zone,mixed zone, changing rooms— andcoordinated the victory ceremonies;a competitor service; and a trainingservice.
Sports organisation staff during theGames
AR - Archery
AT - Athletics
BA - Baseball
BB - Basketball
BM - Badminton
BO - Boxing
CA - Canoeing
CY - Cycling
EQ - Equestrian sports
FB - Football
FE - Fencing
GY - Gymnastics
HB - Handball
HO - Hockey
JU - Judo
MP - Modern pentathlon
RO - Rowing
SH - Shooting
SW - Swimming
TE - Tennis
TT - Table tennis
VB - Volleyball
WL - Weightlifting
WR - Wrestling
YA - Yachting
PE - Pelota
RH - Roller hockey
TK - Taekwondo
Total
1
3
2
1
1
1
2
3
2
5
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
4
1
7
3
1
1
1
1
4
10
4
2
1
1
6
1
6
1
1
5
86
427
118
169
66
91
268
272
511
188
179
364
99
119
151
138
128
198
209
262
117
308
61
68
479
58
124
147
5,405
UnitsCompetition Training and other Staff
23
Calendar and number ofvictory ceremonies
(*) The four preliminary matches on the first day of the football competition were played on 24 July 1992
July AugustTotal
ceremonies
Olympic sports25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AR Archery
AT Athletics
BA Baseball
BB Basketball
BM Badminton
BO Boxing
CA Canoeing
CY Cycling
EQ Equestrian sports
FB Football
FE Fencing
GY Gymnastics
HB Handball
HO Hockey
JU Judo
MP Modern pentathlon
RO Rowing
SH Shooting
SW Swimming
DV Diving
SS Synchronized swimming
WP Water polo
TE Tennis
TT Table tennis
VB Volleyball
WL Weightlifting
WR Wrestling
YA Yachting
Ceremonies 9 12 14 17 19 19 23 31 15 12 12 12 23 29 10
4
43
1
2
4
12
16
10
6
1
8
15
2
2
14
2
14
13
31
4
2
1
4
4
2
10
20
10
257
24
Among the parameters to beborne in mind whenpreparing the calendar andthe timetable of thecompetitions were the peakviewing times on thedifferent continents.
The daily distribution of thevictory ceremonies also hadto be taken into account inthe drafting of thecompetition calendar.
Over 5,000 people were needed to carryout all those tasks, the immense majority(over 4,000) being volunteers. Many ofthem had been on a training scheme withspecial courses for each sport which hadbeen set up by COOB'92 with theassistance of the Spanish and Catalanfederations. The federations notified theirmembers of the needs of the OrganisingCommittee and many of them came towork on the sports organisation duringthe competitions.
Sports logistics projects
The Sports Logistics Department tookpart in many of the sports organisationprojects already mentioned; for example,it was in charge of monitoring thecompetitions which the sports techniciansworked on around the world. The SportsOrganisation Department also played animportant role on specific logisticsprojects, as without the technicians andcommittees it would have been impossible
to draft the calendar and the publicationsfor each sport or to define material andstaff needs.
Calendar and timetable
To prepare the calendar, the timetableand the timing of the events at the Games,three points had to be borne in mind atthe outset: the agreements with the IFs,the elimination of any possible overlapbetween the events and the ceremonies ofthe first and last days of the Games and anindividual analysis of each sport.Questions such as the number of teams inthe team sports, the competition system orthe venue where the events were to beheld (and, in some cases, the number ofplaying areas there) had still not beenresolved and the work was done on thebasis of the most plausible hypotheses.
At the same time, the PolytechnicUniversity of Catalonia was preparing aprototype computer model for drafting
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2
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the calendar, a job which it had beencommissioned to do back in the days ofthe Olympic Office. With the aid of thatsystem and from the data from the lastfour Games and the modificationsplanned for Barcelona, a companycontracted by COOB'92 drafted an initialproposal for a calendar between June1988 and March of the following year. Onthe basis of that study and bearing in mindthe suggestions of the technical-sportscommittees and the IFs, a first calendarwas decided and approved by the IOC inSeptember 1990.
That preliminary calendar provided for awhole series of complex parameters, suchas the best distribution of the sports overthe competition days and the differentvenues and areas, the timing of the victoryceremonies or the interests of the TVnetworks with the largest audiences,particularly the National BroadcastingCompany (NBC) and the EuropeanBroadcasting Union (EBU).
Over the following years, many proposalsfor adjusting the competition programmeswere analysed and the times of the eventsand details of the victory ceremoniescalendar were made more specific. Duringthe Games, at the Sports InformationCentre in the Olympic Village all lastminute changes were entered into thecomputers and data were collected tomake sure that the timetables were beingobserved.
Publications
The Sports Publications Department wasin charge of drafting documents for thevolunteers (a training manual for eachsport) and the participants in the Games(athletes, referees and judges). The mostimportant of these were the explanatorybooklets for each sport. The 1987 editionof the Olympic Charter requires them tobe prepared with the express agreementof the IFs. They must contain the general
Notable among the sportspublications produced werethe 28 explanatory bookletspublished a year before theGames (white spine), the 28team manuals (black spine)and the results books (inyellow).
The sports publicationsdepartment also produced600 different competitioncontrol forms for use byreferees and judges.
1
2
1 226
The COE, the HSC andCOOB'92 set up a trainingprogramme for Spanishreferees which, from 1990 to1992, trained 1,138technicians, the vastmajority of whom then tookpart in the Games.
programme for the sport and specify theprovisions made, the venue or venueswhere the competition will be held andthe characteristics of each event to beincluded. In accordance with IOC rules,the 28 explanatory booklets forBarcelona came out one year before theGames.
Just before the Games, the team manualswere prepared. They contained allnecessary information for the competitorsand the technical documents (the 600different forms for competition control),which had been formally unified for allthe sports. We should also add here thepublication of the Official GamesCalendar, an indispensable tool for theentire Olympic Family, which was thedefinitive result of the calendar andtimetable project. It was presented in twoways: day by day and sport by sport.
The referees training programme
The aim of this project, which got underway late in 1989, was to train a largenumber of people to work on competitioncontrol, assisting and, in certain cases,replacing the technicians appointed by theIF. The requirements varied widelyaccording to the sports, both in terms ofthe qualifications demanded by the IF(which could stipulate national orinternational category or not insist on anyparticular one) and the number of peopleand their functions (which ranged fromthe technician in charge of thecompetition to the post of assistant).
First, we should list the three importantphases of the project. The first consistedof identifying the specific needs of eachsport, which was possible thanks to ananalysis of what the Seoul Games hadbeen and what the Barcelona Gamesshould be. The second involvednegotiations with each of the Spanish
3, 4, 5 and 6
543
6
27
federations (the natural intermediarieswith the IFs), which would be providingtheir technicians. It must be rememberedthat each sport had its own problems; insome cases it was just a matter of givingthe technicians some special training forthe Olympic occasion or experience ofinternational events, whilst in others therewas a serious deficit in the number oftechnicians and their qualifications. Thethird and final phase consisted ofinvolving the leading Spanish sportinginstitutions —the Higher Sports Counciland the Spanish Olympic Committee— inthe project, as it was no longer just aquestion of preparing a technical team forthe Games, but of forming a group of toplevel referees for Spanish sport in thefuture.
On 22 March 1990, a commission madeup of one representative of eachinstitution was officially constituted. TheCOOB'92 sports technicians directed—and in some cases designed— the
special programmes for each sport, whilstthe Spanish Olympic Committee wasresponsible for the administration of theproject and for monitoring and assessingthe activities.
The Spanish Olympic Committee, theHigher Sports Council and COOB'92assumed equal parts in the overall cost ofthe programme (210 million pesetas),which lasted for three years (1990,1991and 1992). Altogether, 1,138 techniciansbenefited from it.
Sports material
The 1987 edition of the Olympic Charterassigned to the Organising Committee theresponsibility for providing the sportsmaterial to be used by the competitors(balls, flooring, gymnastics and athleticsapparatus, boats, nets) and theorganisation (chronometers, binoculars,measuring tapes, scales, motor cycles for
Appeals jury Commissions
AR - Archery
AT - Athletics
BA - Baseball
BB - Basketball
BM - Badminton
BO - Boxing
CA - Canoeing
CY - Cycling
EQ - Equestrian sports
FB - Football
FE - Fencing
GY - Gymnastics
HB - Handball
HO - Hockey
JU - Judo
MP - Modern pentathlon
RO - Rowing
SH - Shooting
SW - Swimming
TE - Tennis
TT - Table tennis
VB - Volleyball
WL - Weightlifting
WR - Wrestling
YA - Yachting
PE - Pelota
RH - Roller hockey
TK - Taekwondo
Total
3
3
27
7
17
5
6
10
13
22
5
16
9
12
10
15
21
201
7
13
5
4
20
59
11
19
20
25
15
48
24
18
11
5
304
Med. Com.
1
1
13
3
2
1
4
1
1
1
1
12
1
5
47
Intemat. referees Nat. referees
9
20
28
22
24
36
45
20
21
30
46
124
26
31
25
20
27
108
94
39
26
23
60
5
10
16
32
967
3
318
25
94
41
20
113
10
37
14
35
35
90
11
66
30
40
25
8
8
1023
Secretaries' aux.
3
2
2
5
12
Total
16
339
38
60
123
80
93
57
162
89
69
184
70
67
78
14
77
123
195
160
49
92
58
75
82
35
29
40
2.554
Competition control staff28
The responsibility forsupplying all the sportsmaterial necessary for theevents, such as the hammersfor the throw, lay withCOOB'92.
following races, auxiliary boats). It wastherefore necessary to identify all therequirements and then to obtain thematerial on the most advantageous terms.
The needs were identified according tothe criteria of the sports technicians andthe requirements of the IFs. Afteragreements had been reached with thesuppliers, there had to be monitoring ofthe processes of manufacturing, deliveringand setting up every element and testingthem all to see that they worked properly,as far as possible in real competitions.
At the same time, in coordination with theImage and Communication Division, thevisual impact of the material on televisionbroadcasts and hence on the global imageof the Games was assessed and theelements at each competition venue whichmost clearly called for a special designwere identified. Professional designerswere commissioned to prepare theobstacles for the equestrian jumping and
three-day events, the stalls and fences forthe dressage area, the fences for thecircuits, the gymnasts' powder trays andthe judges' chairs.
A second set of elements were identifiedfor design: the holders for the judo belts,the repairs carts, the lane and throwingcircle indicators and the Olympic andworld record signs for athletics, the startgates for canoeing (slalom) and theholders for the volleyball, handball andwater polo balls. Four design schools inBarcelona were invited to make thedesign of these elements part of theirgraduation exercise; the students whosework was chosen were also allowed tocontrol the industrial process.
Entries
Finding and handling all the data aboutthe competitors which was required toorganise the competitions and issue the
21
1
A large part of the sportsmaterial used atBarcelona'92 was designedwith the global image of theGames in mind, especiallywhen it was likely to make amajor impact on television.That was the case with thelane markers for athletics,which were the work ofstudents of a Barcelonadesign school.
2 and 3
329
results was complex indeed. Moreover,COOB'92 wanted to operate with a singlecentralised data base which would includeall the information about the OlympicFamily, and so the entries for thecompetitions became a sort of halfwayhouse between the accreditations andresults management programmes.
The first calculations of the number ofparticipants, which were made on thebasis of the data from Seoul and the mostrecent world championships, werealarming: the figures were so high thatthey made participation in thecompetitions quite uncontrollable and,furthermore, had negative repercussionsin other fields (accommodation, transport,etc.). For that reason, COOB'92negotiated with the IOC a maximumfigure of 15,000 participants, 10,000 ofwhom would be competitors and 5,000officials (technicians and other membersof the delegations). To guarantee that theagreement would be observed and to
control the whole process a tripartitecommission was set up withrepresentatives of the IOC, the ASOIFand the Association of National OlympicCommittees (ACNO).
Meanwhile all the forms and manualsnecessary for the entries were preparedand last dates were set for the return ofentries by number (25 March 1992) and byname (10 July 1992) for all thedelegations.
At the same time, in accordance with thesports rules, the number of referees andjudges needed for the competition wascalculated and the needs of the Parc delMar Village, where they were to beaccommodated, were thus defined.
Summary
The results of the planning andimplementation of the different projects
The sports material rangedfrom the racks for thejavelins (1) to the floatsseparating the lanes for theraces in the swimming pool(4).
The design of some objects,such as the equestrianjumping obstacles (2) or thejudges' seats (3), wascommissioned from leadingprofessionals.
2 and 3
1 and 4
1 2 4
3
30
The competition controlstaff (5), such as the refereesand judges (6, wearing hatswith red ribbons), the sportsorganisation technicians (6,wearing hats with greenribbons) and the sportsvolunteers (6, with blue andwhite caps), all contributedto the success ofBarcelona'92.
—already provided for in the 1988organisation chart— were very positive.Although it had no previous experience inthe organisation of events on such a scaleor anything approaching it, theDirectorate General of Sports did havethe unwavering support of all theinstitutions. The advice of the differentcommittees was, in turn, another keyfactor in the success of the organisation.
Among the various decisions provedcorrect by events, we should mention thedistribution of the sports in blocks, whichmade coordination between the different
sports organisation projects much easierand ensured coherence and homogeneityamong the tasks particular to each one.
Lastly, there are two other notablefactors, one internal and the otherexternal. The first was that the action ofthe sports organisation group at the timeof the Games was greatly assisted by theexperience of the test events and theCompetitions'91. The second was that theservice projects promoted by COOB'92 toprovide support for the congresses anddraws held by the IFs during the Gameswere very well received.
5 and 6
65 31
1
The torch bearing theOlympic flame is one of themost familiar symbols of theOlympics. The Barcelonatorch was designed by AndréRicard, who prepared afunctional object with astrong aesthetic impact, atonce innovatory andrespectful of tradition.
The Olympic torch
Objectives, sectors and phasesof the project
The ritual of the torch is one of the mostimportant popular Olympic celebrationsand has been performed at every Gamessince Berlin in 1936. The organisation ofthe first part of this ceremony —lightingthe flame in Olympia and bearing it inrelays to Athens— is always the task ofthe Greek Olympic Committee; theresponsibility of the OrganisingCommittee of the Olympic Games beginsthere and covers the remainder of thejourney to the host city.
In the Barcelona Candidature Dossier theplan was for the torch to visit all theOlympic cities of the modern era beforearriving in Spain, but that was soon seento be unviable because of the enormousadditional cost and complexity of theoperation. It was then decided that theflame would travel directly from Athensto Empúries, where it would begin ajourney around the country in order togive the largest possible number of peoplean opportunity to see it pass by. Thiswould encourage all the regions of Spainto feel that the Barcelona Olympic Games—symbolised by the torch— were reallytheirs.
Once the definitive project had beenoutlined, it was divided into five sectors ofactivity. The marketing department was incharge of mapping the route, selecting thebearers, designing the model for the flagwelcoming ceremonies, liaising with theinstitutions and taking care of promotionand the associate companies. Theoperations department covered purchasesand logistics, accommodation and cateringservices, timetables, the procedures to befollowed at the bearers' centres and onthe relays and the services for the mainconvoy. The media department workedon information (by means of pressconferences, dossiers and press releases)and the accreditation of journalists. Thesecurity department coordinated theactivity of the security forces (GuardiaCivil and National and Local Police,basically). Lastly, the special events anddesigns department took care of thedesign and manufacture of the objectsrequired for moving the flame (the torch,the safety lamp, the cauldrons along theway and the cauldron at the OlympicStadium) and three unique events: the
reception of the flame by COOB'92 fromthe Greek Olympic Committee, thearrival at Empúries and the arrival at theMoll de la Fusta in Barcelona.
As early as August 1989 COOB'92 hadcommissioned André Ricard to design thetorch, the safety lamp and the cauldronsfor the route, as explained in Chapter 10of this Volume. But the planning andpreparation of the definitive project forthe Barcelona'92 torch did not begin untilNovember 1991. At that time there were10 people from the COOB'92 CommercialDepartment working on it; by March 1992there were 18. By May, at the close of thepreliminary phase, the number had risento 23. In the final operations phase (June-July) 170 people were directly involvedwith the Olympic flame as part of theconvoy.
The route and the association withcompanies and institutions
On 1 January 1992, the COOB'92Standing Committee approved thedefinitive route of the torch around Spain.A total of 5,940 kilometres had to becovered in 43 days, through all theOlympic subsites and the capitals of theautonomous communities (652 towns andcities altogether) without using themotorways. To speed up the pace on thelongest and least populated sections,bicycle relays were introduced. Theycovered 1,490 kilometres and theremaining 4,450 were done on foot. Theflame was taken from Sevilla to Tenerifeand from Las Palmas to Málaga by plane;from Tenerife to Las Palmas by hydrofoil;and from Tarragona to Palma de Mallorcaand from the island back to Barcelona byship.
COOB'92 provided all the necessaryresources for the route and organised thelogistics (people, torches, uniforms,accommodation and catering services,vehicles, parking, maintenance andcleaning). It also supervised the design ofthe ceremonies held to welcome the flamein 60 different towns or cities.
The whole operation was made possibleby the contribution of three COOB'92associate companies. SEAT provided thevehicles (including technical service andmaintenance), the meeting points (78company dealers) and the overnightparking spaces (41 of the dealers, wherethe vehicles were repaired, cleaned and
1
35
refuelled). Mito (Induyco) brought thedesign, manufacture and distribution ofthe bearers' uniforms and the installationand management of the changing rooms.The runners' uniform consisted of aT-shirt, shorts, socks, trainers (supplied byASICS) and a hairband. The cyclists worea T-shirt and long latex trousers, socks,trainers and a safety helmet. Lastly, Coca-Cola took care of the accommodation andcatering for the organisation and thesupply of drinks for the convoy over the43 stages. The company also worked on aproject for international participationwhich was without precedent on anyprevious Olympic torch route: inassociation with the NOCs they selected200 bearers from 50 countries, who alsoran a relay of the Barcelona torch.
But the cooperation of other institutionswas also indispensable. The authorities ofthe autonomous communities madesuggestions for the itineraries betweencities and the landmarks which should bepassed by along the way; they coordinated
all the city councils on their territory andtook part in selecting the bearers from thevolunteers in each community. The citycouncils, in turn, took charge of the designof the route of the torch through theircities, the organisation of the welcomingceremony and the overnight guardianshipof the flame in the towns where it rested.
The relays and the bearers
Altogether there were 9,484 relays: 8,885on foot and 599 on bicycles. The footrelays were 500 metres, which had to becovered in 3 minutes; the bicycle relayswere 2,500 metres and the time 6 minutes.Only on the final lap, in Barcelona, werethe foot relays shortened to 250 metres togive as many people as possible a chanceto carry the torch.
The bearers were selected by quotas: 50%had to be Olympic volunteers fromaround Spain; the councils of the townsthe Olympic torch passed through had the
On 19 June 1992, the torchwas received with fullhonours at the Monastery ofMontserrat, at a highlysymbolic, moving ceremonyheld in the presence of theabbot, the mayor ofBarcelona and the chiefexecutive officer ofCOOB'92.
The Mito (Induyco)company's contributions tothe organisation of the torchroute were the bearers'uniform and the installationand management of thechanging rooms.
The 599 bicycle relays were2.5 km each; the bearer (inwhite) was accompanied byan escort (in red).
1
2
3
1 236
8,885 foot relays were run,500 m each; the bearer andescort went ahead of thebody of the convoy, whosevehicles were provided bySEAT. In the photograph,one of the internationalrelays sponsored by Coca-Cola.
On 10 July 1992, on its waythrough Extremadura, theflame visited the city ofCáceres. The photographcaptures the moment when itleft the town hall forBadajoz.
right to choose a bearer; and, lastly, thecompanies which worked on the torchroute and the other associate companiesof COOB'92 had an opportunity to coversome of the relays.
The remaining bearers were chosen frompeople who applied. They had to be overfifteen years old and promise to run therelay in the time available, to wear theofficial bearers' uniform and to observethe rules laid down by the organisation.The city councils and authorities of theautonomous communities the flamepassed through took part in the selection.
Each bearer carried a new torch, whichwas offered to them as a gift if they werevolunteers; those who were not had anopportunity to buy it at cost price (15,000pesetas). All of them received the uniformthey had worn on their relay as a presentfrom COOB'92.
The bearers never ran alone; they wereaccompanied by an escort, whose job was
to help them if they tired, felt unwell orstumbled and fell. The escorts did onerelay as bearers and then accompaniednine more; on the foot relays, therefore,they ran 5 kilometres in 30 minutes andon the bicycle relays they rode 25kilometres in 60 minutes.
The convoy and the operation
Besides the escorts, the bearers had thesupport of a complex organisation. Theygathered at a meeting point —the bearers'centre— where they were accredited,received the uniform, changed, handed intheir clothes for safe-keeping and weregiven the torch. From there they weretaken to the place where they were tostart their relay. That point, which thebearers already knew —and therefore alsotheir families and friends who wanted towatch and accompany them—, had beenmarked the previous day by the vanguardof the convoy with a sticker indicating thenumber of the relay. At the bearers'
4
When the flame arrived in atown where it was to remainovernight, the temporarycauldron was set up (5) andthe welcome ceremony heldbeside it.
5
5
3 4 6 37
6
centres the journalists who wanted tohave a place on the convoy press standwere also accredited, a total of 1,500 allalong the route.
In groups of 40, the bearers were taken bybus from the bearers' centre to a point onthe road where the convoy would pass by.They were then taken in groups of 10 tothe starting point of their relays inminibuses which shuttled backwards andforwards to and from the convoy. On thisjourney the bearers received instructionsand advice from monitors on how to runtheir relay. Once it was finished they werecollected and taken back to the meetingpoint.
The escort and the bearer made up theheart of the torch convoy, which consistedof a total of 24 vehicles and 65 membersof the organisation.
The vehicles in the convoy were in fourgroups: route pilot, signposting and trafficcontrol, nucleus and support/rearguard.
The route pilot vehicle was responsiblefor coordinating the transport of thebearers to and from the main convoy andseeing that the timetables were observed.
The signposting and traffic controlvehicles always travelled 500 metresahead of the bearer and escort to slowdown the traffic coming in the oppositedirection and place the cones and flagswhich marked out the relays.
The vehicles which made up the nucleuswere the ones which travelledimmediately in front of and behind thebearer and the escort. The press platform(a vehicle specially designed forphotographic coverage of the event) wentjust ahead of the bearer. Then came theconvoy management vehicle which carriedthe safety lamp (containing an "original"Olympic flame to relight the torches ifthey went out accidentally) and the RedCross vehicle. The rear of the convoy wasbrought up by the support and rearguardvehicles, among them the mobile changing
The bearers' centre, installedat a SEAT dealer's, was themeeting point for all thebearers for a particularstretch and the place whereaccreditations were issued tothe reporters covering theroute.
The members of the convoylived long working days.They almost always had toeat along the way.
On the stretches where therelays were made by bicycle,the convoy had vehicles totake care of the technicalservices.
1 3
2 4
1 and 3
2
4
38
The press platform was avehicle designed specially forthe photographic coverage ofthe event and always wentdirectly ahead of the bearerand escort.
room, the catering vehicle, the servicesvehicle and the one for picking up thesignposts and markers.
Two mobile offices were installed at thehotels where the convoy stayed; the mediaservices were located in one of them.Dinner and breakfast were always takenthere and lunch too along some of thestages. Most frequently, however, lunch
was eaten on the way or at the bearers'centres.
The convoy functioned very well, asdemonstrated by the success with thepublic of the entire itinerary of theBarcelona'92 torch. This aspect hasalready been covered in detail in VolumeIV of this Report.
65
5
In the minibus which tookthem in groups of 10 to thestarting point for theirrelays, the bearers receivedinstructions and advice fromthe monitors.
6
39
1
The Games openingceremony, the high point ofthe celebrations ofBarcelona'92, was a fineexample of Mediterraneanexpressiveness and the visualimpact of the city.
The opening and closing ceremonies
The opening ceremony marks thebeginning of the new Olympic Gamesafter the four-year wait and is the eventwhich usually arouses the greatest degreeof expectation all around the world. Theclosing ceremony brings down the curtainon the celebrations and signals thebeginning of a new period of waiting. Theconjunction of Olympic ritual, thepresence of the entire Olympic Family,the attention paid by the press and radioand television and the fact that theyprovide an ideal framework for the cityorganising the Games to introduce itselfto the world make these two ceremoniesthe high points of the Olympic Games.
They are therefore of special importanceto the host city, which has an opportunityto show its personality, its culture, itsoriginality in the field of show businessand its organisational capability.
In the specific case of Barcelona, inaddition to these general features,COOB'92 decided to design theceremonies with two main objectives inmind: to satisfy a huge radio andtelevision audience (about 3,500 millionpeople) and to arouse the enthusiasm ofthe people who would see them live at theOlympic Stadium.
The preparations
When preparing the project, COOB'92made an in-depth analysis of previousOlympic ceremonies from Munichonwards and of other cultural events andspectacles on a similar scale, such as thecommemorations of the bicentenary ofthe French Revolution (July 1989) or thecelebrations for the 25th anniversary ofthe independence of Singapore (1990).The Organising Committee also initiateda series of consultations with professionalsfrom the worlds of sport, the Olympics,culture and communications to set theguidelines for the Barcelona ceremonies.
The first study made for the projectdecided what the ceremonies should belike and specified the framework in whichthey were to take place: the day, theapproximate time and length. TheOlympic Stadium was chosen as thesetting, although at one time the FCBarcelona Stadium had been considered
because of its capacity. Owing to the hightemperatures and humidity which arefeatures of summer in Barcelona, theproject proposed to hold the ceremoniesin the evening. The recommended lengthwas around three hours for the openingand two for the close. Lastly, the basicconcepts which were consideredappropriate as guides for the Barcelonaceremonies were defined: modernity, theMediterranean nature of the city,innovation, design, the leading role ofmusic, dialogue between cultures,originality in the use of folklore. Thestudy was approved on 17 October 1989by the COOB'92 Executive Board, whichallocated a total budget of 2,000 millionpesetas for the two ceremonies.
The competition
The study defined the organisationalmodel to be used for the production of theceremonies. A Barcelona company wascommissioned to carry it out, butCOOB'92 would have the responsibilityfor and the last word on the contents, theorganisation and the performance of theceremonies, as well as control over thebudget.
In November 1989 a closed competitionwas convened between six companies,which were provided with all theinformation necessary to present theirprojects (facts and figures, plans of theStadium, documents on previousceremonies) and were paid for theexpenses involved in drafting them. At theoutset, two of the companies invited totender (Bassat, Ogilvy and Mather andSport Sponsoring) merged. In assessingthe projects. COOB'92 took into accountthe ideas presented by each group, theirviability and the guarantees ofimplementation.
In the end, on 19 February 1990, thegroups presented the projects toCOOB'92. After examination by theStanding Committee, three wereeliminated and a final decision wasadjourned until a second presentation bythe two remaining groups: Ovideo TV andBassat-Sport Sponsoring). After the newpresentations, the two groups were invitedto merge, a suggestion which theyaccepted. The project and the way inwhich it would be carried out wereapproved by the COOB'92 ExecutiveBoard on 26 May 1990. Thus, on 20 Julythe production company Ovideo-Bassat-Sport S.A. (OBS) was formed by mutual
1 The ceremonies
41
agreement. Ovideo T.V. and Bassat-Sportheld equal shares with 49% each; theremaining 2% went to COOB'92, whichthus reserved a casting vote.
The main office was installed in thePueblo Español in Barcelona but theproduction department grew so much thatit was obliged to move to offices andstores at the Olympic Stadium in 1992.
The script
The scripts for the ceremonies grew out ofcertain fundamental ideas: Mediterraneanexpressiveness, gaiety, diversity, visualimpact, imagination. There was a cleardetermination to bring together elementswhich were not merely different but even,at times, diametrically opposed, thoughthey were all present in the culturaltradition of the country. The show had tobe conceived for the audience at theStadium, for the city and, most of all, forthe 3,500 potential television viewers allaround the world. Music was chosen to
hold the show together, as a unifyingelement which makes it possible forauthors of different origins to speak toone another in a common language. Ifwhat was required was a bigchoreographic show for television, thebest possible musical base was essential.
Another idea which was fundamentalfrom the start was for figures ofinternational renown in the world of showbusiness (musicians, performers, actors,theatre directors) to take part. In order tomake the opening more attractive, it wasdecided to concentrate the Olympicprotocol and the parade of thecompetitors in the middle of theceremony; at the closing ceremony,however, the traditional competitors'march past was discarded to prevent theceremony from dragging on with the riskof disorder on the track, something whichhad already occurred at previous Games.
One of the high points was the momentwhen an archer lit the flame in the
Drawings and costumes fromthe story board of theopening (1, 2 and 3) andclosing (4 and 6) ceremonieswhich were submitted forapproval by COOB'92 inMay 1990. That was when itwas decided that thecauldron in the Stadiumwould be lit by an arrowfrom the bow of an archer onstage (5).
1,2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
1
2 4
3 5
6
42
cauldron atop the Stadium with an arrowwhich he had kindled from the torchcarried by the last bearer; that was, in fact,the climax of the opening ceremony,together with the unfurling of the giantOlympic flag (105 x 60 m) over the headsof all the competitors as a symbol of theuniversal nature of Olympism and thetwelve human pyramids which were raisedto represent the twelve countries of theEuropean Community.
An notable addition to the first script wasthe inclusion in the two ceremonies of theofficial song of the Games, whose title wasthe official slogan of Barcelona'92,"Friends for life", with lyrics by DonBlack and music by Sir Andrew LloydWebber The contents of the opening andclosing ceremonies are described inVolume IV of this Report.
The production
OBS began work in October 1990. Thecompany immediately began reviewing
the original scripts presented for thecompetition, which were later fused. Overthe first six months of 1991, the definitivescript was polished according to thedemands of the budget, which wasapproved by the COOB'92 ExecutiveBoard in November 1991 and by the IOCExecutive Board in December the sameyear in Lillehammer.
Before the script was finally approved, theOBS production teams had already begunto commission the music —thefundamental part of the ceremonies—,from which the choreography could bedesigned and the first rehearsals held. Onthe one hand, a group of composerslinked to the city of Barcelona —CarlesSantos, Josep Lluís Moraleda, CarlosMiranda, Josep Maria Bardagí, Peret andJoan Albert Amargós— wrote new piecesfor the occasion; on the other,distinguished foreign composers in theworld of film and show business in generalwere selected to produce special piecesfor the two ceremonies (Ryuichi
Sponsors of the opening and closingceremonies
Centro de Promoción del Diseño Industrial (DDI)
Sociedad Española de Oxígeno
Fira de Barcelona
Ovideo TV
Bassat, Ogilvy & Mather
Sport Sponsoring
ASICS
Various
Record companies
Camper
Coca-Cola
Clothes for the ceremonies
Helium gas
Spectators' kit
Land of Passion retable
Poles for the flags in the parade
Giant Olympic flag
Archer's luminous footwear
Fireworks
Musical production
Footwear other than sports
Spectators' kit pin (Cobi)
Sponsor Item43
There were three rehearsalsof the opening ceremony inreal time with all theperformers and musicians,but, naturally, not thecompetitors.
Rehearsal of the unfurling ofthe silver ingot which turnsinto the ship on which thefounders of Barcelona maketheir voyage of initiation inimitation of the feat ofHercules.
4 and 6Rehearsal of the formationof the flower motif at thebeginning of the openingceremony. The use of thegreat blue cloth not onlyunified the floor of theStadium in a single colourwhich served as a backdrop
11
Aerial view of the OlympicStadium during a rehearsalof the opening ceremony (2),as the performersrepresenting the Sun (8)which guides the adventureof Hercules from east to westenter by the east gate.
2 and 8
3
2 5
3 4
44
for the choreography; it alsoprotected the athletics trackand the turf during therehearsals and was laid insuch a way that part of thetrack could be uncoveredquickly for the traditionalparade of the competitors.
The cheerleaders, who werescattered around theStadium and explained tothe spectators how to usetheir kits, were a crucialelement in the motivationand participation of thepublic at the openingceremony.
The jointed mannequinspainted in the three coloursof the Olympic emblem,which were part of theoverture to the openingceremony, were one of theoriginal touches whichcharacterised the ceremonies.
The fireworks at the closingceremony were the onlyelement of the ceremoniesnot rehearsed before thenight.
Sakamoto, Angelo Badalamenti, MikisTheodorakis and Sir Andrew LloydWebber).
The Orquestra Ciutat de Barcelona wascommissioned to record the six hours ofmusic for the ceremonies and theCeremonies Choir was formed by150 members of the Orfeó Català,the Coral Sant Jordi and the CoralCàrmina.
The recording of the music, the lengthiestpart of the production, took placebetween January and December 1991.Hundreds of hours of recording, dubbing,mixing and editing in Barcelona, London,Vienna, Paris, Madrid and Sevilla had tobe coordinated. That was vital, as theceremony was done in play-back: a showof such characteristics, with simultaneouschoreography in different parts of theStadium and the symmetrical distributionof loudspeakers to receive the sound,excluded the possibility of a liveperformance.
Altogether, over 1,600 people workedduring the preparation and productionphases, mostly part time. The volunteers(about 10,000) who performed in thechoreography began rehearsing inDecember 1991. Dance schools, troupes,theatre groups, regional houses, collegesand sports clubs all worked on theproduction.
There were three full rehearsals of theopening ceremony. The first, on 11 July,behind closed doors and withoutcostumes, was the first attempt to bringtogether all the pieces and study the keyproblems: the entrances and exits of theperformers, their synchronization with themusic and the announcements and thecoordination of the different directors.On 18 and 23 July there were dressrehearsals of the full show, this timewith costumes and props in a Stadiumpacked with members of Team'92,members of their families and guests.The presence of an audience helped toreduce the tension among the
5
7
9
6 7
8
9 45
46
47
1
Two spectacular panoramicviews of the opening (above)and closing (below)ceremonies. The Barcelonaceremonies involved about1,600 professionals and atotal of 10,000 volunteersduring the preparation andproduction.
The victory ceremonies, oneof the most solemn events ofthe Olympic Games, wereheld, according to the rules,at the end of eachcompetition. The design ofthe bouquet and medalbearers' clothes —inspiredby traditional Catalancostumes—, and those of theguides for the VIPs, were byAntoni Miró, and the designof the accessories by CheloSastre.
performers inspired by the prospect of thenight itself.
The only rehearsal for the closingceremony was held on 27 July after a dayof rest for the production team. It wasdone behind closed doors and in real time.The only part kept back for the ceremonyitself was the last, the fireworks.Immediately after the dry run, with just afew hours' leeway, the stage wasdismantled to make way for the athleticsevents which began the next morning;only the loudspeakers and fixed lightingelements were left mounted.
The victory ceremonies
Concerning the victory ceremonies, Rule65 of the Olympic Charter, 1987 edition,the one used for the Barcelona OlympicGames, states:
"The medals shall be presented during theOlympic Games by the President of theIOC (or a member selected by him),accompanied by the President (or hisdeputy) of the IF concerned, if possibleimmediately after the event at the placewhere the competition was held (...) Theflag of the winner's delegation shall behoisted on the central flagpole and thoseof the second and third on adjoiningflagpoles on the right and left, as they facethe arena. Meanwhile, the anthem(abbreviated) of the winner's delegation isplayed, during which the threecompetitors and the spectators shall facethe flags."
Design and preparation of thematerials
This section included the preparation ofthe materials to be given to the victors(medals, diplomas, cycling shirts, plaques,bouquets), the extras (flags, trays, clothes,accessories for the volunteers) and thematerials for the infrastructure (flagpoles,flag raisers and podiums).
As explained in Chapter 10 of thisVolume, the sculptor Xavier Corberó wascommissioned to design the medals andthe manufacture and sponsorship wereundertaken by the Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre (the Mint), which alsoproduced the diplomas. The bouquetswere the work of Blai Puig, who brought aMediterranean air to the proceedings bycombining the carnation and thelimonium on a branch of vegetable fibre.
The clothes were the work of the designerAntoni Miró and the accessories(earrings, hairnets and mittens) were byChelo Sastre. The medal bearers'uniforms and flowers were inspired bytraditional Catalan costumes. The traysfor the medals, lined with black velvet,also by Chelo Sastre, were kidney shapedto make them easier to carry (somebearers carried as many as 20 medalsweighing about 5 kilograms, which theyhad to hold for up to a quarter of anhour).
One of the most difficult tasks was theupdating of the flags, as in 1991 and early1992 there were a large number ofchanges to the international political map.Some came just a few days before theGames. The last-minute participation ofcommittees such as that of Bosnia-Herzogovina meant that flags had to bemade just 24 hours before the openingceremony. At the outdoor venues 10 and12 metre flagpoles were installed, whilst atthe indoor ones a simple elevator wasdesigned with an electric motor andsystem of pulleys and velcro supports tohold the flags in place.
The operation
In the operation for the victoryceremonies eight teams took part,working in rotation at all the venues. Thesystem made it possible to work withfewer people and have more control overthe material needed.
Each team was assigned between two andfive venues, according to the number ofawards and the coordination of dates andtimes. The eight teams met daily at theFont Màgica building in the MontjuïcArea, from where they were distributedaround the venues with all the necessarymaterial: medals, bouquets, trays,uniforms, make-up, ironing board andiron, flags and accessories. If the teamwent to the same venue on consecutivedays, they could leave their material therein the store. Moreover, there were twocomplete teams on stand-by to cover anyemergency caused by delays, failure toturn up, weather, etc., according to acontingency plan which even included ahelicopter. After a study of the number offlags which might be required for theceremonies, a final figure of 3,500 was set.
The teams also travelled with the medalsand other awards, including the reservesin the event of a tie, and the flowers. The
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49
honorary diplomas which the eight topclassified competitors received wereprinted each day, shortly after the final, ina typeface by the designer Javier Mariscal,and were delivered the day after to thechefs de mission at the Olympic Village.
The time of the national anthems waslimited to 50 seconds. Given the variety ofsupports on which the anthems of eachdelegation were received, COOB'92decided to obtain the scores and, ifpossible, a demonstration tape to re-record them on compact disc. Later, usingtechnology by Philips, one of the jointpartners of the Games, an interactive CDwas produced, which made it possible toput the different pieces of music for theceremonies in sequence with intervals forthe commentators' text.
The arrangements for the recordings ofthe anthems had to be completelystandardised so that they all had the sameorchestration. Political changes also madeit difficult to have the music for all the
anthems up to the last moment. Theparticipation of the twelve Sovietrepublics, some of which had not yetapproved their national anthem, was themost critical point. Two extreme caseswere Ethiopia and Iran, whose anthemswere brought by the delegations the daythey arrived in Barcelona, 25 July. But theemergency system was standing by torecord them in the same style as theothers.
The opening fanfare and the parademarch, two of the most memorableelements of the ceremonies, werecommissioned from Carles Santos. Hecomposed a fanfare lasting 16 seconds anda march for the parade in classical style,with a repetitive, catchy melody whichmany spectators ended up humming tothemselves.
Human resources
During the Games, eleven people fromthe staff of COOB'92 made up the team
Three moments from theflag-raising at victoryceremonies in the Parc delSegre in La Seu d'Urgell (1),Banyoles Lake (2) and theINEFC (5).
1, 2 and 5
1 250
The bouquets presented tothe winners, a mixture ofcarnations and limonium,were designed by Blai Puig.
The Cuban athletes, in theforeground, who came thirdin the 4 X 100 m, and theUS team, winners in theevent, listening to theanthem of the United Statesafter receiving their medals.
The president of the IOC,Juan Antonio Samaranch, atthe victory ceremony for thefootball competition, gavethe medals to the members ofthe Spanish team.
and were in charge of all the tasks ofmanagement and coordination.
The medals awards were organisedthrough eight teams working on a rotationsystem which required a minimum oftwenty-eight members, divided into fiveareas of responsibility: three VIP guides,nine medal and bouquet bearers, fivecompetitors' guides, eleven flag bearersand raisers and one team leader.
To find the 248 volunteers —140 girls and82 boys— who finally made up the eightteams there was a selection process fromamong the 3,000 or so people who were
interviewed. They were found in schools,colleges and gymnasiums. The selectionwas made according to criteria ofavailability and physical coordination andlack of inhibition in movements andpostures.
The training of the volunteers was severe:they had to set aside one day a week from1 February to 15 June and full timededication from then to the close of theGames on 9 August. The 248 volunteersdid courses in choreography (with practicein relaxation, rhythm and aesthetics ofmovement) and in make-up andhair dressing.
3
4
6
63 4
5
51
1
There were far morejournalists at theBarcelona'92 Games than atany previous ones. They wereprovided with every facilityfor their work, as we can seein this view of the pressstand at the Palau SantJordi, with positionsequipped for televisioncommentators (left) andnewspaper reporters(behind).
The media
The scale of the Barcelona OlympicGames had suggested well beforehandthat the news coverage would reachunprecedented dimensions. COOB'92worked from the outset to providereporters, photographers and radio andtelevision broadcasters with the bestpossible services and facilities.
The expectations aroused were more thanfulfilled. The media flocked to inBarcelona in far greater numbers than atprevious Games: 12,831 people wereaccredited. And all of them, whether theyworked for newspapers and magazines orfor radio or television, were able to workin comfort.
Press and photographers
Early in 1989, COOB'92 created the PressOperations Division to plan and, to alarge extent, to implement the projects forthe services and facilities which had to beprovided for the journalists andphotographers during the Games.
The 1987 edition of the Olympic Charterestablished the minimum services whichthe Organising Committee must providefor the press, but COOB'92's idea wentfar beyond that. So that the supply wouldcorrespond to the real needs of thereporters, the Press Operations Divisionmade a detailed study of earlier Gamesand observed a large number of sportscompetitions organised all around theworld. The Division also kept in closecontact with representatives of theSpanish and international press and theIOC Press Commission.
The organisation model which waseventually applied to the Barcelona
Media accreditations Number
1
Press
E
EP
ES
EPs
ETE
ENR
PC
Subtotal press
Senior staff, writers and photo editors
Photographers (pool and non-pool)
Specialised writers and subsite writers
Specialised photographers and subsite photographers
Computer staff, electricians, maintenance staff and laboratory staff
Radio and television without broadcasting rights
Administrative staff, drivers, couriers and interpreters
2,825
778
309
100
290
221
357
4,880
Radio and television
RT (RTA, RTB, RTC)
RTLs
Management, administrative staff, directors, producers, commentators, technicians, camera operators and
support staff
Staff support staff and couriers
Subtotal radio and television
7,705
246
7,951
Total 12,831
Accreditation Description55
Games included setting up a press centreat each competition venue, one at theOlympic Village and one at each mediavillage (a total of 46), in addition to theMain Press Centre (MPC). Furthermore,for the first time in the history of theGames, there was a proposal to create anOlympic Agency which would produceand distribute fast, up-to-the-minuteinformation about the sports competitions
The Press Operations project had achance to prove its worth as early as 1989,but the real challenge came in the yearbefore the Games and in particular at theCompetitions'91, which revealed themodifications that needed to be madebefore the event itself. Based on thisexperience, the common operationsmodel for all the press centres was draftedwithin the framework of the StandardOperations Plan approved by COOB'92.
Human resources
In 1991 the team which made up the PressOperations Division grew from theoriginal four people to over thirty, whocame from every field of communication.Their average age was also thirty and theywere in charge of planning a set ofservices which later, during the Games,would be in the hands of almost 4,000people.
In mid-1991 the task of selecting andtraining the staff who would be working atthe press centres began. Each one wouldbe under the authority of a director, whowas chosen for his knowledge of the sportto be played there and his managerialcapacity. Each director put forward a listof the people who would be workingmost closely with him, in particular theassistant director. The remaining postswere filled with the help of the corps ofvolunteers who were at the disposal ofCOOB'92.
The equipment provided forthe accredited reporters wasmore than adequate, asshown in this view of thecommentators' positions inthe Palau d'Esports inBadalona.
Each competition venue hada press centre providingreporters with a wide rangeof services. In the photo, thepress director for hockey atthe entrance to the presscentre at the HockeyStadium in Terrassa.
1
2
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The desks on the press standswere ideal for the journaliststo work at during the event.There they were broughtcopies of the start lists,results and news (3), andthey had TV monitorswhich received images andresults, as well as telephonepoints (4).
January 1992 marked the beginning of thecatchment and selection phase for thestaff who would be working at the MPC:staff from COOB'92 itself, techniciansfrom associate companies, temporaryworkers and volunteers. All of them weregiven special training over periods of oneto three months to enable them to carryout the task they had been assigned.
In finding the writers for the OlympicAgency, the assistance of the InformationSciences Faculty of the AutonomousUniversity of Barcelona (UAB) and theBarcelona Institute of Journalists wasdecisive, as was the contribution of theUniversity School of Translators andInterpreters (EUTI) of the UAB inselecting the translators.
Press centres
Services
At each venue press centre the journalists(including the photographers andtechnicians) had an opportunity to see thesporting competitions live and wereprovided with a series of services to assistthem with their work.
Press grandstand
The reporters watched the competitionfrom desks installed on the press grandstandwhich had been specially designed toprovide optimum working conditions. Eachone had two work stations, a TV monitorreceiving images of the events with theinformation provided by ResultsManagement and images from the RTO'92international signal, two telephoneconnections and a power point. Periodically,volunteers distributed printouts of results,statistics, line-ups, news and start lists.
3 4
3 and 4
57
1
2
58
In the work room at thepress centre at the Real Clubde Polo —as in all the presscentres— there were AMICterminals, the system ofinformation andcommunication for theOlympic Family (on theright in the foreground), andDOCUMENT systemterminals supplying resultsfor all the day's events via atactile screen (at the back ofthe room).
The press conferences wereheld in the interview roomand were usually chaired bythe press director of thevenue in question. In thiscase, the press director inBadalona is dealing withjournalists interviewingMagic Johnson in theinterview room of the Palaud'Esports.
In addition to the desks, the press standhad a large number of observers' positionsseparated from those of the radio andtelevision workers; they were simple seatsfrom where reporters could watch thecompetition.
There were also special stations for theexclusive use of photographers on thepress stand. In addition, in accordancewith Article 41 of the Olympic Charter,the photographers' pool was establishedwith five international agencies (AFP, AP,EFE, UPI and REUTER), which hadexclusive access to the competition area.
Mixed zone
Journalists, photographers andbroadcasters had access to the mixedzone, an intermediate obstacle-free spacebetween the competition area and thechanging rooms, where they could askbrief questions of competitors who werewilling to give their first impressions ofthe event which had just concluded.
Interview room
The official press conferences for medalwinners and teams were held in theinterview room, which was equipped withbooths for simultaneous interpretation inat least the four official languages of theGames.
Work room
The work room, located beside theinformation desk, was for the use ofreporters. It had terminals for receivingthe Olympic Family information system(AMIC) —computers supplying generalinformation about the Olympic Games—;DOCUMENT terminals, providing theresults for the events of the day, whichcould be obtained via a tactile screen;photocopiers, free phones on the Olympicnetwork and pay phones with outsidelines. The room was also equipped withTV monitors and, in some cases, videomonitors which reproduced images fromthe international RTO'92 signal.
Reprographics room and dark room
At most venues a reprographics room anda dark room were installed next door tothe work room. In the reprographics roomcopies of the results and start lists wereproduced and sent on to the press standand the work room. The dark room wasfor handling urgent photographic
material. At the Olympic Stadium, thePalau d'Esports in Badalona and the Parcdel Segre in La Seu d'Urgell there wasalso a fully equipped photographiclaboratory.
Telecommunications room
Telefónica supervised and equipped thetelecommunications room, which was thetransmission centre for the press.Journalists could send their reports totheir organisations by means of phonebooths with different forms of paymentand a fax service.
Organisation and resources
The press director of a particular sportwas the person in charge of the operationof the press centre at the venue —orvenues— where the events in that sportwere held. This person was under theauthority of the venue director, althoughin certain aspects, such as the OlympicAgency, he was in direct contact (andtherefore in constant communication)with the MPC. The press director's mainjob, with the help of an assistant director,was to give support to the journalists fortheir work and, in most cases, to chair thepress conferences. The heads of thedifferent sections worked under thesupervision of the press director.
Photography
The head of photography assisted thephotographers with their work andcontrolled the positions in the competitionarea and on the stands. According toneed, all photographers could move freelyaround the positions assigned to them bytheir accreditation (playing area, pressgrandstand or public stands). As theycould not leave these positions during thecompetition, they were provided with aninternal photographic courier servicewhich collected the used rolls of film anddelivered them to the MPC, where theywere developed.
Writers
The chief writer at each venue wasresponsible for controlling the work of thereporters at the press centre and orderingand supervising the information in thefour official languages of the Games. Inmost cases, the translators were on thesame premises as the writers.
1
2
59
The writers went to the playing area, themixed zone or the VIP grandstand to holdflash interviews, summarize thestatements made at the press conferences,write up the news reports with facts andfigures and details of the progress of thecompetition and draft chronicles andsummaries of the day's sport. They hadassistance and technical advice from aspecialist or statistician, both experts in aparticular sport.
All the material was processed at theMPC to be distributed through theOlympic Agency.
Results
The person in charge of editing anddistributing the results managed thereprographics centre. His main task was toestablish priorities for issuing informationaccording to how the competition wasprogressing and to ensure that thevolunteers distributed copies to the
journalists on the press stand and in thework room, as well as to the occupants ofthe VIP grandstand.
Summary
All the services provided by the 45 presscentres functioned well during the Games.But perhaps the one which made thegreatest impact and was most widely usedby the press was the AMIC system, whichdealt with about 8 million references(including 3.5 million for results and newsand 1.2 million for biographies). The MPCand the Olympic Village recorded thehighest number of references, about80,000 a day at each.
Photographers had specialpositions according to theiraccreditations, at each venue(1, Olympic Stadium; 2,Piscines Bernat Picornell; 3,Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron,and 4, Palau d'Esports inBadalona).
1, 2, 3 and 4
1
3
2 460
Staff and capacity of the press centresby sport
AR
AT
BA
BA
BB
BM
BO
CA
CA
CY
CY
CY
EQ/MP
EQ
FB
FB
FB
FB
FB
FE/MP
GY
GY
HB
HB
HO
JU
MP
RO
SH/MP
SW/MP
SW
swTE
TT
VB
VB
VB
WL
WR
YA
RH
RH
RH
RH
PE
PE
TK
Camp de Tir amb Arc
Olympic Stadium
Estadi de Beisbol de Viladecans
Estadi de Beisbol de I'Hospitalet
Palau d'Esports de Badalona
Pavelló de la Mar Bella
Pavelló Club Joventut Badalona
Canal Olímpic de Castelldefels
Parc del Segre de la Seu d'Urgell
Velòdrom
Circuit de Ciclisme de l'A-17
Circuit de Ciclisme de Sant Sadurní
Real Club de Polo
Centre d'Hípica del Montanyà
Estadi del FC Barcelona
Estadi Luis Casanova de Valéncia
Estadi del RCD Espanyol
Estadio La Romareda de Zaragoza
Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta de Sabadell
Palau de la Metal-lúrgia
Palau Sant Jordi
Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
Palau d'Esports de Granollers
Palau Sant Jordi
Estadi d'Hoquei de Terrassa
Palau Blaugrana
Estadi Pau Negre
Estany de Banyoles
Camp de Tir Olímpic de Mollet
Piscines Bemat Picornell
Piscina de Montjuïc (salts de trampolí)
Piscina de Montjuïc (waterpolo)
Tennis de la Vall d' Hebron
Polisportiu Estació del Nord
Palau Sant Jordi
Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
Pavelló L'Espanya Industrial
INEFC
Olympic Harbour
Palau Blaugrana
Pavelló d'Esports de Reus
Pavelló de I'Ateneu de Sant Sadurní
Pavelló del Club Patí Vic
Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
Frontó Colom
Palau Blaugrana
Village Vall d'Hebron
Village Montigalà
Olympic Village
25
207
27
33
69
31
47
32
23
48
24
14
38
30
31
25
20
23
22
36
81
27
37
81
32
48
4
34
46
83
53
53
58
40
81
16
27
33
30
82
48
17
18
18
9
10
48
19
37
22
80 72 152
1.000
40
100
300
48
154
124
40
128
84
100
100
132
178
150
76
72
72
304
170
88
304
128
75
90
98
260
64
36
196
80
304
36
170
150
80
75
28
24
24
75
800
75
94
260
77
208
128
48
122
204
117
140
40
294
164
150
75
92
78
245
82
170
245
124
96
50
128
50
384
60
76
121
78
150
45
84
110
96
36
40
36
60
53
96
1.800
115
194
560
125
362
252
88
250
288
217
240
40
426
342
300
151
164
150
549
252
258
549
252
171
50
218
148
644
124
112
317
158
454
81
170
234
190
171
64
64
60
60
53
171
42 44
300
32
52
130
40
100
67
48
90
60
64
72
40
144
100
84
64
64
32
156
16
60
156
60
80
80
60
240
64
64
144
56
156
60
16
64
60
80
80
44
64
36
60
22
80
100
180
40
350
43
60
124
40
171
70
50
90
60
64
75
30
90
128
124
76
60
32
135
89
135
72
90
70
289
140
80
80
120
63
135
48
140
105
107
101
36
64
36
48
101
133
For each sport the venues where the competition was held are listed. The totals are not given as the venues with more than one sportappear with the data for each.
Positions on standVenue Staff Desk Chair Total Workroom Interview room
61
Ràdio-televisió Olímpica'92(RTO'92)
About 3,500 million people (almost three-quarters of the world population) watchedimages of the 1992 Games on television atsome stage of the proceedings. This waspossible thanks to the 7,951 broadcastersfrom around the world who wereaccredited in Barcelona and the 3,337members of staff who worked for RTO'92and provided live coverage of all theOlympic sports —except for a fewpreliminary events—, a total of 2,800hours of live images.
These figures, all of them production andaudience records, are proof in themselvesof the paramount importance of televisionin the promotion of the Olympics; theyalso show the extraordinaryorganisational complexity generated bythe need to guarantee so many hours'broadcasting from so many venues, for somany sports and to so many countriesaround the world.
The project: from the ORTJO tothe birth of RTO'92
It had been foreseen from the outset thatin addition to the various existing factorsof complexity in Barcelona (the increasein the number of sports, events and hoursof transmission), it would also benecessary to incorporate the latestadvances in technology. Bearing in mindall these factors, it was considered fromthe very beginning of the Candidaturephase that an organisation would have tobe created specially to take care of thecoverage of the international radio andtelevision signal. The different Spanishradio and TV networks of the time,particularly the public ones, were invitedto take part in the venture.
The first report to set out the minimumrequirements for coverage of the Gamesprovided a clear definition of theobjectives of the organisation: "The basictask of the Radio and TelevisionOrganisation for the Olympic Games
The international radio andtelevision signal broughtimages of all the Olympicsports to the whole world.To make this possible, 3,337professionals from RTO'92worked at the InternationalBroadcast Centre (1) and thevenues (2).
To follow the yachtingevents, the prows of theboats were equipped withcameras providing imageswithout vibration thanks tothe Wescam system.
For the first time, aperiscope which transmittedshots from below and abovethe water was used to sendimages of the swimming.
1 and 2
3
4
1 262
One of the technologicalinnovations of the televisionbroadcasting of the Gameswas the incorporation ofstabilised optic gyro-zoomcameras.
The television broadcasts ofthe synchronized swimmingand water polo were alsoinnovatory: they usedunderwater microcamerasoperated by remote control.
(ORTJO) will be to produce theinternational signal for the OlympicGames; the secondary task will be to assistthe radio and television organisationstaking part to produce their unilateralprogrammes."
The need to guarantee that theinternational signal was producedobjectively and impartially was one of thecrucial factors in choosing to create theORTJO, rather than turning to an existingradio and television organisation, as otherOrganising Committees had done.Similarly it was decided not to use theRàdio-Televisió Espanyola (RTVE)production centre in Sant Cugat or theCorporació Catalana de Ràdio i Televisió(CCRTV) centre in Sant Joan Despí, butto set up an International BroadcastCentre (IBC) designed specially for theoccasion, where no other programmeswould have to be produced at the sametime. The availability of sufficient space inthe Montjuïc Area made it possible toinstall the IBC there as one of the
elements of the huge CommunicationsMedia Centre, of which the MPC was alsopart.
Thus, on 28 January 1988, the Organismede Ràdio i Televisió Barcelona'92(ORTB'92) was born, though in the end itwas called Ràdio-televisió Olímpica'92(RTO'92).
5
6
5
3 4 6 63
1
On the canopy of theOlympic Stadium was amonorail carrying a cameraactivated by remote controlwhich, from a height of 35 m,provided unusual andspectacular overhead shotsof the 100 m and 110 mhurdles.
The resources of RTO'92
RTO'92 hired and managed theproduction resources and staff requiredto guarantee success in three broadfields: the infrastructure at thecompetition venues, the IBC andtelecommunications.
Under the heading of human resources,contracts were signed with RTVE,CCRTV and the European BroadcastingUnion (EBU), which incorporates all themain European networks. These contractsestablished the cession of services andtechnical resources by these organisationsto RTO'92, which took charge of theiradministration.
Later, agreements were reached withother networks around the world, such asNational Broadcasting Company (NBC)in the United States or the InstitutoCubano de Radio y Televisión (ICRTV),thus making RTO'92 a fully internationalorganisation, enriched by cultural varietyand the conjunction of different workingcriteria.
Lastly, during the period of the Games3,083 specialist radio and television staffworked for RTO'92, to which we shouldadd the 254 people who worked onproduction under contracted servicesagreements.
Initial forecasts for the productionresources were easily surpassed. The firstcalculations had provided for about 200cameras, but in the end 500 fixed and 200mobile cameras —automatic ENGs,remote control and special units—were used. The cameras were distributedat a ratio of between 5 and 45 per venue(counting the walking, Marathon andcycling circuits), according to theimportance of the events held ateach one.
The Olympic Stadium and the Palau SantJordi were the only venues to havepermanent radio and televisioninstallations. The others were covered byover 50 mobile units, mostly loaned byRTVE (15), CCRTV (4) and differentEBU organisations (19): the BBC(Britain), the RAI (Italy), FR3 (France),ARD/SWF and ZDF (Germany) and SVT(Sweden). The 1,200 specialists whoworked on these mobile units were afurther illustration of the internationalnature of RTO'92: 491 were from RTVE,130 from CCRTV, 513 from the EBU,
41 from the NBC, 17 from ICRTV and 8from other organisations.
Moreover, RTO'92 found a variety offresh solutions which guaranteed thequality of the transmissions and helpedthe broadcasters with their work, most ofthem applied for the first time at an eventof the nature of the Barcelona Games.The generalised use of digital technologymeant a substantial improvement in thequality of the images, but also —indeed,most important of all— it guaranteed thatthe recordings of the 2,800 hours ofinternational signal would not deterioratewith the passage of time, however oftenthey were reproduced. Cameras whichprovided more expressive images wereused for sports production, making itpossible to film unprecedented shots ofthe competitors in action. This was thecase, for example, with the underwatercameras or the special ones operated byremote control.
The international signal forthe Games
As set out in its foundation statutes, themain function of RTO'92 consisted ofproducing and distributing theinternational signal for the BarcelonaGames which, for the first time in history,provided live coverage of all the sports onthe official programme (with theexception of just a few preliminaryevents).
In Barcelona, this signal included not onlylive images but also replays, slow motioncamera and the graphics with informationabout start lists, numbers, names ofcompetitors, flags and initials of countries,results and world and Olympic records. Inaccordance with the terms of the 1987Olympic Charter, all these facts andfigures were given in the Roman alphabet.The graphics created by RTO'92 werewidely accepted by TV channels allaround the world; only NBC in the UnitedStates replaced them with its own for itsbroadcasts. The video signal used thePAL system with a definition of 625 lines.The radio signal was independent of theTV signal as it consisted of atmosphericsound.
By definition the international signal mustbe objective. This means that it may notcentre interest on the competitors of aparticular country, but must report on theevents with the impartiality required by
1
65
AR Camp de Tir amb Arc
AT Olympic Stadium
AT Circuit Olímpic de Marató
AT Circuit de Marxa
BA Estadi de Beisbol de I'Hospitalet
BA Estadi de Besibol de Viladecans
BB Palau d'Esports de Badalona
BM Pavelló de la Mar Bella
BO Pavelló Club Joventut Badalona
CA Parc del Segre de la Seu d'Urgell
CA Canal Olímpic de Castelldefels
CY Velòdrom
CY Circuit de Ciclisme de l'A-17
CY Circuit de Ciclisme de Sant Sadurní
EQ Real Club de Polo
EQ Centre d'Hípica del Montanyà
FB Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta de Sabadell
FB Estadi del FC Barcelona
FB Estadi del RCD Espanyol
FB Estadi Luis Casanova de Valencia
FB Estadio La Romareda de Zaragoza
FE Palau de la Metal-lúrgia
GY Palau Sant Jordi
GY Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
HB Palau d'Esports de Granollers
HB Palau Sant Jordi
HO Estadi d' Hoquei de Terrassa
JU Palau Blaugrana
MP Circuit de Marxa
RO Estany de Banyoles
SH Camp de Tir Olímpic de Mollet
SW Piscines Bernat Picornell
SW Piscina de Montjuìc
TE Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron
TT Polisportiu Estació del Nord
VB Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
VB Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
VB Palau Sant Jordi
WL Pavelló L'Espanya Industrial
WR INEFC
YA Olympic Harbour
RH Palau Blaugrana
FR3 (France)
YLE (Finland)
EBU pool
EBU pool
NBC (USA)
ICRTV (Cuba)
TV3
DR (Denmark)
NBC (USA)
FR3 (France)
TVE
TVE
EBU pool
EBU pool
BBC (Great Britain)
TVE
TV3
TV3
TV3
TVE
TVE
RAI (Italy)
ARD/DFF (Germany)
TVE
NRK (Norway)
NRK (Norway)
RTP (Portugal)
TVE
EBU pool
TVE
ARD/SWF (Germany)
TVE
WE
BBC (Great Britain)
SVT (Sweden)
TVE
TVE
TVE
JRT (Yugoslavia)
TVE
ZDF (Germany)
TVE
ARD-Radio (Germany), NBC (USA)
BBC-TV (Great Britain), Televisa (Mexico), Channel 7 (Australia),
ARD-TV (Germany), CTV (Canada), BOJP (Japan pool),
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), RMC-TV (Monte Carlo), TF1 (France),
TVE, A2 (France), Canal Plus (France), B1250-HDTV
BOJP (Japan pool), NBC (USA)
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA)
NBC (USA)
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), TVE, B1250-HDTV
NBC (USA)
ARD-TV (Germany), NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA)
NBC (USA), B1250-HDTV
NBC (USA)
ARD-TV (Germany), NBC (USA)
ARD-TV (Germany), NBC (USA)
ARD-Radio (Germany), NBC (start-finish compound and Cava Alzinar compound)
ARD-TV (Germany), NBC (USA), B1250-HDTV
BBC-TV (Great Britain), NBC (USA)
Televisa (Mexico), NHK-HDTV (Japan), WE, B1250-HDTV
NBC (USA)
TVE
B1250-HDTV
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), TVE, B1250-HDTV
NBC (USA), TVE
NBC (USA), TVE
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), TVE, B1250-HDTV
BBC-TV (Great Britain), NBC (USA)
BBC-TV (Great Britain), NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), B1250-HDTV
BBC-TV (Great Britain), NBC (USA)
ARD-Radio (Germany), NBC (USA)
BBC-TV, Channel 7, BOJP (Japan pool), NHK-HDTV (Japan),
NBC (USA), TVE, Antenne 2 (France), Canal Plus (France), B1250-HDTV
NBC (USA), TVE
BBC-TV (Great Britain) ARD-TV (Germany), NHK-HDTV (Japan), TVE,
B1250-HDTV
ARD-TV (Germany), NBC (USA)
NBC (USA)
NBC (USA), TVE
NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), TVE, B1250-HDTV
ARD-TV (Germany), NBC (USA)
DRT (Denmark), TVE
BBC-TV (Great Britain), NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), B1250-HDTV
PE (*)
TK Palau Blaugrana TVE BBC-TV (Great Britain), NHK-HDTV (Japan), NBC (USA), B1250-HDTV
Mobile units at the competitionvenues by sport
The European Broadcasting Union pool was made up of the following networks:
BRT (Belgium, NOS (Netherlands), RTA (Algeria), TSR (Russia), TV3 and TVE.
(*) No mobile units installed.
Venue RTO'92 Other networks
66
Norwegian television mobileunit.
For the television broadcastof the walk and theMarathon and some of theathletics events held in theOlympic Stadium, electricvehicles were used.
The rowing events, held onBanyoles Lake, wererecorded by cameras onboard boats, among others.
an international audience according to theinterest of the competitions as theyprogress. For this reason, some televisionnetworks used the international signal incombination with their own unilateralcoverage, which allowed them to reportfrom an angle more in harmony with theparticular interests of their audiences.
For the channels which wanted topersonalize their broadcasts, RTO'92provided a series of resources and servicesat the forty or so competition venues andthe IBC and assisted with the transport ofaudio and video signals between allpoints.
Personalized coverage
The production of images to be seen ontelevision screens in the four corners ofthe globe began, naturally, at the venuewhere the event to be broadcast wastaking place. It was therefore essential tohave a large team of people with a variety
of skills there, from the camera operatorslocated at strategic points from wherethey could capture the best shots to theproducer who decided from the mobileunit which image to use at any givenmoment, not forgetting the electricians,sound technicians, controllers and others.At the Olympic Stadium, for example,250 people were working directly forRTO'92.
But apart from the infrastructure requiredfor the production of the internationalsignal, RTO'92 was also in charge ofsupplying all the material which the 140accredited radio and TV channels couldrent to personalize their own coverage.This personalized coverage also includedeverything which was exclusive to eachchannel: from the commentators whotalked over the images to the mixing—in the most complex cases— of theimages of the international signal withthose of other cameras which a particularchannel had installed on the platformssupplied by RTO'92 for the purpose.
21 3
1
2
3
67
Usually that meant that the channel hadto send a mobile unit to the compound atthe sports venue itself.
In this field too, initial calculations wereleft far behind: the 800 commentators'positions available in Seoul increased toabout 1,500 in Barcelona and the numberof requests for space on the cameraplatforms and in the compounds was alsofar higher.
Commentators' positions
The commentators reporting on thecompetitions for the various networkswere working from positions with the bestpossible view. Each one was equippedwith a table, three chairs, a commentators'unit, two sets of earphones and twomicrophones, a TV monitor to receiveimages of the competition in progress andothers taking place at other venues at thesame time and, lastly, a new informationsystem for the exclusive use of
commentators developed by COOB'92 inassociation with IBM. This was acomputerized tactile screen system calledCIS (Commentator Information System),which provided facts and figures in realtime about the most importantcompetitions: athletics, gymnastics (artisticand rhythmic), swimming (races anddiving), cycling, equestrian events andcanoeing (slalom). Moreover, 200 RTO'92liaison officials distributed photocopieswith the most important informationabout the competitions to thecommentators at all the venues.
Altogether there were 1,200commentators' positions with thisequipment and about 300 other positionswhich had just a telephone connection;from the reporting positions, othercommentators could provide internalinformation for their network, but not forthe audience. Moreover, in addition to thecommentators' positions, RTO'92 set up atotal of 1,600 observers' positions from
AR
AT
AT/CY/MP
BA
BA
BB
BM
BO
CA
CA
CY
EQ
EQ
FB
FB
FB
FB
FE
GY/HB/VB
GY/VB
HB
HO
JU/TK
RO
SH
SW/MP
SW
TE
TT
VB/PE
WL
WR
YA
Total
Camp de Tir amb Arc
Olympic Stadium
Circuit races*
Estadi de Beisbol de I'Hospitalet
Estadi de Beisbol de Viladecans
Palau d'Esports de Badalona
Pavelló de la Mar Bella
Pavelló Club Joventut Badalona
Canal Olímpic de Castelldefels
Parc del Segre de la Seu d'Urgell
Velòdrom
Real Club de Polo
Centre d'Hípica del Montanyà
Estadis del FC Barcelona/RCD Espanyol
Estadi Luis Casanova de Valencia
Estadio La Romareda de Zaragoza
Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta de Sabadell
Palau de la Metal-lúrgia
Palau Sant Jordi
Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
Palau d'Esports de Granollers
Estadi d'Hoquei de Terrassa
Palau Blaugrana
Estany de Banyoles
Camp de Tir Olímpic de Mollet
Piscines Bernat Picornell
Piscina de Montjuïc
Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron
Polisportiu Estació del Nord
Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
Pavelló L'Espanya Industrial
INEFC
Olympic Harbour
52
22
37
30
21
21
44
25
36
49
34
48
23
47
2
491
14
54
20
19
23
130
24
24
99
17
28
29
14
23
16
32
41
23
45
17
25
56
513
21
20
41
17
17
1
1
6
8
24
91
122
21
17
54
17
26
37
28
30
29
14
20
21
21
19
23
83
25
32
41
36
49
23
34
48
45
17
23
25
47
58
1,200
RTO'92 mobile unit staff
* Circuit Olímpic de Marató, Circuit de Marxa, Circuit de Ciclisme de l'A-17, Circuit de Ciclisme de Sant Sadumí and Circuit de Cros.
Venue TVE TV3 EBU NBC ICRTV Others Total68
The commentators'positions, as at the PiscinesBernat Picornell (1) or theTennis de la Vall d'Hebron(2), always commanded anoptimum view of thecompetition area and werefully equipped. Amongother services, they had anew system of informationfor commentators.
where commentators waiting their turn orhaving to transmit information onprogrammes or summaries later in the daycould also follow the competition.
Camera platforms
As we have said already, in order topersonalize the coverage the network inquestion could take its own cameras to thevenue. It also needed production controlset up in its own mobile unit with thenecessary staff. This meant that not manynetworks had the resources necessary topersonalize broadcasts and no networkcould personalize the broadcasts for allthe sports, only the ones which were ofmost interest to their audience. Even so,requests to place cameras at the venueswere far more numerous in Barcelonathan at earlier Olympic Games.
In most cases, the criterion followed wasto extend the international signal cameraplatforms to make room for the
broadcasters interested in personalization.Demand was such that new platformswere installed at all the competitionvenues. At the Olympic Stadium, forexample, RTO'92 built a "gondola" abovethe main booth to locate 30 or so of the120 cameras which covered the openingceremony.
Compounds
The compounds were large open areaswhere the mobile units receiving theimages from the cameras and producingthe programmes to be sent later to theIBC were located. They were equippedwith services of all kinds, always close tothe venue, and usually just outside(sometimes even inside).
The compounds were designed to hold theRTO'92 mobile units and those of othernetworks which had applied forpersonalized broadcasts from the venue inquestion. Although they were calculated
1 and 2
21 69
AR
AT
BA
BA
BB
BM
BO
CA
CA
CY
CY
CY
EQ/MP
EQ
FB
FB
FB
FB
FB
FE/MP
GY/HBA/B
GY/VB
HB
HO
HO
JU
RO
SH/MP
SW/MP
SW
SW
TE
TE
TT
VB
WL
WR
YA
Camp de Tir amb Arc
Olympic Stadium
Estadi de Beisbol de Viladecans
Estadi de Beisbol de I'Hospitalet
Palau d'Esports de Badalona
Pavelló de la Mar Bella
Pavelló Club Joventut Badalona
Canal Olímpic de Castelldefels
Parc del Segre de la Seu d'Urgell
Velòdrom
Circuit de Ciclisme de l'A-17
Circuit de Ciclisme de Sant Sadumí
Real Club de Polo
Centre d'Hípica del Montanyà
Estadi del FC Barcelona
Estadi Luis Casanova de Valencia
Estadi del RCD Espanyol
Estadio La Romareda de Zaragoza
Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta de Sabadell
Palau de la Metal-lúrgia
Palau Sant Jordi
Palau d'Esports de Barcelona
Palau d'Esports de Granollers
Estadi d'Hoquei de Terrassa (camp 1)
Estadi d'Hoquei de Terrassa (camp 2)
Palau Blaugrana
Estany de Banyoles
Camp de Tir Olímpic de Mollet
Piscines Bernat Picomell
Piscina de Montjuïc (salts de trampolí)
Piscina de Montjuïc (waterpolo)
Tennis de la Vall d' Hebron (pista central)
Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron (pista núm. 1)
Polisportlu Estació del Nord
Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
Pavelló L'Espanya Industrial
INEFC
Olympic Harbour
17
159
14
18
67
18
64
40
22
53
29
40
46
18
66
20
24
20
24
30
86
50
27
24
14
47
51
23
95
41
30
52
28
29
30
36
38
24
24
170
24
20
126
20
63
27
41
32
35
40
16
65
37
30
32
32
36
70
56
37
40
20
42
60
8
75
40
24
42
32
30
40
40
36
25
Commentators' positions at thevenues
Venue Commentators' positions Observers' positions
1
70
Commentators fromdifferent TV networks (in thebackground) describe totheir audiences a wrestlingevent being contested at theINEFC, whilst reporters andphotographers work fromtheir positions on the pressstand (foreground).
The ENG or "hand-held"cameras were much used forthe production of recordedprogrammes and summaries.
The mobile units wereparked in the compoundsbeside the venue, as here atthe Palau d'Esports inGranollers.
and sized in each case according todemand, RTO'92 was able to accept last-minute requests and accommodate all themobile units in the compounds withoutdisturbing the internal operation of theareas.
ENG cameras
The different networks personalized thebroadcasts by installing their own camerason the platforms and through a mobileunit in the compound which was used forthe production of live programmes. Inaddition, the ENG (Electronic NewsGathering) cameras were a resource usedeven more frequently at the Games, asthey were suitable for the production ofrecorded programmes or summaries.
Unlike the live broadcast cameras, theENG cameras did not need a mobile unitto send the signal, as they recordedimages on a tape which would be usedlater for production. To guarantee a spacefor them on the platforms, RTO'92
collected and processed the applicationsfrom the networks which were interestedbefore the Games began. Moreover, allthe channels which had acquired therights to personal broadcasts were allowedto bring ENG cameras into the venues—with no guarantee of a free space on theplatforms—, provided that the camerashad been duly accredited.
Mixed zones
For the personalized broadcasts, the radioand television networks mainly attendedinterviews with competitors whoseopinions were most likely to be of interestto their audiences. These flash interviewswere held in the mixed zones, located —atall the venues— between the changingrooms and the competition area, wherethe competitors passed just before or afteran event.
Whether broadcasting live or recording(through the ENG and recordingcameras), the networks waited in the
1
2
3
32 71
mixed zone for the competitors theywanted to interview. To avoid a crush, anorder of priorities was established: the liveRTO'92 camera, then the other livecameras, the live radio stations, the ENGcameras, the editor-in-chief of the unitand the press.
Pre- and post-unilaterals
RTO'92 provided yet another way ofmaking personal broadcasts for allnetworks which did not have their ownmobile unit. One of the cameras used byRTO'92 during the competition wasplaced at the disposal of the organisationswhich did not have live cameras, once abooking had been made. This enabledthem to hold interviews or includecommentaries in front of camera in thecompetition area itself up to five minutesbefore the event began or five minutesafter it ended.
Telecommunications
The international signal and thepersonalized signals of the differentnetworks had to reach the IBC from themobile units where they were produced.To guarantee the quality and security ofthe circulation of the audio and videosignals, RTO'92 designed a network inassociation with Telefónica and Retevisión.
This network made it possible to transportthe signal by different means according toits origin. To avoid problems of saturationof the radioelectric spectrum in the city ofBarcelona, the Montjuïc (including theIBC), Diagonal, Vall d'Hebron and Parcde Mar Areas and the Collserola mastwere linked by an optical fibre network.The signal from all the venues in thesubsites was also transmitted to theCollserola mast, but in that case throughmicrowave links. Both systems wereduplicated with back-up links in case of afailure of the main network.
The flash interviews withcompetitors, before and afterevents, were held in themixed zones located betweenthe changing rooms and thecompetition area, as at thePalau Blaugrana (1) or theOlympic Stadium (3).
1 and 3
A good telecommunicationssystem was indispensable forguaranteeing that theinternational signal and thesignals from channelspersonalising theirbroadcasts were transmittedfrom the mobile units to theIBC.
2 and 4
1
2
3
4
72
Diagram of the transmission of thetelevision signals
1 Olympic Stadium2 Barcelona Satellite
Communications Centre3 Collserola mast4 Subsites5 Other competition venues in
Barcelona6 Telecommunications room
Commentators
Recorders
Càmeres de televisió
Direct optical fibrenetwork
Alternative optical fibrenetwork
As can be seen from the diagram,when the signal had reached the IBC itwas transported along anotheroptical fibre network to the Penedèssatellite communications centre, fromwhere it could be sent to any point ofthe globe.
The Communications Media Centre
The operations base where all theactivities of the press and photographerscame together was the Main Press Centre.For the radio and television broadcasters,it was the International Broadcast Centre.These two huge spaces together made upthe common services area in the Plaça del'Univers, the giant CommunicationsMedia Centre (CMC). The servicesprovided by the CMC during the Gamesfor the entire media group —andspecifically the operation of the MPC andthe IBC— have been dealt with inVolume IV of this Report. What concerns
us here, even if briefly, is how this"communications mega-city" of almost100,000 square metres was constituted.
The Candidature project had alreadyreckoned that, for the first time in thehistory of the Olympic Games, the MPCand IBC would form a single complex,located in the Barcelona Trade Fairprecinct at the foot of Montjuïc. The MPCused the Palau de Congresses and thePalau Firal and the IBC halls 1, 2 and 13.In both cases, the space available had tobe shared between the area for thecommon services required by the users ofthe centre (press, photographers, radioand TV broadcasters) and the areadesigned to meet media demands forrental space. Whilst the common servicesarea was predictable from the outset, therental space was always subject to possiblelast-minute variations, and so indeed itturned out.
73
1 2
3
74
The Communications MediaCentre (CMC) was dividedinto a common services areaand two large spaces: (1) theInternational BroadcastCentre (IBC) and (2) theMain Press Centre (MPC).
The operations base forjournalists andphotographers was the MPC,which had this large workroom.
At the MPC all the rentalspaces were in the PalauFiral. Among the agenciesand newspapers from allover the world that occupiedthe 8,000 m2 of space was"USA Today" (4) andthe Japanese agenciesChunichi & Tokyo (5) andKishimoto (6).
Rental spaces at the MPC
The rental space and equipment service atthe MPC did not begin to take final shapeuntil March 1991. Initial estimatesindicated that the rental space for pressand photographers would have to beabout 8,200 m2, and so the whole of thePalau Firal was set aside for the purpose,whilst the Palau de Congresses wasreserved for the common services. For thefirst time, the project included theproduction of a computer programmespecially designed to manage the spacerental service.
The last date for reception of firmapplications from the media around theworld was 30 September 1991;confirmation involved immediatepayment of 50% of the rent for the spaceand services. When the final date came,the number of applications made itnecessary to modify the initial forecast, as12,000 m2 of rental space were required.
When conversion work began on theMPC in May 1992 the spaces requestedhad already been allocated to the mediaorganisations, which had, in turn,completed the indispensableadministrative procedures. Before theopening of the MPC on 11 July everythingwas ready and waiting and during theGames the space and services rentalcontinued to function and was able tomeet all last-minute demands.
1 and 2
3
4, 5 and 6
4
5
6 75
Communications MediaCentre
Olympic Village:IOC residence:
5.5 km3km
1
23
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
25
26
27
General planAccreditations CentreCommon Services Centre (CSC)International Broadcast Centre(IBC)Main Press Centre (MPC)Pedestrian accessVehicle accessEntrances to underground car
parksEmergency exitLoading and unloading areaGeneral stores
Ground floor
COOB'92 ServicesAccreditations Centre andObserver Services CentreGeneral logistics stores,telecommunications, photographyand common services areaRestaurantBarKitchenFood store
International Broadcast Centre(IBC)Reception and information areaRadio and television storesMeeting roomReprographics roomInternal security roomRadio and television unilateraltechnical area
Main Press Centre (MPC)Reception and information areaProtocol and services areaLeft luggageInternational agencies rentaloffices area
OtherSpace reserved for offices of theBarcelona International TradeFair
Owner and manager of thefacilityFira Oficial i Internacional deMostres de BarcelonaYear of inauguration1929
Distances
76
In the IBC rental spaces thetelevision networks had theproduction centres for theirprogrammes, often withstudios from where theycould report to theiraudiences. The network withmost space was NBC of theUnited States (2); Japan wasamong the countries sendingthe largest number ofresources, as we can see herefrom the TBS (1 and 3) orFNN (4) studios.
Rental spaces at the IBC
As with the MFC, the confirmation ofbookings for rental spaces made itnecessary to increase the originalprovisions for the total surface area of theIBC (35,000 m2) to 45,000 m2, twice thearea occupied by the same centre inSeoul. The rental and common service
areas were distributed around the threehalls (1, 2 and 13) available.
The conversion of the halls began just tenmonths before the start of the Games andwas completed on the day of the officialopening of the IBC, 1 July. One monthbefore, the RTO'92 offices and all thestaff working in them had moved there.
1, 2, 3 and 4
1 2 3
4
77
1
The capacity of the PiscinesBernat Picornell wasincreased by 7,500 seats ontemporary stands. Their sizeand the steep slope by whichthey rose to their full heightmade the venue extremelyspectacular.
The adaptation of the facilities
The differences (in architecture, spacedistribution, basic networks and evenimage and signposting) between theordinary conditions of use of the variousfacilities and the requirements generatedby the Olympic Games were the motivefor the Olympic adaptation project, whichwas designed to prepare the sites for theoccasion. The scope of the project wasconsiderable; it included the conversion of43 competition venues, 44 trainingfacilities, 19 residential areas (Villages,hotels and ships), 34 support centres and17 service centres (hospitals, accreditationcentres, reception, etc.).
The new facilities were built bearing inmind the fact that they would be used fordifferent purposes after the Games,although they had to be prepared first andforemost for strictly Olympic use. Withthe existing ones, efforts were made toadapt the different spaces to the specificrequirements of the activities that were totake place during the Games and theneeds of the various sectors which wouldbe taking part: press and photographers,radio and television broadcasters,competitors, spectators, VIPs).
Given the scope of the projects ofadaptation of the Villages, the Main PressCentre (MPC) and the InternationalBroadcast Centre (IBC), the respectivedivisions were put in charge, as explainedin the relevant chapters.
At the competition venues, the areas to beused for sport were adapted to thedemands of the International Federations,whilst the spaces for the use of the mediaobeyed the criteria set out by the IOC forthe minimum requisites for the written,graphic and electronic coverage of theGames.
The application of these guidelines wasthe starting point for the adaptation of allthe facilities. Furthermore, it had to beremembered that some of them, such asthe Estació del Nord, were not normallyused for sport; others were used for thepractice of sports other than the oneswhich would be played there during theGames; and others, such as the Palaud'Esports in Barcelona, had to cater forcompetitions in more than one sport, theeffort involved being far greater due tothe fact that the same venue had to beprepared for quite disparate kinds ofsporting activity.
Consequently, for the adaptation projecteach and every one of the particularrequirements of the different sectors hadto be specified, whether for the areasthemselves or for the technologicalinfrastructures, cable television,computer and electrical networks orair-conditioning.
The stages of the Olympicadaptation
The adaptation project can be dividedinto two clearly differentiated stages. Thefirst (on which the Sports, Press, RTO,Technology, Ticketing and other divisionsworked) consisted of distributing thespaces according to their function and useand the estimated needs of each kind ofuser, while the second involved thedetailed internal distribution of each ofthe large spaces, also according to thegroups which would be using them. Thesetwo phases were carried out betweenautumn 1989 and June 1991.
As early as the beginning of the secondphase, a competition was convened toassign the different projects. By thismeans, four engineering companies andone architecture and engineering studiowere chosen. Each was provided with thenecessary documents to draft the finalproject. During this period, it wasessential for all the parties involved toconsult with each other on theadaptation projects and therefore thepeople in charge, the users and theauthors of the different projects all tookan active part. The projects weredefinitively formalised between Octoberand December 1991.
A project approval committee, made upof all the parties which had intervened inthe process, was responsible for giving thegreen light. In this last phase ofintegration and in the formal act ofapproval the representatives of theprojects involved and the unit managersor their assistants played a particularlyimportant role. At the end of January1992, after forty days of intensive work, allthe projects had been approved.
The scope of the project
The basic adaptation work for theOlympic Games ranged over aspects asdifferent as architecture, electrical andmechanical installations, data-processing,
1
81
telecommunications, radio and televisionand the image of the facilities.
We can have an idea of the scope of thework done from the volume of materialsused. Among the most noteworthy are the397 prefabricated booths (with a surfacearea of 6,300 m2), 160 tents (with a totalsurface area of 30,000 m2), 1,300 kiosks(with a total surface area of 11,700 m2),90,000 seats to increase the spectatorcapacity at the venues, 75 kilometres offencing, 2,972 desks for the press and1,688 for RTO'92, equipment for boostingthe lighting (4,500 kW), 160 generators(57,865 kW), the continuous feed system(3,600 kVa), air-conditioning (18,000,000frigories, equivalent to four times thepower of the air-conditioning installed atthe Palau Sant Jordi), 900 kilometres ofcable, 10,500 tables, 25,000 chairs, 3,500armchairs, 20,000 cupboards, 5,000 wastepaper baskets, 1,080 chemical toilets and167 simultaneous interpretation booths.
Throughout the entire process of draftingthe projects, budgetary control was of the
essence. Demands were assumedaccording to expenses and expensesaccording to indispensable needs in acomplex process in which, once theprojects had been approved and thebudgets closed, the latter were close to theforecasts (at very high percentages). Thegeneral budget for the adaptation ofsports facilities and support centres was8,680 million pesetas, of which 7,355million were for the former and 1,325million for the latter.
The basic architectural operationsconsisted of extending and distributingspace to meet functional needs forenclosing sites and ordering circulation.
Prefabricated awnings and modules wereused to extend the spaces, kiosks wereinstalled for concessionaires andorganisation services, shady areas werecreated for the outdoor venues and thesites were enclosed with doublefencing, around the perimeter and in theinterior.
The Terrassa hockey groundwas among the venuesrequiring the mostadaptation, both of theplaying field and thesurroundings. In the picture,the moment when theartificial turf is finally laid.
The Pavelló de la Valld'Hebron, a newconstruction of recognisedarchitectural merit, duringthe adaptation phase.
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The adaptation of the venuesrequired the installation ofabout 90,000 seats to extendspectator capacity and over4,000 desks for the press andRTO'92.
As part of the distribution of space,technical rooms were set up (for radio,television, sound control, security, data-processing, scoreboards,telecommunications, commentators) andareas provided for the organisation andthe different groups of users. Thespectator capacity was increased at somevenues by installing temporary stands;desks were put in for the press and RTO;chemical toilets were provided wherevernecessary; and the rooms were allfurnished.
All the facilities were equipped with adouble supply of electricity: public systemplus generator or two generators.Moreover, all of them were provided withan electrical distribution network andconduits to meet the technologicalrequirements of communications,information processing, etc. Thisdistribution network also had controlelements, particularly a continuous feedsystem, which guaranteed anuninterrupted flow of power. To meet
needs in the fields of computers,telecommunications and radio andtelevision, main rings, branch circuits,distribution networks and terminals wereinstalled.
Other Olympic adaptation work consistedof signposting the facilities according tothe established image criteria andextending or supplying fire extinction andair-conditioning equipment. Furthermore,landscape gardening work was done in thesurroundings.
Contracting
Contracting was undoubtedly one of thekeys to the Olympic adaptation process.It began a year before the Games, evenbefore the different projects werecomplete, and therefore when their exactscope was still unknown.
COOB'92 acted as main contractor;this method was chosen as it was
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Two details of the assemblyof the temporary stands atthe Piscines BernatPicornell.
The rear part of the standsinstalled in Banyoles for therowing competition, with theapplication of the Olympiclook which brought unityand beauty to the venues.
View of the temporarystands at the Real Club dePolo.
View of the extension to theVelòdrom d'Horta, with atemporary stand with nearly3,000 seats.
1
2 3 5
4
1 and 5
2
3
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The lighting at some of thevenues was boosted toimprove visibility fortelevision broadcasts.
All the venues had anelectric network andconduits for computers andcommunication.
considered to be the most suitable for aproject of such characteristics, in whichprovision for possible last-minute changes—as indeed was the case— and theinescapable need to finish the work by adate which could not be postponed couldhave left the Organising Committee in aparticularly vulnerable position.
For the supply and assembly—two crucial sectors which had to beguaranteed in good time because of thegreat demand, sometimes generated byCOOB'92 itself—, framework contractswere established between autumn 1990and spring 1991. Through competitions,the assembly of the temporary stands wasawarded to three suppliers, and theawnings, the kiosks, the screens, thesignposting, the fencing, the containers,the desks and the chemical toilets to onesupplier each. In this way theOrganising Committee could work withglobal estimates and at unit prices.
Lastly, an agreement was signed with newinstallers and extended to adaptation andmaintenance during the Games. The sumfor these contracts represented 40% ofthe budget; the remaining 60%, set asidefor minor civil works, was distributedamong various industrial firms. Thisflexibility in contracting, necessary for thereasons already explained, meant that anaverage of fifteen industrial firms workedon each facility.
Thus, with these specific provisions foreach aspect of the adaptation work (theestablishment of framework contracts tocover the basic elements and flexibility incontracting for activities and facilitiesfrom a list of industrialists selectedaccording to their capacity and cost),general requirements and all suppliescould be guaranteed and COOB'92 wasassured of the control of this extremelycomplex operation.
6
160 tents (with a surfacearea of just over 30,000 m2)were used to extend thespaces and 1,300 kiosks(with a surface area of11,700 m2) were installed forconcessionaires and theservices of the organisation.
7, 8 and 9
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Programming and implementingthe adaptation
Simultaneous operations at different sites,the interlinking of activities and the shorttime period available for the works(except in the case of the venues built byCOOB'92), as the owners ceded thefacilities between 22 April and 15 June,called for a precise, tailor-made method,with information in real time and strictcomputerized monitoring, which provideda week by week report on the progress ofthe works, supplemented every day bydirect explanations.
This computerized monitoring was basedon a list drawn up from a model projectwhich enumerated all the possibleactivities connected with the standardareas of the adaptation project. Theseactivities were awarded percentage pointsaccording to expenses and the answers—strictly affirmative or negative—provided information about the finishedfacilities and the percentage advances
made on each work. In this way the factsand figures necessary for an interventionat the right moment were constantlyavailable.
Thanks to the planning which was afeature of the contracting and theprogramming of the measures to be taken,the implementation consisted of meetingthe forecasts without any hiccups otherthan the predictable ones. The activitiesthat required the most attention and timewere the assembly of the temporarystands to increase the spectator capacityat some of the venues and the extensionof the electric power supply.
Twenty days before the opening of theGames, the operational tests began andone week before the assembly was alreadycomplete, except for a few small details, atalmost all the facilities. Of the whole setof adaptation works, approximately 20%have not been dismantled, but left aspermanent improvements to the facilities.
Distribution of space and equipment by function
Internal distribution of space and equipment by function
Global requirements of the services networks
Adaptation project. Assignment
Drafting the Olympic adaptation project
Contracting the suppliers
Adaptation for Competitions'91
Adaptation projects approved
Olympic adaptation works done
Dismantling
Stages of Olympic adaption
1989 1990 1991 1992
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Over 1000 chemical toiletswere used to supplement thepermanent services at thecompetition venues in viewof the extensions andtemporary spaces which hadbeen added.
A moment of the installationof the track at the OlympicStadium.
Both the prefabricatedmodules and the tentsprovided extra space for theorganisation services atmany venues.
The human resources
The adaptation of the facilities wasbasically done by the Infrastructures andConstruction Divisions. The weight of theprogramming of the permanent projectsand the adaptation was borne by theInfrastructures Division, whilst the finaloperation and the implementation of theprojects was the responsibility of theConstruction Division.
The number of facilities, their dispersionand the tight margin of time available toadapt them to the needs of the Gamescalled for an increase in human resources:thus, between January and May 1992 theoriginal number of 35 members of staffhad grown to 128. They came from theengineering firms that had carried out theprojects and some of the associatecompanies, among others; in order tocontrol growth, they joined the full-timestaff gradually as the projects reachedcompletion.
The structure resulting from this growthin staff numbers was organisedterritorially in three areas of activity:Montjuïc, the rest of Barcelona and thesubsites. At each facility there was aperson in charge of the services andanother in charge of civil works, who wasunder the authority of the head of theterritorial unit in question.
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The materials managementproject includedcoordinating the supply ofgoods, storing materials,distributing them to thedifferent units and theoperation of collectingeverything up after theGames. The COOB'92general warehouses covereda surface area of 21,000 m2,to be used for storing thewide range of materialsrequired for the organisationof an event on the scale ofthe Olympic Games.
Materials logistics
The Materials Logistics Department wasin charge of three main projects: materialsmanagement, import-export operationsand the distribution of uniforms.Materials management was a particularlycomplex operation owing to the widevariety (from promotional items, such asbathrobes, pins, track suits and stationery,to electronic or computer equipment, inaddition to all the sports material) whichhad to be stored, distributed andtransported to the facilities.
The import-export operations,concentrated mainly in the six monthsleading up to the Games, also involved awide range of materials which had to begiven special treatment.
Lastly, controlling the production andmanufacture of the 50,000 uniformsrequired for the Games was also a largescale operation.
These are the three aspects which we shallbe analysing in detail in this chapter.
Materials management
The materials management projectincluded coordinating the supply of goods,storing materials, distributing them at theplaces where they would be needed whenthe time came and collecting them oncethe Games were over.
The most problematic points of thisoperation were the planning andquantification of the materials, as in orderto have exact facts and figures and not justmore or less approximate estimates, otherCOOB'92 projects had to have beencompleted.
In June 1989 the Logistics Departmentbegan the job of analysing and planningthe organisation and management systemand in January 1990 presented thepreliminary project to the COOB'92management. It identified the threefundamental features which would bedefinitively established in the projectproduced in October the same year.
Given the organisational complexity ofthis operation (mainly due to theimpossibility of foreseeing real needs farenough ahead), the project was simplifiedby means of three strategies.
First, a general criterion was adopted:transferring responsibility for storing thematerials and distributing them directly attheir destinations to the suppliers to saveon expenses, reduce the strain onadministrative resources and simplify theoperation by cutting down the number oftimes the material would have to betransported.
Second, a logistics supplier, Danzas S.A.,was commissioned with the managementof the general warehouses and thedistribution of the materials to thefacilities.
Third, COOB'92 rented the spaces to beused as general warehouses directly.
Planning and managing the supplies
Different people and divisions wereinvolved in the process of choosing andsupplying the materials, as they were theones in charge of the projects which woulddecide which and how many materialswould be needed and where they had tobe delivered. For example, the transportproject proposed radiocommunicationbetween most of the vehicles in the fleetand the transport command post. Theserequirements were passed on to thedivision responsible, in this caseTelecommunications and Electronics,which gathered together the needs for allprojects in this field. Once the divisionhad analysed them and decided on thematerials and equipment, it grouped themby similar characteristics, investigated themarket, invited tenders and chose thesupplier according to the sponsorshipagreements already signed. The LogisticsDivision intervened to settle the logisticalaspects of the deliveries with the supplier(dates, places, packaging, etc.) and toprovide administrative support.
As the contracting could not bepostponed until the spaces and serviceshad been finally decided —for the reasonsalready explained—, this system wasbased on the framework contracts alreadyestablished, plus the price of thematerials, the services connected withdelivering them, setting them up andcollecting them at the end.
For the purposes of logistical managementand inventories, the classification criteriawere based on the nature of the materialsand were grouped under four headings(family, subfamily, category and
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subcategory), up to a total of 25 familiesdivided into 106 subfamilies. Thisclassification was most useful from theoperational point of view.
The supplies were analysed from twocomplementary points of view. First, inthe preliminary project of January 1990,the purchases budget expected 10% to bespent that year, 20% in the second half of1991 because of the Competitions'91, andthe remaining 70% in the first six monthsof 1992. The real percentages ofdistribution of the purchases were 2% in1990, 25% in 1991 and 72% in 1992.
At the same time, the needs wereanalysed by divisions and projects, i.e.,from the point of view of types ofmaterial. In this case there wasconsiderable divergence between theforecasts and the reality due to changesmade to the projects and distribution byunits. Altogether, 10% of these orderswere placed in 1990, 20% in 1991 and70% in 1992.
A computer programme was designed tomonitor the stocks and control the budgetsimultaneously.
Type and surface area of thewarehouses
To have an element for extrapolating andcomparing the data from Los Angeles andSeoul the ratio between the square metresneeded and the number of competitorswas calculated.
In Los Angeles in 1984, there was acentralised model (that is to say, littlestorage space at the units) which used29,230 square metres of generalwarehouse for 6,000 competitors, a ratioof 4.88 square metres per competitor.In Seoul in 1988, on the other hand, adecentralised model was applied, with18,000 square metres of generalwarehouses for 8,000 competitors, aratio of 2.25 square metres percompetitor.
Construction • 3,568 orders (32 %)
Others • 2,861 orders (26 %)
Administration and finance • 1,442 orders (13 %)
Villages • 1,253 orders (11 %)
Telecommunications and electronics • 783 orders (7 %)
Sports logistics • 689 orders (6 %)
Image and communication • 542 orders (5 %)
Orders processed by the divisions(total: 11,138)
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For Barcelona, with a decentralised modelwhich bore more resemblance to Seoulthan to Los Angeles, the ratio set was 3square metres per competitor, slightlymore than in Seoul, as Barcelona wouldnot have the use of the Olympic facilitiesuntil close to the Games, which made itnecessary to use the general warehouse asa materials depot.
Bearing in mind how the needs evolved,we may say that the reality was quitedifferent from the forecasts, as reflected inthe table. The differences between theexpected and the real use of thewarehouses were a consequence of themanagement of supplies and theapplication of the criterion that thesuppliers should take charge of thestorage of their materials. Moreover,storage capacity at the venues was greatlyincreased during the final weeks of theadaptation phase.
The needs were covered using thefollowing premises, all rented except for
Font Màgica (the ground floor of one ofthe COOB'92 buildings): Font Màgica(250 m2); El Prat, 6 kilometres fromBarcelona (11,000 m2); Port (2,000 m2);Zona Franca (7,000 m2), and Enher, 10kilometres from Barcelona (800 m2). Thetotal available was 21,000 m2, 70 % of theplanned 30,000 m2, and the maximum usedwas 14,500 m2, 48% of the expectedamount. The movement of merchandise inthese warehouses was 9,962 m3 in 1991(21% of the total) and 37,649 in 1992(79%).
As far as storage at the units wasconcerned, it was decided to have onewarehouse at each, provided that thematerial was managed directly byCOOB'92, and space was leased to somesuppliers (Telefonica, Seiko and Coca-Cola, among others) so that they couldmanage their own warehouses.
The space available at the unitwarehouses was 17,275 m2: 8,750 m2 at theOlympic Villages and 8,525 m2 at the
Quarterly evolution of spacerequirements at the central warehouses
* The first estimates, which were made before all the projects had been closed and therefore in ignorance of real needs, were
revised downwards when it was confirmed that the suppliers would assume responsibility for storing the material ordered from
them.
In the end, the warehouses were used far less than expected, as storage space at some sites became available earlier than
expected.
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remaining units. The maximum use ofthese warehouses was about 70%.
Storage, distribution and transport
The storage and distribution operationwas divided into three stages. During thefirst, in 1991, 9,000 m2 of warehouses wereavailable and 3,000 m2 were used, basicallyfor the internal needs of COOB'92 andthe special requirements of theCompetitions'91.
Later, the conversion and adaptationphase (the first half of 1992) involvedlarge scale movement of materials and10,300 m2 of warehouses were used,distributed around four premises. Therewas also a fleet of vehicles belonging toDanzas, S. A., consisting of six heavygoods lorries, four large ones, seven smallones and five small vans.
The third stage, in which most of thematerials were moved around the interior
of the facilities, began just a few daysbefore the opening ceremony and lasteduntil the end of the Games, when therewas an increase in activity when thematerials had to be collected and returnedto the COOB'92 warehouses. During thisperiod the general warehouses reachedmaximum occupation, a total of 14,500 m2.
The logistics operation involved 457journeys and 11,236 m3 transported in1991 and 1,615 journeys and 42,406 m3
transported in 1992. The total number ofcubic metres transported (53,642) wasgreater than the total movement in thegeneral warehouses (47,611); the differenceis accounted for by the goods which weretransported from one unit to anotherwithout passing through the generalwarehouses.
Equipment used for handlingmaterial at the sites
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The central warehouses hada fleet of vehicles of theirown. Moreover, during theGames each unit had its ownvans for transporting smallpackages.
The organisation at the units
The Logistics Department prepared thesystem and drafted an operationsmanual for the physical andadministrative management of thematerials, for moving them at the unitsand for stocktaking.
It also took charge of the planning,recruitment and supply of staff. Thisinvolved selecting and hiring 546 peopleon a temporary basis (as volunteers couldnot be asked to work over such a longperiod), who formed teams at each unitfrom February 1992, together with the32 people who already worked in thedepartment.
During the Games, the departmentbecame a Logistics Centre andcoordinated the implementation of threeprojects: Olympic cargo, production anddistribution of uniforms and materialsmanagement.
The materials management department ateach unit was responsible for monitoringthe supply of the materials which wereunder the direct control of COOB'92. Butnot all the units had a materialsmanagement team, as the volume ofactivity at some of them (such as thetraining facilities) did not justify one andothers were serviced by nearby units.
The management and coordination ofdismantling the units was the final task ofthe Logistics Centre. That was the stagewhich called for the greatest effort ofcoordination between the materialsmanagement teams at the units, theLogistics Centre, the Assets SalesDepartment and the suppliers who hadloaned material.
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Human resources
The activities involved in materialsmanagement, apart from a few occasionalservices which were subcontracted duringthe Games, were carried out by 578people. The functional distribution ofthese human resources is shown in thetable.
During the centralised phase, theLogistics Department had one member ofstaff in 1989, nine in 1990 and fifteen in1991. In 1992 they began to move to theirnew work places at the units.
The gradual incorporation of newmembers of staff, which was particularlyintense in June and July 1992, and theirtraining were important functions of thedepartment.
Summary
An overall assessment of the project ispositive, both in terms of the good serviceprovided and the monitoring of themovement of material and stocktaking.The importance given to materialsmanagement and the conviction that thework had to be done with precision werehighly influential factors in this positivebalance.
The coordination of the management ofthe different supplies between theLogistics Department and Administrationand Finances Division had good computerback-up, which was of great assistancewith budget control and stocktaking.
The subcontracting of storage anddistribution to a logistics supplier was alsohighly positive, as it was a guarantee thatthe necessary resources could be obtainedalmost immediately and at a reasonableprice. Moreover, the vans managed by
Directors and assistants Auxiliaries and administrative staff Total Distribution of human resources formaterials management
Olympic Villages
Logistics centres
Other sites
Total
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10
64
88
232
22
236
490
246
32
300
578
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The dismantling andcollection of materials at theunits —one of the morecomplex logistical aspects—called for great coordinationand an increase in securityat the sites to protectCOOB'92's assets.
COOB'92 and assigned to the units werealso most useful, as they left part of thesupplier's transport capacity free andprovided considerable flexibility in thecase of small transport.
The dismantling and collection ofmaterials at the units may well have beenthe most critical aspect; responsibility forthe operation continued into the periodafter the Games, when everyone wasnaturally tired. Good direction andcoordination by the unit managers andincreased security to protect the assetswhich were still under the responsibility ofCOOB'92 were all the more necessaryduring this final stage.
Import-export operations
COOB'92 assumed responsibility forplanning and coordinating theinternational transport and customsdispatch service for all the materials that
had to be imported or exported for theGames.
On the one hand were the operationswhich COOB'92 or its supplier companieshad to carry out for purchases abroad andon the other the import and export ofmaterials for the groups which took partin the Games (National OlympicCommittees, International Federations,etc.). These materials were known as theOlympic cargo.
Fernando Roqué Especialidades, S.A., ofthe Royal Nelloyd Group, was assignedthe category of official supplier ofinternational goods transport and customsagent and worked in close cooperationwith the Spanish customs authorities tosimplify the formalities and obtainexemptions from duty.
In 1990 and 1991, COOB'92 and itssuppliers imported a large number ofgoods, basically special building materials,
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technological and sports equipment.Altogether 197 operations were carriedout.
The operation before the Games
The customs and transport manual set outthe customs formalities for the Olympiccargo and specific procedures for theimport of certain materials. The manualand the labels for the Olympic cargo weresent at the end of April 1992 to the peoplein charge of the groups who would betaking part in the Games.
Over the six months leading up to theGames, 987 import operations (196definitive and 791 temporary) werecarried out.
total of 2,841 tonnes (75% by the media;the remaining 25% were re-exports ofmaterial imported temporarily byCOOB'92 or its suppliers).
Imports during the first half of 1992
COOB'92 and industrial suppliersof the Games 541Media 124NOC and IF 263Other groups (IOC, VIPs, etc.) 59
COOB'92 coordinated theinternational transport andcustoms formalities for thematerials which had to beimported or exported for theGames. Arms, horses andboats received specialtreatment adjusted to legalconditions. Many of theboats for the yachting eventsarrived in Barcelona incontainers and weretransported direct from thedispatch point to theOlympic Harbour.
The arms and ammunitionwere transported to theMollet shooting range insecurity vans.
During that period, imports reached atotal of 5,306 tonnes. The users appear inthe table below. Once the Games wereover there were 582 export operations, a
Users of imports No.
Total 987
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3Warehouses of the officialsupplier of internationalgoods transport and customsagent.
4 and 6The horses were transportedby a specialised agentaccording to the sanitaryregulations for the import oflive animals. 188 horseswere taken to the Real Clubde Polo and El Montanyàfor the equestriancompetition.
5Most of the boats comingfrom Europe arrived inBarcelona on trailers.
COOB'92, the Customs Authority andFernando Roqué Especialidades, S.A.decided to set up a warehouse forreceiving merchandise from where thecustoms formalities for imported materialwould be carried out. When the materialarrived at the frontier (La Jonquera,Barcelona airport, the Port of Barcelona,the Barcelona TIR terminal and Gironaairport, mainly), a transit document wasprepared at the COOB'92 customswarehouse, which was independent of thegeneral warehouse and located on theZona Franca industrial estate. From there,the materials were distributed directly totheir destinations and the formalities forthe import documents were expedited.
At that warehouse, which was inoperation from 11 July to 30 Septemberand had a surface area of 7,000 m2—ofwhich 4,000 m2 were used at the time ofmaximum activity—, 7,000 tonnes ofmerchandise were received and 20members of staff, administrative and
operational, worked full time. Sixteenlarge and medium tonnage vehicles wereused for distribution.
This import operation was furthercomplicated by the transport strike inFrance on the days immediately beforethe Games, which brought the roadaccesses, the customs posts and the Iberiacargo terminal to a standstill. Fortunately,the organisation was able to reactaccordingly and successfully overcome thedifficulties of a few unexpectedly criticaldays.
Materials requiring special treatment
Arms, horses and boats received specialtreatment, according to the legalconditions that applied to them. Arms andammunition for the shooting and modernpentathlon events, for example, were keptin the custody of the Guardia Civil onarrival in the country and were
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The need to outfit all thedifferent groups taking partin the organisation of theGames called for a complexoperation to plan,manufacture and distributeover 50,000 uniforms.
transported to the Mollet shooting rangein security vans. Altogether, about 600weapons and their ammunition weremoved.
The horses were imported by a specialisedagent with due observation of the healthregulations for the import of live animalsand transported direct to the Real Club dePolo and El Montanyà equestrian centre.188 horses were transported in all. Thecooperation of the authorities involvedhelped to ensure the success of theoperation.
The boats belonging to the competitorsarrived in containers which weretransported direct from the dispatch pointto the Olympic Harbour. There were 150in all, but that figure does not take intoaccount the ones which arrived on trailers(most of them from Europe) and the oneswhich the organisation imported direct inmid-1991.
Uniforms
Following the tradition alreadyestablished at earlier Olympic Games,uniforms had to be made for the differentgroups: Team'92, the referees and thejudges, a total of about 50,000 people.The uniforms for the people taking partin the opening and closing ceremonieswere the responsibility of Ovideo-Bassat-Sport.
This project involved the Image andCommunication Division (which tookcharge of the design, as explained inChapter 10 of this volume), the Planningand Control Division (which decided onthe different types and calculated thenumber that would be required byTeam'92), the Sports Division (whichcalculated the number for the refereesand judges) and the Logistics Department(which assumed the tracking and controlof manufacture and distribution).
The Team'92 uniforms were designed foreasy identification of the group and thestyle matched the overall style of theGames. The number and variety ofmodels were limited so that they could bequickly recognised by the public and theOlympic Family and designed for the jobsto be done by the people wearing them.According to these criteria, threecategories (management, technicians andauxiliaries) were established and fivecolours chosen.
Another a priori consideration in thisproject was to simplify and standardisethe measurements and design of theuniforms (with minimum tailoring) as faras possible to make production easier.
The manufacture and distribution werecommissioned from El Corte Inglés, thedepartment store, which had the capacityto carry out an operation as complex asthis one. COOB'92 assumed directcontrol, amongst other reasons so that theright uniform would be given to the rightperson at the right moment.
The phases of this operation were: designof the uniforms, calculation of therequirements, requisites for production,allocation of the uniforms to the staff,distribution and dealing with incidents.
In the process of calculating therequirements, the first step was to obtaininitial estimates of the total number ofpeople who would be working in theorganisation; the second was to decide thenumbers of each type of uniformaccording to the work places; the thirdwas to calculate the quantities by type andsex; and the last was to calculate thequantities by size, type and sex.
The uniform supplier needed to have themost exact calculation possible from theoutset so as to begin production accordingto real needs.
At the end of 1990, COOB'92 producedstatistics of sex and age from thevolunteers data base, but without relatingthem to the type of uniform (althoughcertain estimates could be made from theexpected numbers of staff for medicalcare, drivers and so on).
In summer 1991, while the volunteers whohad to be accredited for Competitions'91were at the Font Màgica, measurementswere taken for these 6,700 people. Thatprovided the first statistical measurementbase, which was applied to the uniforms ofthe auxiliary staff. At the end of 1991, themeasurements for the 1,000 people whomade up the staff of COOB'92 were takenand the information was used as a basisfor the tailoring. Lastly, in order to collectthe most reliable data, in December 1991all the volunteers were asked to send intheir measurements.
Uniforms were assigned automatically toeach person from their allocation to workplaces, a task which fell to the Planning
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and Control Division. Each week —andlater on each day—, this information wassent to El Corte Inglés.
It was calculated that for an absolutelysequential process 15,000 m2 of storagespace would be required. The differentdistribution centres received the materialfrom a central warehouse. Production wasstaggered so that the process would begradual.
The uniforms were distributed from eightpoints in Barcelona and the subsites, apartfrom the ones which were given out onthe torch route. In Barcelona, uniformscould be collected at the following places:El Corte Inglés (Plaça de Catalunya) with atotal of 9,500 given out; El Corte Inglés(Diagonal) for the technicians of thegeneral and sports organisation, where9,200 were issued; and the Palaud'Alfons XIII in the Barcelona Trade Fairfor the auxiliary staff, where 27,000 wereissued. At the Banyoles Olympic Village
1,600 uniforms were issued; 1,100 at theOlympic Village in La Seu d'Urgell; at ElCorte Ingles in Valencia, 700; at El CorteIngles in Zaragoza, 600, and along the routeof the Olympic torch, 11,000.
The uniforms were issued as late as possibleto avoid loss, last-minute withdrawals, etc.The process followed a calendar coveringrequirements, volume of distribution andissues just a few days before the Games forthe judges and referees and foreignvolunteers.
There were about 2,500 incidents. The mainones were due to withdrawals andreplacements, changes in job allocation,shortages of some sizes and, to a lesserextent, flaws, theft or loss. They were allresolved with the approval of the UniformsDepartment.
The final balance, although clearly positive,shows that fewer distinctions of type andcolour for easy recognition by the public
The uniforms were assignedautomatically by jobs. Themustard colour characterisedthe uniform of the languagehosts.
The sports technicians andauxiliaries wore greenuniforms. The hat was anindispensable accessory forpeople who had to workoutdoors.
Royal blue was the colour ofthe organisation techniciansand auxiliaries, the largestgroup of all.
The referees and judges worered uniforms, very easy toidentify.
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The different types ofuniform were suitable for thetasks of each sector andprovided maximum comfort.
The uniforms weredistributed at eight points inBarcelona and at eachsubsite.
and the Olympic Family were necessary—notwithstanding the advantages of a cleardifferentiation by function. It would alsohave been a good idea to reduce theamount of tailoring involved.
Lastly, we should stress the great value ofthe uniform for the people who wore it and
were proud to be seen in it during theGames and to be able to keep it as asouvenir. This personal value placed on theuniform —setting aside organisationalconsiderations— made it particularlyimportant to resolve the incidents andensure that the needs of each and everyperson were satisfied.
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1
The Montjuïc tower, bySantiago Calatrava, rises inthe centre of the OlympicRing. Built with the supportof Telefónica, it was one ofthe most importanttechnological contributionsmade by the BarcelonaGames to the city.
General considerations andevolution
Introduction
The Barcelona Candidature for the 1992Games considered one of the keyelements of the Olympic organisation tobe the impact and structuring oftechnology. The Olympic Office thereforecommissioned the Barcelona Computingand Telecommunications Study (BIT'92)which covered all the technology projectsand questions about systems, televisionand electronics which were crucial for theorganisation of the Games. The report'srecommendations were included in theCandidature Dossier which was presentedto the IOC in March 1986 for approval.Once COOB'92 had been constituted inFebruary 1987, BIT'92 underwent its firstrevision. During the period of preparationfor the Games, the technology projectsoperated in a highly autonomous manner.In the operations phase, however, all thetechnology projects were integratedwithin the structure of the territorial unitsand the CIOT (the TechnologyInformation and Operations Centre).
BIT'92
Between the last quarter of 1987 and thefirst quarter of 1988, BIT'92 was revised inorder to clearly establish the aims andstrategies to be followed. During thosemonths it was decided which projects werenecessary, what their functions would beand the magnitude of each was calculatedin order to estimate the human andeconomic resources necessary to carrythem out. The chief aim was not only toestablish the main lines of action, but alsoto explain to the companies within thesector what COOB'92 needed in order toreceive the best tenders. With this in mind,a campaign was undertaken to informemployers' associations, chambers ofcommerce and professional associationsabout the technology programmes.
One of the basic criteria upon which therevision of BIT'92 was based was thegrouping of the different projects so as tofacilitate subcontracting theirdevelopment and the final preparationsfor all the systems. However, therequirements, planning and control of thetechnology projects, as well as theintegration of the different systems alldepended on the COOB'92 technologymanagerial staff.
The awarding of large contracts
On the basis of the aims and strategies setout in the Technology Plan, research wascarried out in the markets for all thenecessary components. Tenders wereinvited for each of the important lines ofaction and the "framework" contractswere negotiated, that is, the award of themost important sections of the Plan which,in time, would become projects and sub-projects. As a consequence of this, all thecomputing hardware was awarded toIBM, results management software toEDS, operational management softwareto the Sema Group T & G, OlympicFamily communication and computingsystems to Eritel, business managementsoftware to Càlcul i Gestió, publishingsystems to Rank Xerox,telecommunications systems toTelefónica, fixed radio communications toTelettra, PBXs to Ericsson, sound andimage systems to Philips, the internationalmedia information system andtransmission equipment to Alcatel andoffice automation to Apple. All thesecontracts were awarded in 1988 and theyrepresented 75% of the budget fortechnology.
The companies' participation took theform of sponsorship, which increased theirlevel of commitment. The final result wasa technology service of the highest qualitywith a sponsorship coverage which brokerecords in comparison with previousOlympic Games.
The development of the TechnologyPlan
Firstly, the support services for internaladministration were put into action, that isto say, the business management system(accounting, pay-roll, purchases etc., withthe use of an IBM AS/400) and officeautomation and computer assisted design(CAD).
After the experience gained from theobservation of the Seoul Games inSeptember 1988, the first revisions to thePlan were made. Development teamswere created and the initial functionalspecifications were drawn up for the otherprojects.
In 1990, rapid progress was made on allthe projects. During the course of theyear, the first prototypes were used, whichwas useful for confirming therequirements. The IBM calculation centre
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Project Service Company Assignment of projects and services
Internal telephones
Public networks
Transmission network
Terminals
Radio network
Wavelength control
CATV
Track instruments
Scoreboards
Giant screens
PA
Sport CCTV
Accreditations
Personal access control
Materials access control
Security CCTV
Intruder detection systems
Project tracking methodology
Computing systems
Company management software (SIGE)
Results management software (SIR)
Commentator information system software (SICC)
Network
PBXs
Cabling
Telefonica
Ibermic
Telephone
Fax
Videoconference
Radio communications
Portable transceivers
Head ends
Cabling
Receivers
Videos
Transmission equipment
Alphanumeric
Sport
Vidiwall
Jumbotron
Photography
Metal detectors
X-ray
Central systems
Local systems
Basic software
Technical support
Local network design
Simulation
Monitoring and control software
Printed results distribution system (DOCUMENT) software and equipment
Olympic Family Information System (AMIC) software
Operations management information software (SIGO)
Photocopying
Archiving and documentation
Space management and CAD
Facilities management
Local support for users at fixed sites
Office automation (equipment and software)
Office automation (user support)
Olympic Games promotion
Olympic database
Telefónica
Ericsson
Sintel
Telefónica
Telefónica
Ricoh
Telefónica
Philips / Indelec
Motorola
Telefónica
Directorate General of Telecommunications
Jerold / Televes
Sintel
Philips
Panasonic
Alcatel
Seiko
Seiko
Baybor / Olimpex
Philips
Sony
Philips
Panasonic
Kodak
IECISA
Kryptos / Garret
Siemens
ECV
AISA
SCYT (CCS)
IBM
IBM
IBM
IBM
IBM
IBM / UIB
IBM / BIDISA (Legent) SELESTA (Candle)
Cálculo y gestión
EDS
IBM
Xerox
Eritel
LITE (Sema Group, T&G)
Xerox
Xerox
Disel
Sema Group
Centrisa
Apple
Compuservice
Alcatel
CIDC
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The design of thescoreboards was appropriateto the sporting requirementsof the competition venues.
The Standard InstallationsPlan defined thetechnological adaptation ofthe territorial units.
gave support to all the softwarecompanies by means of a network ofterminals. Kodak was awarded theaccreditation system, Panasonic wasnamed joint partner for the supply ofvideo equipment and Ricoh for the supplyof fax machines. Seiko was chosen fortrack and timing instruments and the giantscreen in the Stadium was awarded toSony.
As well as monitoring the generalprogress of all the technology systems,COOB'92 also put the StandardOperations Plan (PNO) into action. Thisdefined the organisational structure whichCOOB'92 would have to have during theGames and it included the technologyoperation model and the StandardInstallations Plan (PNI) which defined theadaptation of the technologicalinstallations at the different units.
These plans, which were of supremeimportance for the smooth running of theGames, made allowance for the sharing of
technological functions between the unitsand the centre as part of the generalorganisational framework of COOB'92and most importantly, during thepreparatory and operations phases.
Deployment
In 1991, Competitions'91 put the wholeorganisational structure of COOB'92 tothe test. The technology departmentprogrammed more than a hundred tests inorder to put the finishing touches toprocedures, equipment, materials andmanpower.
At the beginning of 1991, the first of thetwo large Games computers, an IBMES/9000, the most modern of its kind,went into operation. During the first sixmonths of the year most of the soundsystems were installed at the new facilitiesand telecommunications rooms wereprepared for most of the competitionunits. The contracts for the securitysystems and cable television were also
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awarded, thereby concluding most of thebasic contractual arrangements.
The experience of Competitions'91 led tothe refurbishment of some parts of thetechnology facilities at the territorial unitsbeing accelerated and in some cases thismeant having to negotiate with theowners of the facilities about thepossibility of going in before the date offormal cession to COOB'92. The monthsprior to the Games were spent mainly byon the one hand, putting the finishingtouches to the software, preparing theoperational procedures and selecting andtraining the teams necessary for smoothoperation and on the other, by installingall the necessary computing,telecommunications and electronicequipment.
The operation
Shortly before the Games commenced,COOB'92 decided to establish adecentralised organisation in which each
unit had a high degree of functionalautonomy. The CIOT coordinated theterritorial operations and the physicalsystems (telephone systems, CATV andradio communications). More than 5,500people were involved in all the technologyprojects.
Dismantling
Immediately after the competitions hadfinished at the different units, all theequipment which had been used duringthe Games was dismantled (terminals,televisions, telephones, faxes,photocopiers and track equipment) inorder to leave the facilities in a fit state fortheir usual purpose again. In some cases,however, the installations provided for theGames (such as cables and soundequipment) were left behind to form partof the fixtures at the facilities. Thoseresponsible for the installation of theequipment were usually responsible forthe dismantling.
Planning
ProjectDevelopment
Installation
Pre-operation
Operation
System Minimumfor planning
Project Needed for control
Territorial unit Specific to theinstallation
System OwnVolunteers
System OwnVolunteers
General
Specialist
Specialist
General
General
TechnologyDivision
Data-processingand SystemsDivision
Telecommunicationsand ElectronicsDivision
MatrixDivision-Territorial
Unit
Territorial
Territorial
Identification andextent of thesystems
General budgetAssignment to
companies
DevelopmentConstructionOperational evaluation
and acceptance
DesignInstallationImplementation
ProceduresTraining
Operation
MethodologyPriority
Detailed budgetsContracting
Determine finalquantities
Dismantling
The organisation processPhase Base element Staff Organisationfocus
Structure Main tasks Preparation forthe following phase
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The phases of the technologyprojects
The COOB'92 technology sectionincluded a large number of projects whichbelonged to very varied disciplines. Therewere cable and radio telecommunicationsprojects (of different types according totheir purpose and the technologyemployed), multi-function computingprojects with different equipment,electronic projects and sound, vision andelectronic security projects.
The diverse nature of all the projects isreflected by the progress chart for eachone. Nevertheless, it is possible to talk ofa generalised structure which covered allthe tasks to be covered by the variousprojects.
Planning
This included all the essential tasksnecessary to decide upon the equipmentneeded, determine the scope of the tasks,
decide upon a progress calendar and apreparation programme up to the start ofthe Games, decide on an implementationprocedure, award contracts to suitablecompanies and corporations and decideupon the optimum budgets and staffinglevels to carry out the whole process.
Development of the project
This brought together all the tasksrequired of each project since thepreliminary project, the technologies to beemployed, the entire calendar and allcosts. It also included design, constructionand/or codification, the planned eventsand initial acceptance in those cases whenthe creation of new products or systemshad been necessary, as was the case withall the computing projects and some of theelectronic ones to be used in thecompetitions.
This phase also included the tasksassociated with the exact dimensioning ofall the elements necessary for the
General planning of thetechnological projects Planning
Project development
Installation
Pre-operation
Operation
1989 1990 1991 19921988
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A moment from theEuropa B AthleticsChampionship held inAugust 1991 at the OlympicStadium. At theCompetitions'91, COOB'92tested the technologicalstructure which would haveto operate during the Games.
operation, human resources andtechnological equipment as well as othermaterial resources. It was necessary todecide on the total quantity of resourcesneeded and distribute them amongst morethan a hundred spaces or facilities wheretechnology had been assigned a role.Other tasks, which naturally were alsoadapted to real needs, were aimed atensuring the practicability of the systemsand at guaranteeing their ability to copewith the large scale of the Olympic Games.
Installation
This included all the tasks necessary toensure that the products or systems wereinstalled at the established places and onthe dates required in order to be able tocarry out the tasks prior to the operationand the operation itself. These tasks couldbe very different depending on the natureof the products or services. Specialmention should be made of all the systemswhich required the physical installation ofcabling, since this had to be integratedwith other activities connected withpreparing the competition units andOlympic Villages. In most cases thispreparation was performed in a verylimited period of time. Another importanttask was the deployment of terminalequipment at the units.
With respect to the installation ofnetworks, the small number of specialisedcompanies in the market made itabsolutely necessary both to plan well andto have a large measure of flexibility inorder to re-route the cabling in the eventof problems.
Preparation for the operation
This encompassed all the activities aimedat training of the personnel who wouldhave to operate the systems, supplytechnical support and training to all thegroups who would be the end users.
The operation
This heading covers not only the actualoperation of the systems but also all thosetasks aimed at putting them intooperation and maintaining them fullyoperational without neglecting eitherperformance or capacity.
Despite the fact that most of the systemswere designed to be operational duringthe Olympic Games, some had to beoperational long before, such as those
which supported the preparation for theGames. The content and length of thepreparatory and installation phases wasdependent on the nature of the variousprojects. In general, however, it can besaid that most of the projects were carriedout in accordance with the programme setout in the Table on page 111. TheOlympic Games preparation supportprojects in advance of this calendar were:
• Office automation, operative from thefirst quarter of 1988
• Internal administration computingsystems, operative from 1988 or 1989depending on the applications
• Publications Centre, operative from1989
• The design assistance and spacemanagement centres, operative from1989
• The digitalized documentation archive,operative from 1990
• The internal telephone network,operative from 1988
• Radio networks, operative from 1990• The electronic security system, operative
from 1989, according to needs and mostespecially,
• The Games calculation centre (CSA)and the technical systems service,operative from the beginning of 1990.
Also some projects which includedreservation services (as was the case withthe Olympic Family Accommodation)were operational well before the Games,generally in 1991, but in some cases, at thebeginning of 1992.
Organisation and evolution of thetechnology projects
Like the whole Olympic organisation, in1988 the COOB'92 technology sectionwas at the planning stage. At that time,there were a very small number of peopleon the technology staff (there were 10people for all technological functions) andthey were working on a very broad basis.
In addition to the tasks of theidentification of each system, thedetermination of its scope, of the globalprogress and installation calendar (tasksmentioned above in the section dealingwith the planning phase), a transition wasmade to the next stage using the followingprocedures:
• a specific methodology for monitoringthe technology projects
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• giving priority to activities within eachsystem
• drafting specific contracts with thesub-contractors, and
• detailed project budgets which werefollowed until the end of the OlympicGames.
The various projects were awarded at theend of 1988 and at the beginning of 1989(see the Table on page 108), which meantthat most of the projects entered theprogress stage at the beginning of 1989.
The project
The basic element upon which work wascarried out in 1989 was the project, andthis entailed a large increase in thenumber of staff in the technology section(74 people in 1991) who were responsiblefor leading the 58 plans included in theMaster Plan. They acted as an interfacebetween the users and the companies fordefining the requirements, monitoring and
controlling the progress made,accepting the product or system once ithad been developed and bringing theequipment and human resourcesdeployment proposals into action in sucha way as to ensure a smoothly runningoperation.
The organisational focus given to the staffwas a specialist one and the projectmanagers were appointed according thethe nature of the project in question. Thiswas also reflected in the organisationchart, which had a hierarchical structure(project, system, division, from lower tohigher) forming part of the COOB'92Data-processing or Telecommunicationsand Electronics Divisions.
Under the global criteria for approvingthe product/system, a process calledoperative evaluation was included formany of the systems developed. Thesystem was placed in conditions which,while not exactly the same as the finalones, allowed adjustments and changes to
Block Nature Project System typology
1 Distribution of standard equipment. No special installation needed Photocopiers
(just electric power) Pagers
Television monitors
Closed-group radiotelephony
Short-range radiotelephony
Mobile telephones
2 Distribution of standard equipment. Special installation needed Electronic security
(usually cabling, prior design) Conference rooms
CATV
CCTV for sport
Telephones
Office automation
Sound
Videoconference
Accreditations (photography)
3 Systems development (hardware and software) Results information system (SIR)
Commentator information system (SICO)
Olympic Family information system (AMIC)
Business management information system (SIGE)
Track instruments
Scoreboards
Results distribution system (DOCUMENT)
4 Complex central services Internal telephones
Data telecommunications network
Data processing centre
Publications centre
Private radiotelephony network
Public networks
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The first projects developedby the technologydepartment were the supportservices for COOB'92internal management:company management andoffice automation.
be made which would have beenimpossible during the short period of timethe Olympic Games lasted.
The main steps to be taken in order to goon to the following phase were:
a) to determine the number of terminalsand the location of each of them(necessary for network design and for theinstallation phase)b) to determine the human resourcesnecessary for the operationc) to prepare the user and trainingdocumentation (necessary for thepreparation stage prior to the operation).
Project implementation
When considering the implementation ofthe project and especially the installation,it is worth remembering that not all theprojects were of the same complexity orlength. The Table on page 114 groups theprojects according to this criterion;implementation and installation naturally
differed according to the level ofcomplexity.
Installation
The installation phase was importantbecause of its scale (see the Table on page118) and because of the time limitationsimposed by the date fixed for the openingof the Games and by the dates on whichthe different facilities were ceded toCOOB'92 by their owners. During thisphase, relations with the team responsiblefor adapting the units were very important.For example, the fact that a quality powersupply was available at the right momentwas fundamental in order to consider theinstallation and testing of the networks andtechnological equipment complete.
Preparation of the territorial unit
This phase took place at the same time asthe operation preparation phase, whichcalled for the creation of a specificstructure.
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The key element was the territorial unit,for which the technology installation,especially the networks, had beendesigned and the installation anddeployment of terminals prepared andundertaken.
In spite of the fact that during this phasethe main objective was the territorial unit,the organisational focus was on theprojects, that is to say, following thespecialist criteria with a complementarymonitoring structured according to unit orgroup of units. In carrying out theinstallation, thought was given, not only tothe operation, but also to preparing fordismantling, a very large task that wouldhave to be carried out at a time when itwas foreseen that the COOB'92 staffwould be somewhat tired.
Preparation for the operation
Preparation for the operation took placeat the level of the territorial unit,whenever possible with the human
resources intended for the operationalphase and using the products or technicalservices which were the result of theintegration of one or more projects (whichis what we have described as systems).Thus, the Results Information Service(SIR) was the final product obtained byintegrating the projects of timing, trackinstruments, score boards, resultsinformation, information forcommentators, DOCUMENT and so on.The operational phase was prepared forby each unit and system by system. Theorganisational focus was, necessarily, awide one since the same people hadresponsibilities for different systems.During this phase, the main tasks were todraw up the operational procedures andteam training, which took the form oftrials.
The operation
Finally the operational phase began. Itwas short, intense and had a structuresimilar to the previous one, that is, it was
Typical organisation chart fortechnology in a territorial unit
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Electronic security was oneof the projects included inthe Olympictelecommunicationsprogramme.
The Seiko company suppliedtrack instruments andscreens.
The Results ManagementSystem was the product ofintegrating the time-keeping,track instruments,scoreboards, resultsinformation, commentatorinformation, DOCUMENTand other projects.
administered by each territorial unit withcoordinated central support from theCIOT.
Strategies and adaptation
The projects were drawn up andstructured according to strategies whichtook account of the nature of the venue orfacility in question. These are detailedbelow.
Fixed date
The service had to be provided during aset time period which was determined byfixed dates, which meant that all the tasksof development, installation andpreparation had to be carried out insufficient time to avoid the occurrence ofsituations which it would not be possibleto resolve at the last moment. Thestrategy adopted to confront thischallenge rested on three main points:conservative planning, participation in
important events and the order of priorityof functions.
In accordance with the principle ofconservative planning it was decided toprepare the technology systems whichrequired a certain amount of developmenta year before the Games commenced.Thus, there would be sufficient time toabsorb any unforeseen delay and todevote the necessary time to the tasks ofpreparation and operation.
As it was realised that the plan wouldoften be inadequate unless everyone knewthat there were also unavoidablecommitments involved, the second mainpoint was to take part in important testevents that would be held to coincide withthe dates set for the completion of theprojects.
The third key point was the order ofpriority of the functions which had to beincluded in each of the three versionsplanned for technological products, in
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such a way that the first version includedabsolutely essential functions and theother versions included other, desirableones.
Short duration
The second characteristic of the servicewas its short duration and consequentlythe practical impossibility of correctingerrors and of making adjustments to thesystem after it had been put intooperation, which is usual under morenormal circumstances. In order to meetthis challenge, there was a two-prongedthrust to the organisational strategy:operative evaluation and simulations.
An operative evaluation was made afterthe initial acceptance of the technologicalsystems when it had been shown that theywere in working order. It consisted ofputting the system into operation eitherwith real tests or by means of simulationsin order to reveal any possible faultswhich could only be exposed in this way.
Another strategy, adopted especially forthe large-scale computing systems, wassimulations which put all the software andhardware tools available into operation.
Large scale
The third characteristic of the technologyservice was its large scale, and this madethe standardisation and industrialisationof certain processes advisable.
When talking of large scale, this refers notonly to absolute terms—4,500 personalcomputers installed during the operationsphase is a respectable figure—but also tothe organisational complexity implied bystaging the events for 28 sports during ashort period of time simultaneously and ata large number of different venues. Onmany occasions this complexity alsoinvolved certain repetitive aspects. To acertain extent this meant that once asystem had been developed, a replica,often with minor modifications, could bemade for each of the units.
Giant screens
Sound at venues
Conference rooms
Accreditation lines
Access control bar-code readers
Hand-held metal detectors
Arcos detectores de metales
CCTV cameras
Portable terminals for the press
PS/2 - AMIC terminals
PS/2 - SIGO terminals
PS/2 - SICO terminals
PS/2 - SIR terminals
DOCUMENT terminals
Office automation computers
3
65
47
38
550
1,850
387
470
4,000
1,510
300
1,050
950
605
715
Technology quantities
Private telephones
Public telephones
Standard telephones
Fax terminals
Ibermic lines
TMA terminals
Press terminals
Radio-trunking terminals
Portable transceivers
Pagers
Televisions
Videos
Head ends
Displays
Photocopiers
10,000
1,000
2,000
617
225
407
3,900
2,110
3,800
3,340
10,000
1,200
53
31
700
Quantity Quantity118
1,510 AMIC terminals weredistributed around the sitesfor information andcommunication among thedifferent sectors of theOlympic Family and theorganisation.
Desks reserved for the mediaworking in Banyoles, the siteof the rowing competition.Cable television (CATV)provided links between allthe Olympic subsites and theInternational BroadcastCentre.
Standardisation made this replicationmuch easier with respect to design, theassignment to the unit and theindustrialisation of the installationprocess. This standardisation, whichassured the homogeneity which is soimportant when operating on so large ascale, also had a positive impact on theoperation, since it facilitated thehomogenisation of the operatingprocedures, giving a great deal offlexibility to the assignment of staff andsimplifying their training.
Another basic strategy to confront thescale of the operation was theindustrialisation of the processes. This wasespecially applicable to the tasks ofinstallation. Thus, thanks to the effort thathad been put into the design andorganisation of the process, there could bespeedy accomplishment of certainactivities which, under othercircumstances, would have taken longerthan the time available. This strategy wasapplied, for example, to deploying
computers and preparing them foroperation.
Immediate response
The need to receive an immediateresponse when using the systems, as wellas their critical nature and visibility, wereall matters to be borne in mind. For thesereasons it was decided to use proventechnology, to freeze innovation, toprovide redundant solutions and to haveemergency procedures available.
The use of the most modern proventechnology meant that the peopleresponsible had to choose with great care.When a new technology is introduced incomputing it is still in a phase in which itis frequently updated. For the user it isvery important to continue with oneparticular version, leaving aside thepossible advantages that a new versionmay provide if this would entail a lack ofstability.
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It was also necessary to take otherprecautions to head off any unforeseenevents. The most important was toprepare alternative solutions in case theapplied procedures failed. Emergencyprocedures were also prepared to provideminimum operational capability so that inno case would the operation of the Gamesbe paralysed.
The impossibility of rehearsal
Finally, the practical impossibility ofhaving a prior rehearsal for the users formost of the systems was borne in mind.Many of the users, even if they formedpart of the Olympic organisation, werevolunteers who had very little time tofamiliarise themselves with the system.The other users were members of theOlympic Family for whom it waspractically impossible to plan for trainingdue to the large number of peopleinvolved and the dates of arrival. It wasprecisely for this reason that it wasdecided to opt for an easy-to-operate
design and straightforwarddocumentation.
In all of the systems which were operateddirectly by members of the OlympicFamily (SICO, DOCUMENT, AMIC) alarge number of volunteers who had beentrained during the preparation stage of theGames were given the task of resolvingany doubts or problems that might arise.
The last characteristic which it isnecessary to mention regarding thedevelopment of the technology systems isthat they had to be developed, or at leaststarted, without the direct participation ofthe end users. Many of them appeared afew days before the Games began andothers were incorporated into theorganisational structure of COOB'92 afterthe projects were under way, oftenwithout being aware of projectrequirements, since many of them were atthe stage of defining the scope of theirown projects and organisational strategies.This had a very important effect on the
View of the main room ofthe Information andTechnology OperationsCentre (CIOT). The CIOT,which came into operationin May 1992, was in chargeof an exhaustive monitoringof the central and localtechnological systems whichfunctioned during theGames.
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The Olympic back-upnetwork was monitored fromone of the CIOTinstallations, by staff fromthe world of computers oruniversity faculties andtechnical schools.
definition of the project requirementswhich, contrary to what would have beendesirable, was made in an improvisedmanner in order to press ahead.
To take account of the risks that wereinherent in this unavoidable situation,flexible applications were designed andoperative evaluations were carried out.The design of the applications and thetools used in the systems allowed for acertain flexibility, and it was consequentlypossible to change some of the requisites(especially those concerned with theoutputs) with the minimum of fuss.
These points characterised the systemsand teams as having strategies aimed atintegration, decentralisation, ergonomicsand robustness.
The CIOT
As the Olympic organisation entered thefinal straight, a decentralised structure
was implemented based on some sixtyterritorial units (the only structure thatcould work for the Olympic Games) and acentral coordinating organ was createdand informed of all the problems thatcould not be solved locally or that mightaffect other units. This centre providedthe necessary support to solve theproblems and as far as technology wasconcerned, the centre was the TechnologyInformation and Operations Centre(CIOT). The CIOT started work at thebeginning of May 1992 in order tomonitor the installation phase, whichincluded such matters as the basicpreparations, the installation ofequipment and putting the applicationsinto operation.
In order to inform the people involved inany incident, an exhaustive monitoring ofthe central (telephone network, datatransmission network and centralcomputers) and local (resultsmanagement) systems took place duringthe operational phase.
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Another important aspect was the factthat the operations directors of thedifferent companies involved in theGames technology were all in one place inorder to ensure that, in the event ofincidents, no unilateral decision whichmight have an adverse effect on the othersystems would be made.
Human resources
The success of technology dependedespecially on the operation of thecomputing systems andtelecommunications equipment, but thetraining given to the staff who werebehind the whole operation should not beforgotten.
The managerial posts for each unit(director of technology, manager andassistant manager of results management,data-processing manager andtelecommunications manager) wereallocated to people who had already
demonstrated their ability at coordinationin similar work places.
The technicians responsible for the resultsand for system support were practisingprofessionals chosen from the world ofcomputing. For system support tasks, theFaculty of Computer Studies wasapproached, as well as the vocationaltraining technical schools, while for thetasks of information systems support,university students with a knowledge oflanguages were selected. For thenumerous operational tasks, young peoplebetween the ages of 18 and 24 years of agewere chosen. Finally, people over the ageof 25, with non-technical or teachertraining qualifications, were chosen aspaper distribution coordinators.
The training these groups received variedaccording to what was expected of them.
The managers received an all roundgeneral training since the tacit assumptionwas that with their own initiative and
January Selection of volunteers for the information systems
February
March
April
May
Selection of support volunteers for the systems
Two extra class-rooms set up
Training of volunteers for the information systems
CIOT begins operating
Training of TV results operators
Main stages in the training oftechnology staff
January
February
May
October
November
December
Complete results training plan
Testing plan
Selection of runners for results distribution
First course for results technicians
Course for technology directors
Definitive description of computing functions
October
December
Description of the functions of results management
Quantification of human resources requirements
January/March
June
October
Selection of results heads
Start of training
Course for heads of results
1992
1991
1990
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Results management roomat the Olympic Stadium (1and 3) and the PiscinesBernat Picornell (2). Thetechnological success of theGames depended, to a largeextent, on the preparation ofthe staff of Team '92, whofollowed a thorough trainingprogramme in theorganisation stage.
capacity for organisation, they wouldabsorb all the information. On the otherhand, the volunteers, the operators andthe support staff received more preciseand detailed instruction.
Four computing rooms were available forstaff training: one at the Font Màgica sitefrom October 1990, which was usedfundamentally for the training of peopleworking on results management, one atthe INEFC building from October 1991,used to train the technicians and resultsmanagers, and two at the Estació delNord, from March 1992, for the OlympicFamily information systems supporttraining. After training in theory, therewas practical training which was bothintensive and extensive depending on thesubject matter.
In many cases, especially theadministrative and technical managers,professional interest in getting to know anew environment, OS/2, in such acomplex and dynamic context as the
Olympic organisation was a determiningfactor for their performance.
Finally, it should be mentioned thatduring the training process and theoperational phase, there were very fewdrop-outs. For example, of some 600operators, only 15 left before the Gamesand most of them for reasons connectedwith their work.
The systems and services
In the following sections we shall describethe systems and the technological servicesaccording to their scope, composition andfunction before and during the Games.
The order followed is essentially that ofthe structure of the projects whichgenerated these systems and services, inaccordance with the Master Plan, ratherthan any other conceptual classification orthe final operation. Consequently, thetransmission of the cable television signal
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to the territorial units is included in thesection dealing with electronics and nottelecommunications because theCOOB'92 organisation structure had seenit that way. To quote another example,the human resources administration andmaterials management applications areincluded in the section dealing withinternal computing since they were basedon the use of the IBM AS/400 computerused for that purpose.
With regard to the section on computing,the following projects have beenconsidered:
• Architecture and equipment• AMIC (Multiple access to information
and communication)• SIGO (Operations management
information system)• SIR (Results information system)• Internal computing (together with
business administration and officeautomation)
• The Alcatel project.
With regard to telecommunications, theprojects have been grouped under thefollowing headings:
• Public telecommunications projects• Private telecommunications projects• Radio communications• Electronics and sound• Electronic security
The operation of the technologysystems
The operation of the technology systemswas based on structures oriented towardsdecentralisation (results control, sound,scoreboards), support for the users in allsystems the operated themselves (AMIC,portable transceivers, telephones,DOCUMENT) and the maintenance ofthe equipment.
These structures, mostly covered byvolunteers and directed by technologychiefs at the units, people with proven
Source Preparation stage Operation stage Human resources for the technologyprojects in the preparation andoperation stagesCOOB'92 staff
Companies
Temporary
Volunteers
Total
90
575
665
90
2.530
300
2.600
5.520
Management
Project managers
Technicians
Administrative
Territorial management
Operators
External technological services
Total
50
50
500
65
665
50
1.070
300
2.600
1.500
5.520
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Function Preparation stage Operation stage
experience in the field who alsocooperated with the volunteers, workedvery efficiently and in a way which wasfully integrated with the other sectors ofeach territorial unit.
The central operation was controlledfundamentally from the OlympicCalculation Centre and from the GOT asa support centre.
The central computers at the OlympicCalculation Centre were connected to allthe Games computer networks. The back-up copies were also made here daily andthe data bases used were restructured.However, the main function of the centrewas to monitor the central computers andall the networks (telephone, video, datatelecommunications and local networks).As was the case with results management,the monitoring and/or verification ofoutputs was also performed centrally.
The CIOT also provided mobilecentralised technical support which could
be deployed quickly at any territorial unit.Some of the CIOT's main functions wereto note, address and track the problemsthat arose. The "crisis table", whichconsisted of the people responsible for thesponsoring companies' technologicalsystems (IBM, Telefónica, etc.), was alsoat the CIOT and operated throughout theGames.
Number of incidents at the CIOT 125
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One of the outstandingOlympic Familyinformation systems was theAMIC (Multiple Access toInformation andCommunication), throughwhich all its members couldconsult the publicinformation generated byCOOB'92 and exchangemessages via the electronicmail.
The results of thecompetitions were collectedby hand or automatically byorganisation staff and sentby computer to the officialsand reporters to keep themconstantly up to date withthe progress of the events.
Computing
Architecture and equipment
Three large computing projects weredevised for the Barcelona OlympicGames: the internal systems, thesupport systems to promote the Gamesand the various systems for theorganisation.
The internal systems were necessary toensure the smooth running of theCOOB'92 organisation considered fromthe business point of view. This includedoffice automation and the differentaspects of business administration, such asaccounting, costs, and staff.
Within the support system to promote theGames, the Alcatel project is especiallynoteworthy. It was operative fromOctober 1990 until the day before theopening of the Games and it provided3,600 users around the world (mainlypeople associated with the media)with a modem link with a data basecontaining information about the processof organising the Games which wasgenerated and maintained byCOOB'92.
The systems for the organisation wereoperational from a few months before theGames and provided support for planning,the organisation and the operation. Theywere divided into three groups: systemarea projects, application projects andcomputing operation projects.
System area projects
The system area basically covered theaspects of defining and implementing thecomputing architecture which would beused during the Games and is analysed ina separate section. The projects involvedin this group were to design the centralconfiguration, to design the localconfigurations, the installation andmaking all the configurations operative.
The application projects
In accordance with the main operationalaims, there were three large systemsassociated with the projects in theapplications area: results management(SIR), operations management (SIGO)and the communication and informationsystems for the Olympic Family (AMICand DOCUMENT).
Results management
Results management included theapplications which supported theorganisation and the sport itself in thevarious competitions. It entailed thecollection, either manually orautomatically, of the partial data as it wasproduced, the necessary calculations inaccordance with the rules and the supplyof information to the organisers, thejudges and the media about the progressof the competition so that they would beable to monitor the data and the resultsduring the programmed events. This lastapplication was channelled through theCommentator Information System(SICO), a group which was alsoresponsible for the subsystem ofdistributing the printed results by means ofelectronic pigeon-holes (DOCUMENT).
The operations managementinformation system
The operations management informationsystem (SIGO), which was for the exclusiveuse of organisation staff, consisted oflogistic applications which supported thelarge and complex Games organisation.SIGO brought together the followingprojects: accreditation, accommodation,transport, reception and departure,reservation of press services, healthservices, tickets, calendar and Team'92.
The communications and informationsystems for the Olympic Family
Finally, the communications andinformation systems for the OlympicFamily consisted of the applications whichallowed all the members to consult thepublic information generated byCOOB'92. By the use of electronic mail,these systems also providedcommunication between members of theOlympic Family who could use the systemon a self-service basis from 1,510 intelligentPS/2 terminals distributed around all theOlympic areas. The two subsystems wereknown to the users as a single product withthe name of AMIC (Multiple Access toInformation and Communication).
The computing operation projects
The group of computing operationprojects included the central configurationexploitation plan, opening the OlympicCalculation Centre, the security andemergency plans, the planning of thedecentralised operations and their
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relationship with the central operationand the definition and opening of theCIOT, the centre which would help theoverall operation to work hand in handwith the various decentralised ones.
The functional relationship betweenthe systems
When considering the relationshipsbetween the systems, COOB'92 combinedtwo criteria: the first was integration,which eliminated redundancies and datacontradictions, and the second wasautonomy, which reduced complexity,since it cut down the number ofinterconnections between areas. Thiscombination of criteria entailed theisolation of the Alcatel project forBarcelona'92, since it operated on anindependent dedicated computer.Similarly, the office automation was onlyconnected to the central computersthrough batch transfers. The same criteriawere applied to the CompanyManagement Computer System (SIGE)
which operated independently on anAS/400 and only received essential datafrom the operational management systemrunning on the host. The Games operationsystems were the ones which had theclosest relationship with real time and theywere consequently more integrated.
The system architecture criteria
A large number of facts was borne inmind when considering the design of theGames computing system and they can begrouped into the following specificfunctional criteria:
Coherence and the integration of theinformation
All the Games operation systems sharedthe same central relational data basesubsystem (DB2) running on the host. Thisdid not necessarily mean that there wasonly one occurrence of a particular datum,since if this had been the case problemsmight well have arisen with performance as
Data-processing andSystems projects
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The characteristic greendesks, reserved for radio andtelevision commentators,were equipped with amonitor to receive theinternational televisionsignal and the informationprovided by ResultsManagement, acommentators' unit withearphones and microphonefor two people and atelephone (TMT-Press)which could be activated bya magnetic card. Altogetherthere were about 1,500commentators positions withdesk at all the venues.
it was being used by different applications,but rather that there was one systemresponsible for the generation, maintenanceand duplication of each kind of data.
Security
The shortness of the Games period meantthat the chances of interruption of theservice had to be reduced to a minimum,even when arising from the system's lackof running in, which was due to theimpossibility of testing it at full loadbefore the operation. The plans thereforemade allowance for a series of securitymeasures such as:
a) The prior simulation of the mainsystem transactions at full load using asuitable tool (TPNS).
b) The duplication of the critical hardwareelements which provided alternativecommunication routes between the hostand the main units and the automaticre-establishment of the session via an
alternative route in the event of a systemcrash.
c) The local autonomy of the most criticalapplications. In spite of what has beensaid above, it was not desirable for theprogress of the competitions to depend onthe availability of the host. For thisreason, the SIR, SICO and some othersystems were designed to support therespective applications locally by means ofa local area network. It was onlynecessary to access the host in order toconsolidate the information from thedifferent units and to distribute it to allthe others. This structure guaranteed thecontinuity of the service for thecompetitions and for television.
d) The use, in the most standardisedmanner possible, of tools which offered agreater degree of reliability and ofavailability of the service whenever theyhad passed the test of sufficientexperience. This was the reason why therewas a massive use of relatively new
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technologies (communal integrated databases, token-ring networks, APPCcommunications, Escon fibre opticchannels and intelligent work stations).
The global distribution of theinformation in real time
The global distribution of the informationin real time was the functionalcharacteristic that most distinguished theGames computing system. The design ofthe applications was thought out in such away that authorised persons, whereverthey may be, could immediately haveaccess to any information. For example, acommentator located at any competitionunit could follow the progress of thecompetitions at another unit practically tothe second. This strategy was also appliedto the distribution of printed results.
The cooperative process
As mentioned above, the local processingcapacity of the intelligent work stations
was used to reinforce the security of thecritical applications. Similarly, thisdistributed processing capacity, in contrastwith an absolutely centralised system,made it possible to share processingcapacity between the central computerand the intelligent terminals. This wasfundamental, since if the almost 5,000terminals which constituted the Gamesnetwork had accessed the data base host,and with consultations which were notnecessarily simple ones, this could haverepresented an excessive load which mighthave led to excessive dimensioning of thecentral computer and the lines ofcommunication. These provisionsfacilitated and standardised the use of theapplications with PS presentation tools.The ergonomics of the 3,270 terminalswhich were used on a self-serve basis wasnot the most suitable for the OlympicFamily, who had differing knowledge ofthe use of computing systems. On theother hand, it was necessary to make agreat effort at standardisation in order toavoid confusion amongst the users, since
Main data relationshipsbetween computing projects
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Details of one of the twolarge COOB'92 centralcomputers, IBM modelES/900, which wereinstalled at the OlympicData-Processing Centre(CPDO). The CPDOprovided service for theResults Management System,the Information System forOperations Managementand the whole network ofalmost 5,000 terminalswhich operated during theGames.
many of the products had their ownstandards of use and presentation.
These two objectives mainly affected theOlympic Family information andcommunications systems. Achieving theminvolved the use of cooperative processingbetween the host and the work stations.The application of PS/2 terminals basedon the OS/2 Presentation Managerresolved all the problems related withdialogue, navigation and userpresentation. Only previously preparedconsultations which had a verified formatwere circulated through the lines ofcommunication. The user -machinedialogue was resolved locally.
The computing infrastructure
The computing infrastructure of thisarchitecture was based on IBM computers.At COOB headquarters there was a smallcalculation centre equipped with an IBMAS/400 for the Company ManagementComputer System (SIGE). The Olympic
Data Processing Centre (CPDO) workedfor the results systems, operationalmanagement and the AMIC and alsoadministered the network which connectedall the terminals to these systems. It had twolarge computers, an ES/9000-720 (capableof executing 120 million instructions persecond) and an ES/9000-500. These twocomputers shared the task and, in the caseof a break-down, each one couldautomatically substitute the other for aperiod of time. The CPDO was situated inone of the pavilions at the Barcelona TradeFair Centre beside the InternationalBroadcast Centre (IBC) and was operativefrom February 1991 until the end ofSeptember 1992. During the OlympicGames it was called the Auxiliary ServicesCentre (CSA) for reasons of security.
There was also an emergency centreequipped with an ES/900-400 which wouldhave substituted the CPDO in the eventof disaster. The premises of a sponsoringcompany, SEAT, were prepared for thistask but they were never used.
Views of the work room atthe CPDO. During theGames, the centre wasrenamed the AuxiliaryServices Centre (CSA), forsecurity reasons.
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1 and 2
2
4
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The extensive use made ofthe AMIC by all sectors ofthe Olympic Family was oneof the successes of the Gamesin the field of information.Terminals were installed atall the competition venues (2and 4), the hotels (3) and thepress centres (5).
4
1
2 53
2, 3, 4 and 5
Like the other COOB'92divisions, the TechnologyDivision produced a series ofpublications, both technicaland popular, about all theprojects under their care:BIT'92, Results System,AMIC,Radiocommunications, etc.
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In addition to serving approximately 100terminals connected to the AS/400, theCPDO also provided service to the 4,323intelligent terminals and the 1,135 printersdistributed around all the Olympic areas inmore than a hundred different places.These terminals and the CPDO computersformed a large private network which wasthe result of interconnecting the local areanetworks distributed around all the sites.
Logistical aspects and operations
In view of the scale of the task and thetime limits involved, great efforts werecalled for in the installation this largecomputing and telecommunicationsinfrastructure. The CPDO was inoperation in no more than six months. InOctober 1990 the computers wereinstalled and a team of more than fiftypeople was organised which began toserve the organisation in March 1991.
For a period of five months, fromFebruary 1992 until the beginning of Julyof the same year, nearly 5,000 terminals ofevery kind were deployed and assembledat more than a hundred different places.This effort, which was a complete successin terms of the period of time involvedand the quality of the service laterprovided, was possible thanks to theorganisation's high degree ofstandardisation. It should be pointed outthat the creation of a virtual factory forthe personalisation and loading ofsoftware on the intelligent terminals wassomething new in Spain.
All these tasks of computer installationcoincided with the work involved for thefinal preparation of the territorial units.These tasks, which would normally havebeen carried out sequentially, thereforerequired good planning and meticulousmanagement.
The teleloading of software from theCPDO to all the terminals should also bementioned. This system allowed thenecessary software changes to berationalised and checked and laterdistributed in a controlled manner to theterminals concerned.
Multiple Access to Communicationand Information (AMIC)
The fact that the Olympic Games are afocus of world attention for fifteen days,on the one hand, and the importance of
technological advances in communicationson the other, are two aspects which obligean Olympic Games OrganisingCommittee to offer the Olympic Family,especially the media, information systemswhich maintain the flow of information atall times and in real time about theprogress of the events taking place.
Following the Olympic informationsystems tradition which was started atMunich and consolidated at Los Angeles,but with the aim of making a qualitativeleap forward in line with newtechnological tendencies anddevelopments, COOB'92 considered itnecessary to make a wide-ranging andpowerful information system available.
Amongst the various information systemspresented at Barcelona'92, the AMIC isespecially worthy of note. This systemcombined the advantages of having alarge amount of Games informationavailable at the units and in the city,treated in such a way that it was easy forthe users to understand, even for peoplewho were not accustomed to usingcomputers. The system also allowed forcommunication between all the membersof the Olympic Family.
The aims
This system had to be intuitive to usesince the short duration of the OlympicGames meant that there was no time forlearning beforehand. Nevertheless, it hadto search for information according to theuser's criteria and not in a restrictive orpredetermined manner and to allowpersonal access systems for anyone whowanted to formulate a specific requests.
There had to be a great deal of highquality information concerning theprogress of the Games available at anymoment when an event was taking place.Furthermore, the system had to providedirect access to the various associatedsources of information (calendar, results,biographies, news, competition rules,Olympic Family services and so forth)without complicated search procedures.
In order to maintain the system's universalcharacter, the user interface and all theinformation was available in the fourofficial languages of the Olympic Games.
Due to the dispersion of the Olympicfacilities and of the mobility of the peopletaking part, the information system had to
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be integrated with a communicationssystem which fulfilled the function ofpersonal mail and allowed interpersonalcommunication and user confidentiality bymeans of personal mailboxes with an easydirectory access system for the addressees.
Finally, it also had to provide for thedissemination of communications andnews to different groups and establishconnections with external systems such aspagers and telexes.
The components
To meet these objectives, the AMICpossessed three basic elements: theinformation content, a computer systemfor loading, maintaining, retrieving andpresenting information and an electronicmail system complete with operationalelements such as terminals, support staffand manuals.
The information content of the AMICwas grouped into the following five areas:
biographies, meteorology, textualinformation, news and historicalinformation about the Olympic Games.
Biographies
A team from the COOB'92 PressOperations Division spent a yearcompiling 10,000 athlete's biographiesincluding personal and sportinginformation. Once the athlete'sparticipation in the Games was confirmed,6,500 of these 10,000 biographies weremade available for consultation by theAMIC. It also contained the entry datafor all the other participants in the Gamesand the results for every participant inBarcelona'92.
Meteorology
In this section users could read the 12kinds of daily bulletins prepared by theNational Meteorological Institute from16 July to 9 August which contained long,medium and short term forecasts, the
Distribution of AMIC terminals(Total 1,510)
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Over the 33 days it was inoperation (from 11 July to12 August), the AMIC wasconsulted 8,067,972 times.
An AMIC screen. The systemprovided information aboutresults of the competition,biographies of thecompetitors, weatherforecasts, news about theGames and generalinformation about the city,all in the four officiallanguages of the Games.
meteorological data for Barcelona and thesubsites and the weather conditions forthe main cities around the world. Thefrequency of issue of these bulletins wasvariable, from every two hours to once aday, according to the type of bulletinconcerned.
Textual information
This information collected before theGames commenced included generalinformation about the city of Barcelona,its history and culture, descriptions of thevenues, competition rules, usefultelephone numbers, biographies ofimportant figures in the Olympicmovement and information about theParalympic Games.
News
All the textual information which wasproduced by the press centres at thevenues from 11 July to 12 August waschannelled to the AMIC by means of the
Olympic News Agency system. Thisconsisted of 157 journalists and 77translators distributed around the venuesunder the coordination of a central newsroom situated in the MPC. In total, it waspossible to consult 2,903 sport-relatednews items (interviews, statements andstories) or items of general news(ceremonies, formal events, OlympicVillages and MPC), as well as the dailylisting of the various formal events thatwould be taking place.
Olympic Games historical information
This section included the medals lists, therecords and the best times for theOlympic sports, as well as the results fromthe respective world championships.
In order to offer information of a differentnature, the AMIC could access the databases of other computing systems. In thisway it was possible to have the results of allthe competitions as well as the accreditationdata for each member of the Olympic
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Family and operations staff. This data wasused automatically by the AMIC to activatethe electronic mailboxes. It was possible torequest information about the regularOlympic Family transport services either byselecting the route or destination. Finally,there was also information availableconcerning the Olympic calendar, whichgave the day and time of all the events thatwould be taking place during the Games.
All the information could be consulted inthe four official languages of the OlympicGames, that is to say, in Catalan, Spanish,French, and English.
The computing system
The software was developed by the Eritelcompany. Personal computers of the PS/2range were used in the applicationarchitecture as consultation terminals andwere connected to a central CPDOcomputer of the ES/9000 series. Thepotential of the local OS/2 operating systemwas used to give the terminals the largest
part of the processing, such as dialoguemanagement, generation of presentationformats and communications control.
The central computer applied all itspotential to the management of a largerelational data base (DB2). The electronicmail system, Office Vision, was used forintercommunication between all thedifferent groups of the Olympic Family.
As well as software and the informationcontent, there were other elements, someessential and some more aesthetic innature, which completed the system andensured that it would operate smoothly.
As support for the AMIC, more than 500volunteers were chosen. Their taskconsisted of helping the users during thefirst few days the system was running andhelping to solve the non-technicalproblems that might arise.
From the end of 1990, the number ofconsultation terminals it would be
English • 4,025,882 consultations (49.9 %)
Spanish • 2,162,197 consultations (26.8 %)
Catalan • 1,460,290 consultations (18.1 %)
French • 419,531 consultations (5.2 %)
Use of AMIC(from 11 July to 12 August)References by language(Total 8,067,972)
Results, medals and calendar • 2,267,302 consultations (28.1 %)
Other consultations • 1,949,040 consultations (24.2 %)
News • 1,578,547 consultations (19.6 %)
Mail • 1,197,234 consultations (14.8 %)
Biographies • 1,074,839 consultations (13.3 %)
References by subject(Total: 8,067,972)
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The AMIC Cobi.
Detail of one of the AMICresults screens. Among themany options, this was theone which was referred tomost often (28% of thetotal).
necessary to install at the various Olympicfacilities was estimated. Finally, some1,510 consultation terminals and 713printers were made available to the users.On the days prior to the opening of theGames, 23 consultation terminals wereinstalled at various organisations andinstitutions outside the Olympic network.
The operation
The AMIC operation commenced on 11July with the opening of the OlympicVillages and the Main Press Centre.Beforehand, there had been an intenseperiod of installation, not only of theCOOB'92 general network, but also of theterminals themselves at 82 competition,service and support units and at 44 isolatedpoints, such as hotels and public buildings.
The figures in the tables abovedemonstrate the extensive use which wasmade of this system during the OlympicGames. In comparison with the systemused at Seoul in 1988, even if the data are
not altogether comparable, AMIC wasused four times as much.
The draw on the central computer wasalways kept below the levels which hadbeen estimated during the simulations andsystem tuning. At the busiest moment, (29July at 6 p.m.) there was a draw of 29.4Mips (12.3 transactions per second) whichwas below the 35.9 which had beenestimated as the hypothetical maximumsaturation, while the response time wasthe same as had been forecast accordingto the kind of consultation.
It should be pointed out that at no timeduring the operation period were thereany serious problems that might haveendangered the service or the quality ofthe data. It is not possible to doubt thesuccess of the AMIC system, especiallyafter the opinions expressed by the usersand especially by the press. The fact thatthis system was for the general use of theentire Olympic Family was also part ofthat success.
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The OperationsManagement InformationSystem (SIGO) consisted ofa set of computer systemsproviding support for theOlympic Family. Amongthem the accreditationsproject was notable for itsvolume. In addition to theaccreditation document, itprovided a link with theaccess control systems, theSIR and the AMIC.
The Olympic Familytransport services were alsobased on computer supportto establish the schedules forthe journeys and the routingsheets for the regular and onrequest services.
Operations ManagementInformation System (SIGO)
SIGO was all the computing systemswhich gave support to the OlympicGames operations area. This projectprovided operating solutions based onvery flexible functional systems whichwere simple but complete.
Function
A numerous group of SIGO projects lentsupport to the Olympic Family servicessuch as reception, accreditation,accommodation, transport, medical careand the reservation of press facilities. Theprojects which covered these functionshad a close relationship with each othersince, as far as the users were concerned,the only supplier of services wasCOOB'92.
This conditioned the technicalarchitecture of the correspondingOlympic Family services computingprojects. The other projects in this areagave support to more isolated functionssuch as tickets, the deployment of humanresources (Team'92) and the calendar.
The level of support provided by SIGOvaried. In some cases the functional andcomputing projects were totallyintegrated, as was the case, for example,with the accreditation project. In others,computing was no more than a supporttool as was the case, for example, with themedical services.
The operation of the SIGO project wasnot limited to the period of the Games,but included the previous planning,preparation and booking stages. Theyconsequently operated over a long period,in many cases beginning in 1991. This fact,together with the characteristics of theOlympic project (a unique operationwhich took shape more clearly as theGames approached) meant that there hadto be a period of project maintenance inorder to adapt them to requirements thatwere always changing.
Planning
The following are the basic strategies,taken from BIT'92, adopted at thebeginning of 1989:
a) Draw up an advance project in order tohave an initial version available(release 1) in 1991.
b) Limit the computerisation of theprocedures to all the systems which wererepetitive, high volume and with a highdegree of stability.
c) Predict, both from a technical andresources point of view, the capacityfor large scale modification of thesystems obtained from the test eventsin 1991.
d) Use the computing projects in thisarea as elements to stimulate theoperational project which theysupported and obtain, by means of needsanalysis, a better idea of the operationalcapacity of the department which wasto use them.
e) Guarantee the coherence of theinformation used in the different systems.
Two other factors, characteristic of aproject of this kind, need to be added.Firstly, the projects which the SIGOsystem was to support were to finalisetheir procedures later than wasconvenient for the computing system.Aspects such as defining the scope of theservice or guaranteeing the availability ofresources such as hotels and vehicles werepriorities and it was necessary to make adecision about them before defining howthe operation would be executed. In somecases it was premature to some extent toallocate staff since they were areas with adimensioning and level of criticality whichwould not be known until the beginning of1990. This led to an unwelcome delay inthe compilation of requirements, which insome cases lasted until June 1990 and ledto an overload of the analysis andprogramming stages, which in turn madethe work of the development team morecritical.
Secondly, the harmonisation of thedifferent systems to obtain the computingcoherence mentioned previously derivedfrom the Integrated Data Base (IDB).While COOB'92 gave the contracteddevelopment companies freedom indesign, a coordination team was formed toensure a single definition for the IDB.While it is true that this decision savedtime and avoided problems during theproject integration phase since itconsiderably reduced the number oftechnological interfaces, the coordinationnecessary to obtain consensus about thedesign of the IDB meant delaying thestart on the technical design for someprojects.
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During the preliminary project thepossibility of using already existingsoftware was considered in order tocounter these inhibiting effects. In thecase of SIGO, for example, the sourceswere the software used at previousOlympic Games (technically the mostsimilar was Calgary) and packages whichalready existed for specific sectors whichposed similar problems even if they werenot necessarily sports organisations.
The software from Calgary was used as aprototype and it provided a very valuablelearning bank for the design technicians.Nevertheless, the fact that the system wasnot integrated with the others, the lack ofcoverage for certain areas which neededto be mechanised and its fragility due toheavy last minute modification wereamong the considerations which dismissedthe idea of using this software directly.
For existing packages, applications werestudied in the areas of accommodation,transport, tickets and medical services.
However, it was finally concluded that thekind of solutions they offered were notsuited to the problems posed by theOlympic projects. In some case they weresuitable for longer-lasting organisations,the problems raised not being sufficientlysimilar to those of an organisation whichwould only last for a matter of days. Inother cases they did not lend themselves tothe large volumes involved, although theymay have provided good solutions to theproblems raised by other circumstances.Consequently, it was necessary to embarkon new development for all the projects.
Description of the projects
Accreditations
The aim of the accreditations project wasto identify, enter and manage informationabout all the members of the OlympicFamily. This entailed the production of anidentification document which specifiedthe data concerning the accredited person,the privileges this person might have and
The computer systemsmaking up the SIGO variedaccording to their purpose.To prepare the software forBarcelona'92, the computerpackages used at earlierGames and the ones on themarket were studied.
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Cobi, dressed as a bellboy,welcomes the members of theOlympic Family to thehotels. The accommodationproject was equipped withspecial software.
The press services used acomputer system forreserving and renting spaceand equipment at the MPC.
the entry points at which entrance waspermitted. This system had interfaces withthe access control system (500 controlpoints), the SIR for athletes and theAMIC for all other members of theOlympic Family.
All the data about the members of theOlympic Family was processed at sixaccreditation centres. The system wasdesigned to process some 15,000accreditations in a single day.
Accommodation
The Olympic Family accommodationproject meant administering a largenumber of rooms and hotel beds. It wasnecessary to make an inventory of theresources, organise reservations andinvoices and administer theaccommodation at the Olympic Villagesand Press Villages. It was estimated thatsome 50,000 people could beaccommodated per day at the Villages,hotels and ships moored in the port.
Transport
The Olympic Family transport service,regular or on request, needed computingsupport which took into account thecomplexity caused by so many vehicles,the difficulty of organising tests andmaking final adjustments. As transportwas critical, the services had to bescheduled, resources controlled and thejourneys planned with routing slipsprepared for the buses.
There was a total of 2,100 vehicles and4,500 people working to provide 200regular routes between 8,000 points ofdeparture and final destinations.
Reception
The reception project required computingsupport to prepare the arrival anddeparture operations for the OlympicFamily. The management of resourcessuch as vehicles and hosts, which couldnot be dimensioned to always cover peak
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periods, had to be optimised and thepersonalised treatment received bycertain groups prepared. The maximumestimated volume was 15,000 arrivals inone day.
Press services
The press services project consisted of abooking system, the renting of space foroffices, photographic laboratories and soforth and the hiring of equipment such asfurniture and terminals to the journalistswho were to work in the MPC. Aninventory was drawn up of all the itemsand services to be reserved and thenecessary contracts and payments weremade. Some 55 different items could bereserved and it was estimated that 250media organisations would make use ofthe service.
Medical services
In order to compile the variousmonitoring and control reports for the
different medical commissions, themedical services project used informationabout medical treatment received fromthe Olympic Family. The computersystem had to support the monitoring oftreatment and the management of theOlympic Village polyclinic.
There were 45 units with medical facilitieswhich had been equipped to deal with1,000 people per day if necessary.
Tickets
The ticket project used a computerapplication in two basic parts: coverage ofthe functions and distribution to theSpanish public, dependent on thecomputer network of Banesto, andmassive data-processing, including thelottery system and inventory andallocation management. The computingdesign was applied to the reservation oftickets for events for which demandexceeded supply, to the allocation ofplaces and to sales to the general public.
Structure of thecomputing system
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To draft the officialcalendar of the OlympicGames, a computer decision-making programme wascreated by the PolytechnicUniversity of Catalonia.
The project was dimensioned to cope witha volume of 6 million tickets distributedaround 2,600 sales points throughoutSpain.
Team'92
The Team'92 project needed a computingsystem which would support theidentification and quantification of thework places at each unit. It covered theallocation of staff and their functions,uniform and deployment. Consequently,the computing system defined the postsand the functions and assigned the mostsuitable person to each post and each task.
Calendar
The calendar project consisted of twoparts. The first was a system to assistdecision-making developed by thePolytechnic University of Catalonia(UPC) and the second coveredadministration and the register of changesto this information. The computing system
had to deal with the register and make thedevelopments known.
The stage during which discussions weretaking place with the InternationalFederations about the days and timeseach event would be held was used to dealwith the large number of variables whichusually arise during the drafting of anOlympic calendar, such as the overlappingof events in which the same competitor isparticipating, appropriate timing,expected audience and lightingrequirements.
The operation
The SIGO projects successfully achievedtheir aim of supporting the Gamesoperations during the operation and thepreparatory months, and they wereessential for the organised and efficientprogress of the Games.
There was sufficient capacity tocontinuously adapt the projects to the
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The SIGO also included acomputer back-up system foridentifying the differentwork places of all the staffon Team'92.
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General view of one of thestands at the Piscines BernatPicornell, where the pressworked. Designed speciallyfor them, an integratedResults Information System(SIR) was developed andused with great success. TheSIR provided the necessaryinformation at the beginningof each competition,collected the data as theywere generated andcalculated the results anddistributed them to othersystems and devices, such asthe scoreboards andtelevision screens.
operation and different users. From thebeginning of 1992 it was necessary to limitthe scope of changes in the projects whichdid not affect the basic structure of theapplications. Similarly, the projects wereprogressively technically refined until theygave excellent performance. Wheneverpossible they were put through their pacesbefore the Games commenced.
The projects and modifications to themwere carried out within the establishedperiod of time and within the estimatedbudgets. One of the most difficultproblems was the simultaneousinstallation of the computinginfrastructure and the maintenance of ahigh quality service to users who werealready connected.
The Olympic Games had never previouslyhad such a large and effective level ofcomputerisation in these areas.
The Barcelona'92 resultsmanagement system
Aims
Computing is increasingly important infirst class sports competitions in twoaspects: training and measuring the scoresobtained in competition.
During the athlete's training period, theparameters which define performance areunder consideration, providing data whichcan be used to improve it. This is theprovince of biomechanics, amongst otherdisciplines.
The second aspect has a directrelationship with the period of duration ofthe Games and concerns the structuringand definition of a system which permitsthe management of the competitionresults and their rapid dissemination. Inthe case of the Olympic Games, the largenumber of competitions, theirgeographical dispersion and the shortperiod of time made a computing supportsystem necessary. It had to cover theneeds of different groups as diverse asreferees, judges, the sports organisation,television, press agencies, theorganisation, radio commentators, thepublic and announcers.
An integrated results system wasdeveloped for the Barcelona Games andused with great success. Each function,whether television, the press, the sports
organisation or the information systems,had its own sub-system. Accomplishing aunified results system was an importantchallenge which had to be met in order toavoid inconsistencies.
The most important point in this contextwas to demonstrate to the televisionagencies that the system, despite beingnew, was sufficiently reliable and wouldwork properly, providing a faultlessresults service.
The basic premise of the resultsmanagement system was that the Gamesshould be considered as a single event andnot as the sum total of all thecompetitions in the different sports witheach disconnected from the others. It wasalso important for the system to beconnected to others which were operatingin parallel, such as the AMIC andaccreditations; it had to allow access tothe results from all the units; and, finally,it had to give support from a centralisedplace in order to obtain the list of athletesaccredited and entered for each sport.
Components
The following projects were included inthe results management system:
Track instruments
These are the instruments which measurethe distances reached or the time taken bythe competitors and the ones whichregister the decisions of the judges bymeans of specialised terminals. The Seikocompany was responsible for providing theOlympic venues with suitable equipment.
The Results Information Service
The results information service (SIR)prepared the information necessary tostart the competitions, collected the datafrom the measuring instruments orallowed them to be introduced manually,calculated the results applying theestablished rules and distributed them tothe other systems and devices such asscoreboards and TV title generators. Thesystem was structured in two parts, onelocal at each venue and the other a centralcomputer.
The Commentator Information System(SICO)
The SICO collected the results from theSIR and distributed them around the
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commentators' terminals and managedthe commentators' access to them. Thecommentators could select informationaccording to sport, competition andlanguage.
The Printed Results DistributionSystem
The Printed Results Distribution Systembased on touch sensitive screenscomplemented the traditional woodenpigeon-holes. It meant that the day'scompetition results could be printed atany Olympic Area. The use ofDOCUMENT drastically reduced thenumber of photocopies that would havebeen made using a traditional system.
Fundamental aspects of the system andoperation were the autonomy of the SIRin the case of external errors, the multi-venue SICO commentators with access tothe AMIC biographies and finally thecomplete availability of all the results atall the units via AMIC and DOCUMENT.
The development of the project
Preparations for the project commencedin January 1989, bearing in mind theInternational Federations' requirementsfor each sport. In July of the same year, atthe World Athletics Cup, the first pilottest was held for the production anddistribution of photocopied material forthe press.
In February 1990, RTO'92 chose newequipment being developed by the Pesacompany to produce TV titles. In May1990, the first version of the local SIRsoftware was finished and was ready touse in real competitions, the first of whichwas Euroarc'90 held in July. The SIRdesign for the central computercommenced in September 1990 with theaim of testing the product duringCompetitions'91. With respect to theresults service for television, a trial washeld during the Joaquim Blume Memorialheld in the Palau Sant Jordi in November1990. The SICO was presented at a
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The DOCUMENT terminalswere a novelty at theBarcelona Games and onemore complement to theInformation for the OlympicFamily. By means of tactilescreens they could first seeand then obtain printouts ofthe results for all the eventsas they ended. Altogetherthere were 605 terminalsdistributed around the siteswhich could be accessed inany of the four officiallanguages of the Games.
meeting of the Olympic BroadcastersAdvisory Committee (OBAC) which washeld the same month and it had anexcellent reception.
In March 1991, the logistic support teamfor the events was constituted. In May ofthe same year the first draft list was madeof the sports which would have automaticresults title generation for television andat the same time, an agreement wasreached with the Andorran OlympicCommittee whereby COOB'92 would beresponsible for the results management ofthe Small European States Games, whichwere about to be held there. It was a greatopportunity to accomplish a multi-sportoperation with central integration andwith every kind of service, notable amongthem being the connection to television.
Competitions'91 were held during themonths of July and August and the resultsmanagement service was there. Eventsshowed that what had been consideredthe aims and the degree of preparedness
in the different areas differed widely. Thecompetitions showed that the success ofresults management depended greatly onthe quality of the entries. They alsodemonstrated the need to test theinstallation and to leave time to carry outtrials. The task of deciding thecommunications protocol between theresults management service, the sportsorganisation and the InternationalFederations also commenced withCompetitions'91.
In November 1991, systematic testscommenced on individual softwarepackages and integration with othersystems. In order to carry out these testsand the whole operation, the resultsmanagers started to take part. The firsttwo did so in December and this processcontinued until June 1992 when there wasa total of twenty-five. These people hadan allocated function and place from thevery beginning and they were essential formonitoring matters concerning each sport.
Results systems during the Games.Resources used
Total
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PS/2 terminals
DOCUMENT terminals
Number of DOCUMENT servers
Staff
Number of model documents
Photocopies made
2,000
605
155
1,097
7,001
15,058,000
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The back-up networkmanaged from the CIOTreceived a permanent flow ofdata from the venues andintervened in the event of asystem breakdown.
All the competition venueshad a room forphotocopying the resultssheets and other documentsof interest. This informationwas delivered to the press byvolunteers (runners) at thecommentators' positions andthe VIP stands, or inpigeonholes at the presscentres. Altogether, duringthe operational phase of theGames over 15 millionphotocopies were made.
Finally, in May 1992, the decentralisationphase began. From that moment on,emphasis was placed on controlling theinstallation and carrying out tests so thatthe software, the other systems with whichit communicated and the installationwhich had been made would functionwithout problems. Results tests werecarried out in which the volume of activitygenerated was three times larger than atthe busiest moment during the Games.
It was at this time that many requestswere received from the InternationalFederations and television channels formodifications to the software and themost essential ones were made.
The organisation during the Games
Results management at the competitionvenues was structured in four groups. Thefirst was responsible for links with thesports organisation, vital members of theorganisation. The second concentrated onthe proper functioning of the computersand programs under the developmenttechnicians. The third gave service to theresults users and included an outputchecker who, in addition to controllinglocal activity, acted as a link with thecentralised support for the users of theservice which were external to the unitsuch as the MPC, IBC, press agencies andAMIC.
The function of CIOT with respect toresults management was to manage aback-up network and control the qualityof the output.
The back-up network, which hadcomputers which constantly received datafrom all the units, meant that in the eventof a system crash at a unit, it would bepossible to continue with CIOT activities.Since there were no important problemsduring the course of the Olympic Games,this network was only used to carry outoperations outside the unit's normalworking times such as the correction ofdata and the resending of messages to theAMIC and press agencies.
The systematic verification of the outputcontrol was carried out at the units withthe local users in mind but focusing on thecentral users such as the MPC, IBC, theOlympic Village and the AMIC. Theoutput verification detected some errors,understandable given the large volume ofdata, and prevented them from beingexposed to the users.
Internal computing
Internal computing gave support to theorganisation with the aim of facilitatinginternal functions and computing systemsfor planning, administration and controlof COOB'92 in its business aspects.
There were two large blocks ofapplications: the Company ManagementComputer System (SIGE) and officeautomation.
The Company ManagementComputer System (SIGE)
The group of SIGE projects included theclassic applications of a computerisedcompany, that is to say, all thoseconnected with financial information(such as accounting, invoicing, payments,finances and budget administration),supplies, stores, the contracting of servicesand human resources (payroll, attendancecontrol and staff management).
Applications and tools which had specialrelevance for the COOB'92 organisationwere integrated into the SIGE, such asproject control, aimed at monitoring theprojects and programmes of the MasterPlan, the management of Olympicvolunteers and the applications dedicatedto preparing the Olympic securitymeasures.
Planning
The needs of the COOB'92 internalsystems were dealt with independently ofthe needs of the various operationalspheres during the Olympic Games. Thisseparation, which was decided upon in1988, was supremely practical andconstituted an organisation success inview of the scale of the internalcomputing.
The number of entries and thepromptness with which the businessaspects of the organisation had to becomputerised meant that the hardwarewas chosen especially for theseapplications regardless of the kind thatwould support the Games operationcomputing system. The computing planreflected the main characteristics of theOlympic project which were speed,pragmatism, and a short period of use(some five years).
The first phase of the project commencedin 1988 with the contracting of services
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which were to be implemented in 1989.The following year the finishing toucheswere put to the system and in 1991modifications began to be made to adaptthe COOB'92 internal computing systemto the period during which the Gameswould be held. In 1993 the system wasshut down and the equipment dismantled.
When planning the computing solutions,account was taken of the peculiarcharacteristics of COOB'92 and the typeof organisational environment, providingfor new or as yet unimplementedprocedures, the constant increase inCOOB'92 staff within a physically andfunctionally changing environment andcontinuously changing management. Theplanning was particularly complicatedbecause it was not possible to begin theprocess with a solid basis or withfunctional knowledge. It was difficult toknow what the needs would be during theshort period of life of COOB'92. Thisconsequently meant that newrequirements and changes, some of them
of them quite considerable, had to beintroduced as the need for them arose.
The applications software was based onexisting packages of proven efficacy whichcould be modified quickly and easily andadapted to any given situation or changingsituation. The Càlcul i Gestió companyprovided suitable solutions.
Development
The project was developed on the basis ofCOOB'92's own methodology. Thegreatest concentration of resources tookplace in 1989 with 14 full time staffmembers. In 1990 and 1991 there was astable team of three staff to develop andmaintain the SIGE software.
The operation
The SIGE project and its application wasdesigned right from the start by bearing inmind that all the professionals would usethe instruments specific to their own field.
The Company ManagementInformation System (SIGE)
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Like the application, the hardwarearchitecture was designed to enable themaximum decentralised exploitation ofthe entire system.
The hardware configuration for businessmanagement consisted of a 44 megabyteIBM AS/400, model B60 with a 6,850megabyte disk space, 12 datacommunication lines, tapes, diskettes andcartridges. Furthermore, for the workstations there were 66 monitors, 72 PS/2personal computers connected inemulation and 64 printers.
Office automation
COOB'92's concept of office automationwas that of a group of projects whichwould provide facilities to thedepartments and to the Olympicorganisation staff. It was considered to bean area of vital importance for facilitatingthe tasks of preparing for the Games andfor standardising the working methods ofCOOB'92 departments and divisions. The
office automation projects were dividedinto two parts: one dedicated todepartmental computing and the other topersonal use.
The group of departmental computingprojects was responsible for providingtools and support for very specialisedorganisation functions. Computingsystems were established to assist with thecompetition venue space management (bymeans of CAD), for the publishing andprinting of publications (with a systemceded by Rank) and for the storage andrecovery of documents in the form of animage on optical disk with the PhilipsMegadoc system.
All these projects were analysed by theCOOB'92 Computing Division,specifically by the internal computingsection. Operative responsibility laywith the departments performing thetasks which these tools were used tosupport.
Types of general-purposesoftware in COOB'92
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Basic office automation technologywas conceived as being a tool withwhich to answer the needs of personalinformation handling in orderto improve and integrate officeprocedures.
The organisation sought a solutionwhich would mean that most of theinformation would be generated in itsfinal form or would require littleadditional work in order to achieve thedefinitive presentation. The appropriatetool was a personal computer whichwould meet the aims of maximumautonomy and maximum productivity setby COOB'92. It had to be easy to learn,quick to install, easy to relocate and it hadto provide maximum quality printouts.Autonomy and productivity are theobjectives of any computing project. Theease of learning, however, was a key aimfor the Olympic organisation given theshort duration of the project and the largeincrease in staff in a short period of time.Furthermore, changes in the work places
meant that the equipment had to be easyto transport and install.
The solution was provided by Apple,which supplied Macintosh personalcomputers equipped with standard wordprocessors, spreadsheets and drawingprograms which were connected to acommon network over whichintercommunication was possible usingelectronic mail software.
All the printers were Postscript lasermachines and they were distributedaround areas which included a variety ofusers. There was a maximum of tencomputers per printer and a minimumof six.
There was a notable growth in the use ofcomputers. In 1987 it was estimated thatthere would be nearly one computer forevery four people but the final proportionwas one computer for every 1.7 people,including network servers.
COOB'92 was equippedwith computer back-up toolsfor highly specialisedfunctions such as assistancewith space management atthe venues, which wassupplied through computer-assisted design (CAD)packages.
The Company ManagementComputer System (SIGE)included the classicapplications of allcomputerised companies(budget control, invoicing,salaries, storage control,staff management, etc.).
For basic data-processingtasks, COOB'92 decided toequip all departments withApple computers withstandard text-processing anddrawing programmes andspread sheets. The networkwas interconnected byelectronic mail software.
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A AS/400 series IBM wasthe hardware chosen byCOOB'92 to supplycomputer back-up for all theSIGE projects.
COOB'92 equipped a computingclassroom in which to train staff in thebasic use of computers (system, wordprocessing, electronic mail, spreadsheetsand drawing programs). From time totime, courses were held on databases andother more complex tools. Users ofinternal mail could, according to theirtasks, access other computingenvironments via the local network. Withthe Macintosh, the users could connect tothe applications to which they had accesson the central administrative computer,an AS/400, they could send information tothe different COOB'92 departments andthey could use AppleLink internationalelectronic mail network.
In spite of the fact that each computingenvironment, which we have calledCOOB'92 internal computing, was tosome extent autonomous, for practicalpurposes solutions were sought in order tobe able to transfer data between theAS/400 and the office automation systembased on Apple Macintosh. It was
important to be able to send printer spooloutputs off line and even on line to thelarge laser printing systems such as that ofRank Xerox installed in the COOB'92Publications Centre. COOB'92's AS/400was also connected to the IOC's AS/400 inLausanne in Switzerland in order to useelectronic mail systems and facilitate workstation passthrough. Amongst otherconnections the token rings wereparticularly noteworthy between both theAS/400 and the IBM PS/2 stations andbetween the remote communicationscontrol units and the IBM 3745 host. Inorder to carry out these functions acomplex communications network had tobe established which crammed all theCOOB'92 buildings (Font Màgica,Olímpia, Rosa and Hèlios) with cables.
Office automation during the Games
During the Games, office automation wasplaced at the service of the functions ofeach unit and so it was not a question ofthere being one computer per person, or
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one between two or three, but rather, thecomputers were at the disposal of thepeople who needed them.
There was no increase in the number ofcomputers for the final operation; theones already available were redistributed.However, nearly twice as many printerswere required due to the territorialdispersion of the equipment.
The Alcatel project
The purpose of the Barcelona Alcatelproject was to provide an information hotline for the media and people connectedwith the Olympic movement throughoutthe five continents, some 4,000 users in all.From 8 October 1990 to 24 July 1992, itcould be consulted 24 hours a day. Thesystem meant that the progress made inthe preparations for the Barcelona'92Olympic Games could be followedthroughout the world in real time.
The content covered all aspects of theBarcelona'92 Olympic Games: the historyof previous Olympic Games, theDirectory of the Olympic Movement andcontemporary Barcelona, Catalonia andSpain. These main headings werecomplemented by daily news bulletins andan electronic mail service.
The information was presented in amanner structured to the needs of the userand in the four official languages of theOlympic Games. Access to theinformation was on a world scaleregardless of the mobility of the user. Thesystem also guaranteed the users theminimum cost for each communication.
Planning
In order to achieve these aims aunique data base was configured on thehost which gave easy access to the usersvia a worldwide data transmissionnetwork.
As joint partner of theGames in media informationequipment and services,Alcatel distributed almost4,000 terminals like the onein the photograph in 50countries on the 5continents.
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The Alcatel project forBarcelona'92, which cameinto operation on 8 October1990 and continued until theday before the openingceremony, provided themedia with detailedinformation about theprogress of the Olympicorganisation.
When users with a portable computer, amade-to-measure local application andother components provided free by theproject wanted to use the service, all theyhad to do was find a local telephone lineto connect to and pay for the local callfrom their work stations to the nearestaccess point. The cost of the connectionbetween the access point and the centralcomputer was paid for by the project.
The central computer and networkmaintenance service was available 24hours a day, seven days a week.
The nature of the project
Of the many factors which characterisedthe conception, development andimplementation of the project, it shouldfirstly be noted that it was a worldwideproject which had access points in almostfifty countries in order to ensure thepermanent availability of the service,which was guaranteed by multiple accessroutes in an extensive network.
Searching for information was easy for theuser. There was a clear informationhierarchy and a set of facilities such as aword search, which meant thatinformation could be obtained quickly.The fact that the networks of differentsuppliers appeared to the users as a singlenetwork was also a considerableadvantage. Generally speaking, therefore,the project consisted of integratedsubsystems which took the form of asingle product based on standardmaterials combined in a new way. Point topoint transmission error correctionguaranteed the reception of cleaninformation.
The preparation and distribution of theequipment on the basis of a direct andpersonalised project presentation was ahuge logistical operation.
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The installations of theBarcelona SatelliteCommunications Centre inthe Alt Penedès district(40 km from Barcelona), anultramodern group of landstations for satellitecommunications. During theGames it acted, with theBuitrago station (2) and theGuadalajara SatelliteCommunications Centre, asa worldwide distributioncentre for the televisionsignals received by the IBCfrom the competition venues.
Telecommunications
Introduction
The Olympic Games is an event that putsexceptional demands ontelecommunications. There were threekey factors in the structuring of thetelecommunications: the users, the sitesand the purposes for which they were tobe used there. The number of usersdetermined the dimensioning of thetelecommunications systems andnetworks. The number and location of thesites determined the geographical scope ofthe network of fixed services and thecoverage of the mobile services. The typeof use determined the type of informationand communication and the supportrequired, whether voice, data, images orcontrol signals.
It was necessary to provide networks forprivate use within the territorial units andto integrate them into public networks inorder to link them with the rest of theworld. Hence, the media at Barcelona'92could transmit the results of thecompetitions around the world from theircommentary positions, from the pressareas and from the television cameras andstudios. A variety of transmissionmethods was used, including fibre optic,coaxial and parallel cables, radio links,satellites and infra-red.
The design and planning work done aspart of the telecommunicationsarchitecture project ensured properinstallation, operation and dismantling ofall the telecommunications systems andservices.
The initial studies helped to define theprojects that constituted the architecture.The Barcelona Computing andTelecommunications Study (BIT'92) laiddown a general framework for itsdevelopment. Later, the COOB'92 MasterPlan identified, with the correspondingbudget allocation, each of the projectsthat was later to be implemented in theorganisational phase. These projects weredivided into three project areas: publictelecommunications, privatetelecommunications and radiocommunications.
The total budget for thetelecommunications architecture projectrepresented an investment of nearly 7,000million pesetas, over half of which was
contributed by joint partners and officialsuppliers.
The support from Telefónica played asignificant role in the success of theprojects. The telecommunicationsnetwork was restructured for 1992 withthe installation of 19 traffic centres,450,000 digital links, 800,000 digital lines,500 high capacity and 900 low capacitytransmission systems, 115 radio links,65,000 km of fibre optic cable and1,300 km of conduit. Of the325,900 million pesetas invested byTelefónica, 93,862 were devoted toGames-related works or projects.Amongst the most remarkable of thesewere the Montjuïc tower, the Collserolamast, the Barcelona SatelliteCommunications Centre and theCastellbisbal Teleport. The majority ofthese systems used public carriernetworks, with more than 35,000 terminalsused only by the Organisation.
The projects, which had been prepared bythe Telecommunications and ElectronicsDivision, were coordinated in eachdepartment by a project manager. Therewere three such project managers in thefirst quarter of 1990 and the number hadgrown to twenty-six by the end of 1991.During the operational phase they weredistributed between the CIOT and themain venues as heads of technology ortelecommunications.
Public telecommunications
This area consisted of the followingprojects: final service terminals, serviceswith direct access to the public network,tariffs and usage, and transmissionservices. The common denominator of allthese services was their support by theTelefónica public network.
The telephone and standard fax systemsinstalled at the territorial units weregenerally a back-up for the Olympicnetwork. Nonetheless, some units,because of their dimensions or because itwas impossible to extend the Olympicnetwork to reach them, functionedentirely with the standard telephonesystem. The final figure was 1,738 lines—17% less than the initial estimate—plus601 PBX lines, that is, 2,339 lines in all.They were used mostly for long-distancecalls, since local calls were made via theOlympic telephone system.
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A total of 617 fax machines were used.This was 14% less than forecast at theplanning stage. The great majority ofterminals, some 70%, were of theadvanced thermosensitive paper type, butothers were also used, such as TMAmobile telephony (3% of the total) in theMarathon and yachting.
The COOB'92 computer and officeautomation systems were served by theBarcelona Olympic Games datatransmission network. The support wasthe IBERMIC network, installed byTelefonica, with special criticality andredundancy requirements. At the OlympicCalculation Centre (CSA) an exchangewas installed with lines ranging from2,400 bps to 64 kbps and X-25 IBERPACcircuits for the DOCUMENT terminals.
The topology of the network regarded theterritorial units as local area networks andthe outputs as concentration points, whilecommunication between the latter and theCSA was considered point-to-point.
Redundancy of lines was maintainedthroughout the service, including thepossibility of loading the entire traffic on asingle circuit. In the case of the OlympicRing, the links with the CSA used tworedundant 34 Mbps circuits, with differentroutes and accesses.
In 65% of the 272 circuits, thedimensioning was of 64 kbps, while therewere also 50 circuits at 64 kbps via theOlympic telephone network, as a back-upof IBERMIC, for the most importantunits. The evolution of the network calledfor a few low-velocity circuits (9.6 kbps)to be raised to 64 kbps and for newcircuits for hotels identified at the lastmoment, even though the topology wasfrozen in early 1992.
In the final operational phase no incidentsoccurred in the circuits duringcompetition time. Outside these hoursthere were 57 incidents, all of themresolved in an average time of 22 minutesbetween notification and correction. In
Television transmitter on theCollserola mast.
The Barcelona Games datatransmission networksupplied service for theCOOB'92 computer andoffice information systems.The support came from theIBERMIC network,installed by Telefónica, withspecial requirements forcriticality and redundancy.
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The Olympic telephonesystem was a key project inthe telecommunicationsdepartment. The topology ofthe network was configuredin four interconnected accessnodes (the four Olympicareas), linked to the publicnetwork.
The outstandingtechnological innovation ofthe Barcelona Games for themedia was the use of anintegrated voice and dataterminal (the TMT-Press).This providedcommunication with anycountry by voice or bytelephoto or fax, using asimple personalisedmagnetic card sold byTelefónica.
the circuits rented to the Olympic Familythere were 132 incidents, with an averagerepair time of two hours.
During the Games, the telex service wasmostly discarded in favour of otherservices such as fax or electronic mail,except by the press from countries wheretelex is still habitually used. Thus, of the1,015 telexes sent, 23% went to India,20% to Cuba and 16% to Nigeria.Altogether, the organisation installed 34telex lines in the press centres at thevarious sites and 9 at the MPC. COOB'92used 11 lines for its own purposes,installed in the accreditation centre, theresidences of IOC members and theairport, as well as 5 lines for the AMIC-TELEX server, which made it possible tosend telexes from any AMIC terminal.
The installation of a dedicated telephonenetwork enabled direct, unswitchedcommunication for users with speciallycritical needs, such as Olympic security.One concentrator was the CECOR 3,
which received lines from the territorialunits. At CECOR, an exchange wasinstalled which concentrated the 148 lineswith different levels. The emergencytelephone network at the Villages was setup so that residents could establish fastcommunication in the event of a seriousincident, illness or act of terrorism. Onetelephone was installed on each floor inorder to optimise the resources of thetelephone exchanges and each group of5 houses shared the same line. The finaldimensioning was 1,004 lines, of which618 were in the Barcelona OlympicVillage, with nearly 2,000 telephoneterminals.
Telefónica rented telecommunicationsservices to the Olympic Family using abooking procedure agreed with theOrganising Committee. This involved thepublication of a TelecommunicationsGuide, with a run of 30,000 copies. Themost significant technological innovationin this service was the use of an integratedvoice-data terminal, the TMT-PRESS,
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which enabled voice communications to bemaintained with any country, as well as theconnection of wire photo or fax equipmentusing a personalised magnetic card. Ninehundred of these terminals were inoperation during the Games, installed inthe work rooms of the press centres. Someof them were dedicated to faxtransmissions. Telefónica installed some3,000 further terminals in the press stands,for personalised service and for the mediathat had requested them, and, in specially-fitted centres, 860 modular telephones inwhich credit and prepayment cards couldbe used. Nearly 1,000 public telephoneboxes were installed at the venues for theuse of the spectators.
Private telecommunications
The Olympic telephone network was akey project that provided exclusive voiceand data communication for the Olympicorganisation throughout the geographicalarea in which the Games took place.
The topology of the network wasconfigured with four access areas,connected one with another and with thepublic network. Each area was connectedto the various Ericsson exchanges at thesites—73 in total—by 2 Mbps digital links.The network supported a total of 11,000terminals: 8,533 analogue, 2,000 digital,253 data adaptors at 64 kbps (TAUs) and150 cordless phones type pre-DECT-CT3(Digital European Cordless Telephone).The Olympic network also served themedia at the MPC and the IBC: theycould call other units without charge. Oneterminal was provided for every fourjournalists.
Diversification and redundancy, as well asconnections to be public network viaroutes to different exchanges, gave amaximum capacity of 40,000 calls perhour. To confirm the viability of thisproject, the Polytechnic University ofCatalonia carried out a simulation. Duringthe first few days of the Games there werepeaks of 30,000 calls per hour; the highest
The Olympic telephone network
Nodes
Territorial unit PBX
Standard telephone
Radio-messaging
Telephone network at the units
Voice mail
Message transmission centre
Public telephone network
Automatic mobile telephone
Vall d'Hebron-La Fira:15 units in BarcelonaDiagonal: 12 units in Barcelonaplus l'Hospitalet and ViladecansMontjuïc: 10 units in Barcelonaplus Castelldefels, Granollers,Mollet, Sabadell and TerrassaParc de Mar: 9 units in Barcelonaplus Badalona
The four nodes group the various territorial units in Barcelona plus some of the subsites closer to the city.
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Telephone in the OlympicHarbour. About 1000 publicphone boxes were installedat the sites.
The Coordinating MedicalCentre had a switchboardmanned by volunteers whichdistributed the incomingcalls.
At all the media Villagesand venue press centres therewas an area set up byTelefónica with regulartelephone, fax and telexservices.
The closed group radiotelephone apparatus(RGTC - Trunking),supplied by Philips,provided a voicecommunication service byradio to different groups ofusers, particularly to theOlympic Family transportvehicles.
concentration was at the CMC (fromwhich some 70,000 calls per day weremade, while there was considerable,though more uniform, traffic at the Parcde Mar Area (between 50,000 and 60,000calls per day). By the end of the Gamesmore than 4 million calls had been made.Various value-added systems were usedwith the Olympic telephone system forthe control and supervision of thenetwork. Thus, at the CIOT, informationwas available regarding the state oftraffic, routes between the four OlympicAreas could be varied and the variousresources of the network could beoptimised dynamically.
The operation was supported by 320operators, whose basic task was therapid search of directories to facilitatemanagement. Ericsson's TeamDirectory system was used. Anotherservice was itemised billing by area, aswell as information about thetype of call, duration and destinationnumber.
The fact that it was a digital networkenabled data transmission, thus providingan alternative to the IBERMIC network.Other innovative applications were imagetransmission at 64 kbps from the closedcircuit television cameras of the securitysystem to the central control and thedistribution of black lists of accreditations.
A very popular service was the CT-3cordless phones, using the 888 MHz band,at the Olympic Ring and the MediaCentre. Despite the mobility and smallsize of these terminals, they gave the userthe same facilities as any digitaltelephone. Finally, five videotelephoneterminals were installed and connected tothe network, which established video linksat 64 kbps between the Barcelona mayor'soffice, the CEO of COOB'92, the CPO,the president of the IOC and the CIOT;these locations were also equipped foraudio conference.
The final installation of the Olympicnetwork took place between February and
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The Collserola mastdesigned by the Britisharchitect Norman Foster,rises majestically above thenew city skyline. Promotedby a consortium formed byTelefónica, Retevisión, theBarcelona MetropolitanCorporation, Iniciatives,S.A. and the CorporacióCatalana de Ràdio andTelevisió, it constitutes, withthe Montjuïc tower, aradioelectríctelecommunications nodeand physical carrier. TheCollserola mast allows rapidinstallation of emergency ortemporary radio andtelevision links and suppliesoccasional one-off serviceswhich are not available onthe user networks.
June 1992. It should be noted that 35% ofthe internal systems had been broughtinto operation in 1991 for the test eventsand trial runs that took place that year.During the Games, the organisation of themaintenance, administration of the serviceand user support was carried out by ateam of eight people (including staff fromCOOB'92 and suppliers), who wereresponsible for a total of 130 peopledistributed around the venues and otherOlympic sites. In order to track anytechnical incidents, a technical servicenumber was set up by Telefónica, whichchannelled calls directly to the CIOT.
Radio communications
This are consisted of three projects:mobile radio communications, the pagingsystem and wavelength management.
Mobile telephony
Two levels were identified within theradio communications projects: one wasthe territorial level, and the other thefunctional or personal level. Theterritorial systems were planned andimplemented using short-rangeradiotelephony (SRRT), which enableddifferent groups of users to communicatewith each other within an Olympic site, aswell as city-wide systems for coveringitinerant competitions using portabletransceivers operating on a single channel.
The massive use of this system mean thateach site had to have a permanently open,dedicated channel for each work group, towhich they could have immediate accessand which would allow rapid all-to-allcommunication. This involved highlycomplex technical requirements and aprecise wavelength plan for each unit. Forthis purpose, the TelecommunicationsDepartment (DGT) made available a partof band III of the television spectrum,with a strict logistical plan for wavelengthcontrol that proved most effective. Whenassigning the number of transceivers toeach territorial unit, the dimensions of thesite and the activities of the variousgroups were taken into account, accordingto whether it was a venue, a supportcentre or a Village. The forecasts made atthe planning stage were exceeded by some25%, making it necessary to purchaseextra units and to re-use others.
The variety of different terminals, inaccordance with the number of working
channels needed (16), the use of mobileequipment installed in ships and in thevehicles for the itinerant competitions(cycling, Marathon) and the installation ofrepeaters at those Olympic sites whosedimensions demanded it, called for thedefinition of a highly complexoperational and logistical plan, with theinvolvement of a large numberof persons in the distribution, installationand storage of the material. During theoperational phase there was aradio room at all the sites, staffed byMotorola staff.
The SRRT equipment had a 2.5% failurerate. Maintenance response was optimal,since it was based on the immediatesubstitution of terminals from a reservestock.
At the request of COOB'92, the SRRTsupplier also provided the OlympicFamily with a terminal hire service at twolevels: one with coverage for an Olympicsite and another for city-wide coverage.The procedures for obtaining and usingthe equipment was described in the RadioCommunications Guide published byCOOB'92 and the DGT. Altogether,890 portable terminals, 120 mobile ones,13 base stations and 24 repeaters (locatedat Collserola) were contracted; the bandused was a continuation of the wavelengthsegment allotted to COOB'92.
Mobile telephony made it possible for allthe members of an organisation with aparticular responsibility to bepermanently in touch with one another.The TMA-900 TACS network, which wasset up by Telefónica in 1991, covered allthe Olympic sites and the main accessroutes. 407 terminals were used, some20% under initial forecasts. 70% of themwere portable and assigned to anindividual, 16% were assigned to vehiclesof the COOB'92 fleet and the remaining14% were transportable terminals for veryspecific applications. The portableterminals used, from Philips, were smalland easy to use, and they were supplieddirectly to the user. The failure rate wasvery low (about 3%).
The closed group radiotelephony system(CGRT-Trunking) provided a voicecommunications service by radio forvarious groups of users, mainly in theOlympic Family transport vehicles. Thenetwork, set up by Telefónica, consistedof 24 base stations, distributed all overCatalonia and coordinated by a
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management centre. The terminals weresupplied by Philips (1,650 mobileterminals and 460 portable ones) andinstalled, administered and maintained byTelefonica Servicios (TS-1). In the finalphase of the implementation of theservice a series of network problems aroseas a result of installation deadlines andchanges to the software, which made itnecessary to have a special plan in hand toensure coverage for the mobile terminalsof the COOB'92 fleet. The utilisation ofthe service showed that, once the networkhad been stabilised and the users becamefamiliar with the operation, the sharedaccess system was of great help incommunicating with the vehicles.
The movement of vehicles was such thatin the first few days of the Games therewere almost 15,000 calls per day, with apeak on August 1 with 14,982 calls. 65%of the calls were made from COOB'92vehicles and the remainder from theOlympic Family. A total of 237,552 callswere made. The failure rate of portable
terminals was 15% and of mobileterminals, 2%.
The paging system
The COOB'92 radio paging service madeit possible for Organisation staff toreceive instant written messages viapocket alphanumeric receivers suppliedby Indelec-Philips. The service wassupplied by Telefonica Servicios (TS-1)via the Mensatel network. Access to theservice was via an operator or any AMICterminal. Finally, 3,340 terminals wereused, 25% more than the forecastnumber. 90,251 messages were sent,approximately 50% of them via theoperator service and the other 50% viathe AMIC. Peak traffic was on 24 Julywith 5,307 messages. The failure rate wasvery low, approximately 2%.
Wavelength management
In early 1992 the Barcelona'92 RadioCommunications Advisory Commission
The short range radiotelephone service (RTCA)provided communicationbetween the different groupsof Olympic Family (1) andorganisation users (4) withinthe sphere of a singleterritorial unit. Theapparatus and maintenanceservice were supplied by theMotorola company.
The COOB'92 radio-messenger service, suppliedby Intelec-Philips, allowedthe organisation staff toreceive instant writtenmessages via a small pocketalphanumeric receiver.
The mobile telephone system(TMA - TAGS) kept themembers of the organisationwith responsibilitiespermanently on call.
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(CAR'92) was set up, with representativesof the DOT, Telefónica, Retevisión,RTO'92 and the COOB'92Telecommunications and ElectronicsDivisions. Its purpose was to coordinateand control the electromagnetic spectrumused by the Organisation and the OlympicFamily and to ensure quality andreliability. The programmes wereprepared in the planning phase by a workgroup, GTR'92, which coordinated thetemporary assignment of frequencies,concession procedures, acceptance,accreditation and access control of theapparatus at the Olympic sites, thebooking procedure via the RadioCommunications Guide and, finally, thelogistical plan for the control andmonitoring of the electromagneticspectrum through a plan coordinated bythe DGT, which involved staff from theDGT itself, the Generalitat of Catalonia,Telefónica and Retevisión.
The human resources made available bythe DGT consisted of 123 persons. This
body also provided mobile units withequipment for measurement and control.The fact that nearly 2,300 frequencieswere used meant that careful planningand rigorous inspection were necessary. Atotal of 62 units accredited 1,335 pieces ofequipment, and 123 cases of interferencewere detected, of which 37% were fromthe RTCA service, 28% from radiocameras and 24% from terrestrial mobileunits requested by third parties. In 66cases, equipment was confiscated.
Calls made on the closed groupradiotelephony system (RTGC)
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Judges' position at thestarting line of the rowingcompetition in Banyoles.
Detail of the ceiling of thePalau Sant Jordi. Thesoundproofing and lightingat the venue were suppliedby rows of spotlights andloudspeakers strategicallyplaced in the centralstructure, which is suspendedfrom the dome, so that thehall can be used for manydifferent purposes. Thisversatility was demonstratedduring the Games, when itwas the venue for threesports on the officialprogramme: the wholegymnastics competition andthe handball and volleyballfinals.
Electronics
The electronics department of COOB'92undertook to carry out three large-scaleprojects: sound, track instruments andcable television networks. Work startedon these projects in March 1988, whenwork was also done on various systems forthe Olympic Stadium and the Palau SantJordi, then under construction. Theproject managers for the sound and trackinstruments projects joined theorganisation in April 1989 and those forthe CATV network in May 1990. Aroundmid-1990, a total of eight people workedin the department. In early June 1992 thisnumber had grown to nineteen, justbefore the employment of the bulk of thestaff who were to be directly involved inthe operation. They shared the work ofthe different projects in the following way:six on the sound project, six on trackinstruments, three on CATV and four onadministration of the section.
During the Olympic Games, staff carriedout duties at the territorial units (twelvepersons) and the CIOT (seven). Theirduties were as assistants to the head oftechnology, head sound technicians, headof track instruments, head oftelecommunications and CIOT projectmanagers. The electronics section tookpart in many activities before the OlympicGames were held: the opening of theOlympic Stadium in winter 1989,occasional events, such as the JoaquimBlume Memorial in 1990, and all the testevents held in summer 1991 and spring1992.
Sound
The public address and simultaneousinterpretation projects were both includedunder the project known as Sound, aswere others that were less "visible" butnonetheless of great importance for thesmooth running of the Games, such as thecoordination of the national anthems andthe music for sports that required musicalaccompaniment.
The public address project had to provideevery venue with suitable equipment. Atotal of 65 facilities were so equipped, aswell as two mobile units and fourtransportable ones.
The installation was permanent,temporary or mixed, according to the typeof facility concerned. For example, thetemporary competition venues, such as
the courses for the walking, Marathon orcycle road racing events, were coveredusing mobile or portable equipment.
The sound projects were developed usinga methodical process of consultation andadvice, which from the beginning involvedthe divisions or departments concerned:architecture, sports, ceremonies, press orsuppliers. The projects followed pre-determined patterns in several categories,according (for example) to whether thevenue was outdoor or indoor, its seatingcapacity, whether music was essential tothe practice of the sport concerned,whether finals were to be held there andwhether medals were to be awarded. Atable of parameters was established todefine a set of audio characteristics foreach type of facility. The acousticcharacteristics of the various buildingswere always taken into account. To checkeach project, a computer model includingthe proposed architectural features andthe recommended acoustic treatments wasused.
A standard approach was also adopted toequipment supply, and models ofequipment were defined in a rational wayin order to facilitate ordering, the controlof the installation and the allocation ofmaterial and human resources forcorrective and preventive maintenance. Inaddition to the audio aspects, the projectdevoted great attention to the aspects ofinfrastructure that affected, basically, thecontrol rooms. The criteria for thestandardization of the installations werecompiled in a document known as "ModelInstallation". The subsequent phases werethose of the validation, contracting,execution and acceptance of the project,and finally putting the sound installationinto operation. The quality, maintenanceand training and operation plans, the riskstudies and other documents provided allthe information needed to carry out allthe activities that had been identified inthe initial planing stages.
Simultaneous interpretation
Equipment for simultaneousinterpretation in the conference roomshad to be installed at all the venues wherefinals, and hence press conferences, wereto be held, as well as at the operationalcentres where there were activities ofinterest to the world press. Such was thecase at the MPC, the IOC headquarters,among others. The heads of sport andpress provided the data needed to initiate
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the project, for example the pressconference calendars, the number ofpersons at the operators' desks and thenumbers expected to attend. On the basisof these data the conference room planand calendar were prepared. Thesedocuments could then be used for thedetailed planing of the project.
Several categories were established forconference rooms, taking into account theexpected level of interest (high, mediumor low), and pre-defined, standardisedmodels were assigned to each of thecategories. The equipment forsimultaneous interpretation wasdimensioned, by agreement with the PressOperations Division and the LanguageServices department of COOB'92, for atleast the four official languages, and for amaximum of six languages at the mostimportant sites. Altogether, there were 8rooms in the high interest category and 15in the medium category with simultaneousinterpretation, as well as 24 in the lowinterest category, 12 of which had
simultaneous interpretation, and 4 mobileback-up units. 78 people were employedin the project. As for the other projects,there were working documents such asquality, maintenance and training andoperation plans, as well as risk studies,which ensured that everything would runsmoothly in the operations phase.
National anthems and other recordings
The national anthems were recorded oninteractive compact discs. This methodprovided the operator with step-by-stepguidance when programming an anthemfor the victory ceremony.
Music for the sports that require it(rhythmic gymnastics and synchronizedswimming) was also digitally recorded,but on magnetic tape (DAT).
Track instruments and displays
This heading includes the projects fortrack instruments, scoreboards, giant
The announcers' room at thePalau Sant Jordi. Inaddition to electroacoustics,the sound project paid closeattention to the aspects ofinfrastructure which mostaffected the control rooms.
Public address apparatusused for the walking race.
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The simultaneousinterpretation systems thatwere to be used at the Gameshad already been tried out atthe Competitions'91.
The sound tower at theTennis de la Vall d'Hebron.
During the Games 132simultaneous interpretationbooths were in operation inthe press conference rooms atthe venues where finals wereheld, the HQ hotels, the IBCand the MPC.
screens and the television system forcompetition control.
According to the scoring system, theOlympic sports can be classified in threemain groups:
a) In many disciplines (races, throwing,jumping) the winner is decided aftermeasuring the performance of an athlete(in time or distance) in relation to that ofthe others and then deciding which is thebest score.
b) In other sports, points are awarded byjudges after assessing the competitors'performance, taking into account thetechnique, efficaciousness or elegance ofthe performance (gymnastics, boxing,diving, judo, wrestling).
c) Finally, in team sports, the winner is theteam that overcomes the rival by accruinga larger number of points during thecontest: this is the case with football,volleyball, pelota and hockey; information
on the progress of the competition isdisplayed on scoreboards adapted to thepeculiarities of each of these sports.
In some sports, such as show-jumping, orin varieties of other sports, such as wildwater canoeing, a combination of time,judges' points and penalty points is usedto decide the winner.
In these three groups, it is necessary tomeasure the times and distancesaccurately, collect the points awarded bythe judges or simply to show the numberof points scored by each team onscoreboards suitable for the sport inquestion.
The measurement of time and distance,and the collection of points or penaltiesawarded by the judges, is effected bymeans of "track instruments", so calledbecause their function is intimatelyrelated with what happens in thecompetition area. This term does not dojustice to them, however, since they are
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"systems", considerably more complexthan mere measurement sensors. Behindthe sensors or the terminals used for thejudges' scores is a great deal ofsophisticated equipment, which receivesthe signals from the instruments andprocesses it on computers running suitablesoftware according to the sport inquestion. The information is thenimmediately transferred to the SIR andtelevision.
The idea that this is a "system" isreinforced by the fact that the trackinstruments are normally accompanied byscoreboards, which present theinformation in a relatively simple formand are controlled by the system ofinstruments of which they form part. Thistype of Scoreboard can be seen in sportssuch as athletics, boxing, wrestling, judo,gymnastics, or water polo. In the case ofathletics and some other sports, the trackscoreboards were controlled by the SIR.The displays, better known as scoreboardsor giant video screens, are systems that
provide the spectators with fullinformation about the progress of thecompetition. These displays were alsoused for things other than strictly sports-related matters. For example, during theopening and closing ceremonies, the giantscreen and the dot-matrix Scoreboard inthe Olympic Stadium were used toreinforce the special effects. Thespectators were able to see theperformance of the athletes at closequarters on the giant screens, thanks tothe close-ups provided by RTO'92presenters.
The alphanumeric scoreboards presentedlarge amounts of information, whetherletters or numbers, and the dot-matrixscoreboards,graphics or simpleanimations. They both showed startinglists, final results and messages of publicinterest.
The television system for competitioncontrol, equipped with autonomous videocameras, video players and TV monitors,
The Seiko company suppliedthe track instruments formeasuring time anddistances and collectingscores and the sanctionsapplied by the judges andreferees. All the instrumentswere yellow for easyidentification: the camerasused for the photo finish (I),the measuring devices for thethrowing events (2), thestarting shot synchronizer inthe athletics events (4), theresults managementapparatus for badminton (5)and the chronometers at thePiscines Bernat Picornell (6).
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The alphanumericscoreboards presented theinformation in letters andfigures and the matrixscoreboards in graphics andsimple animations.
The sports organisation staffprovided support for thereferees and judges incompetition control.
followed the progress of the competitionsclosely to review incidents or distinguishthe winner in a close finish using therecorded tapes.
All the projects described above formedpart of the requirements set by theInternational Federations, the SIR andRTO'92. Taking into account thelimitations imposed by the venues, theequipment available from varioussuppliers and a review of existing systems,work began on the preparation of theprojects. The initial planning generated aseries of documents (functionalrequirements, scoreboards plan,operations plan) that made it possible togo ahead with the construction ofequipment, orders or contracts.
The initial planning revealed the followingneeds:
• time and distance measurement: in 17sports
• judges' points: in 14 sports
• alphanumerical and dot-matrixscoreboards: in 25 sports
• services for television: in 11 sports• services for high-definition television: in
two sports• permanent giant screens: two (Olympic
Stadium and Palau Sant Jordi)• mobile giant screen: in one sport• temporary giant screen: in one sport
(Pavelló de 1'Espanya Industrial)
As in the sound project, here too quality,maintenance and training and operationplans were prepared, as well as riskstudies, emergency plans, etc.
CATV
This project had to provide the OlympicFamily with the television channelsstipulated in the Olympic Charter (1987version).
The CATV project included the planningand installation of the networks, with theirtechnological components and the supply
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The giant Scoreboard at theOlympic Stadium whichprovided the spectators withdetailed information aboutthe progress of thecompetition. For theathletics events, the trackscoreboards were controlledby SIR.
The starting blocks for thesprints and relays wereconnected to the electronictime-keeping system.
of terminals (TV receivers, videos,multi-screens).
To this end the elements of which thesystem would have to be composed wereanalysed. The generation of the signals tobe distributed was the responsibility ofRTO'92; they were transmitted to theIBC using RTO'92 facilities. The 16international TV signals were routed tothe IBC using a fibre optic network. Ateach territorial unit, the receptionterminals for the international signalsreceived via optical fibre fed the CATVhead ends.
Together with the international signals,the local signals of the RTO'92 mobileunits, the video signals generated by theSIR and the normal broadcast signals ofthe public television stations were alsodistributed. The distribution network,starting at the head end, branched outuntil it reached the press desks, thecommentator's positions, the press workrooms, the VIP rooms and theorganisation offices. Apart from thevenues, the CATV networks covered theMPC, the residences of IOC officials, theVillages and the CPO.
The project was initiated on the basis of aquestionnaire completed by the variousDivisions of COOB'92—RTO'92, PressOperations, Sports, Accommodation,Data-processing and Systems—in order toassess the dimensioning of the networksand the number of terminals required.The survey helped to decide what servicewould be required for the press positions,the video libraries and the giant screens atthe MPC, the projection rooms at theVillages and other special services.
With these data in hand, work began onthe design and installation of the networksin accordance with an initial study thatdetermined the criteria and technicalspecifications to be taken into account.Installation and testing was planned insuch a way as to avoid last-minute workbottlenecks. This called for closecooperation with the ConstructionDivision, which was in control of thephysical preparation of each site.
Special attention was paid at the planningstage to the delicate problem of thedelivery, control, installation, tuning andsubsequent collection of the 10,000televisions and 11,200 videos that were tobe used, not counting hired units. This wasadministered directly by the Divisions that
had ordered them. 53 head ends wereinstalled, with a total of 395 modulatedchannels distributed. The coaxial cablenetworks installed provided a signal for8,000 receivers. The operation andmaintenance of the networks wasentrusted to the suppliers, with the aid ofvolunteers.
The operational phase was regulated bythe provisions of the operations plan ofthe CATV project, which determinedwhen the materials would arrive, statedthe quantity and type of terminals to beinstalled, and who would be responsiblefor corrective and preventivemaintenance, and laid down theprocedures to be used with the centralisedsupport centres.
Electronic security
COOB'92 was responsible for aspects ofthe internal security of the Olympic sites,essentially for those for whichaccreditation would be needed during theoperational phase. Hence, it wasnecessary to adopt electronic securitymeasures to achieve satisfactory operationand organisation—while minimizing thepresence of staff and physical barriers—aswell as to tighten security and make themeasures taken as invisible as possible.
The electronic security section, under theTelecommunications and ElectronicsDivision, consisted of six projects: design,staff access control, materials accesscontrol, closed circuit television, intruderdetection systems and management andimplementation.
During early considerations of theresponsibilities of this section, the ideatook shape of dividing the simplytechnical aspects as much as possible fromoperational responsibilities. Hence,relations with public and security bodieson the local, autonomous community andstate levels were conducted on acentralised basis by the Security Division;the approval of working systems and thestructuring of technological mattersproved to be the most disputed points.
The planning and definition of theinfrastructure of security equipment tomeet the needs of the various buildingsand persons involved in the OlympicGames took into account the organisationmodel and the risk coverage criteria thathad been studied and approved in 1988.
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The television signal transmissionsystems
1 Barcelona satellitecommunications centre
2 Guadalajara satellitecommunications centre
3 Buitrago satellite communicationscentre
4 Montjuïc tower5 Collserola tower
The basic risks identified were: personalinjury, interruption of operation,economic damage, unauthorised use andconservation of materials and equipment.
In this first phase, the preliminary projectsfor the facilities were drawn up; theycovered the risks and needs that hadalready been examined intently and ingreat detail. Decisions about thetechnological systems and the installationand operation plans made it possible tostandardise the process and make itcontrollable, to make accurate estimatesof the human resources needed and tomake a reliable and tight financialestimate.
When these data had been collected,market studies and negotiations withsuppliers began. The preparation of astandard contract made it possible, ingeneral, to facilitate the closure ofagreements with the requisite speed. Nowbegan the phase of the development ofthe projects and the gradual application of
them. It should be borne in mind thatsecurity needs, and hence theimplementation of security, grew apacewith COOB'92 itself.
The general organisation of theelectronic security section fell into fourstages: a) design of the operation, fromApril 1989 to January 1991; b) territorialprojects, up to October 1991; c)implementation phase, up to June 1992,and d) operational phase, up to August1992. More technical staff wereprogressively employed, and in the endthere was a section manager, four projectmanagers, a logistics manager and anassistant project manager, in addition tothe administrative staff.
Staff access control
To ensure proper control of the access tothe various sites of the persons involved inthe Games, a personal accreditation wasissued, as had become customary atprevious Games. This accreditation, on
Direct fibre opticnetwork
Alternative fibre opticnetwork
Radio link network
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The accreditations at theaccess control points wereread by a total of 550 laserscanners. During the Gamesthere were over 200,000readings a day, counting allthe venues.
laminated paper, bore a photograph of theholder with his or her personal details, aswell as a bar code and pictogramsidentifying the zones to which access waspermitted.
The bar code allowed the accreditation tobe read using a laser bar code reader. Thisprovided a simple way of confirming theholder's rights of entry, as well asproviding statistical and security controlinformation.
The accreditation centres were providedwith bar code readers identical to thoseused at the access controls in order tocheck that all the data were correct.
Five hundred and fifty bar code readerswere used at the access controls. Themethod, which was a complete novelty,proved a success. The self-sufficiency andreliability of the system allowed thevolunteers in charge of it to workcomfortably and confidently.
The bar code reader would authorise ordeny access to a site. The dataaccumulated by the reader were uploadedto a dedicated computer terminal at eachsite whence they were sent via a dedicatedtelephone line to the central system. Over200,000 accreditations were read each dayduring the Games. Black-listedaccreditations were to be destroyed. Thelist was distributed from the centralsystem to all the bar code readers, so that"black" accreditations were detectedimmediately upon being read.
Materials access control
Electronic devices were used to filteraccess to the Olympic sites of a variety ofmaterials and objects that might interferewith the smooth running of the sportscompetitions. These devices were: metaldetectors (2,200 in total) at the accesscontrol modules for accredited staff andthe public; X-ray machines for the controlof packages and correspondence at thematerials access modules; magnetic field
The access control pointswere also equipped withmetal detectors to preventpeople bringing forbiddenobjects into the venues.
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detectors for checking vehicles in parkingor goods delivery areas; and sniffer-typedevices for detecting explosives.
Closed circuit television systems(CCTV)
This system obtained closed circuittelevision pictures of a site, whether it wasin use or not, for the information of thoseresponsible for security, so that anomaliescould then be investigated by other meansand reliable data would be available tomonitor them, and to record the imagesfor subsequent action or investigation.Another function, which was notoriginally planned for, but which provedvery useful, was the control of thespectators inside the venues.
The equipment making up the CCTVsystems can be grouped in four categories:capture equipment (470 cameras withauxiliary equipment) display equipment(160 TV monitors), recording equipment(65 security VCRs with slow recording
and capacity for up to 448 hourscontinuous recording) and transmissionequipment (image digitizalers withtransmission using the internal telephoneline).
Intruder detection systems
The intruder detection systems worked onthe principle of detecting variations in therest value of a previously determinedphysical quantity, which would set off analarm. They were complementary tophysical security and respondedimmediately to any attempt at intrusion ina restricted area.
The equipment for this system fell intothree categories: detection equipment(alarm sensors, that sensed the position ofdoors, movement in a space orinterference with a perimeter fence),central units (which provided informationabout all variations in the system usingprinters, graphic terminals or synopticdisplays, but without acoustic alarms) and
The Olímpia building,COOB'92 headquarters, wasequipped with X-ray screensto check packets and letters.
At the entrances for theaccredited staff at the venuesthere were metal detectorarches. Entrance to thechalet at El Montanyàequestrian centre.
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The closed circuit television(CCTV) was an importantsupport for security controlat the Olympic sites.
CECOR 3 had a telephoneexchange to provide directcommunication in anemergency.
equipment to track the security patrols.This equipment was controlled, along withthe CCTV, from the security centres ateach site, which were operational 24 hoursa day.
At sites with perimeter detection, it wasessential for it to be integrated into theCCTV system to obtain effective results.When a detection occurred, an image ofthe area in question would appearimmediately, making it possible todetermine the real cause of the alarm andto mobilise the necessary resources.
Every day, the system data and a list of alloperations carried out was transmittedfrom each unit to the CIOT, where theinformation was analysed to ensure thatthe systems were working correctly.
Last-minute modifications to theinfrastructure at some sites called fordrastic changes to the implementation ofthe detection systems, and this made itnecessary to change the various
operational plans in June. This was soespecially in the case of the OlympicVillage, where final preparation was notcompleted until a few days before theopening.
The installation of the operationalsystems
All the electronic security systems wereinstalled after the previously definedprojects had been concluded. Theseinvolved the selection and contracting ofthe suppliers, the definition of logisticalprocedures, the creation of a system ofdocumentation, product quality control,the determination of functionalspecifications and the territorial projectsfor each of the more than 60 sitesinvolved. Once these procedures wereoperational, the various systems wereinstalled.
The installation phases lasted nine months(from October 1991 to June 1992). Maywas the busiest month, with 135 people
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involved. The total time needed forinstallation was 72,000 man-hours,involving the following activities:
• installation of 8,500 pieces of automaticequipment (with the relevant auxiliaryequipment)
• installation of 360,000 m of cable• contracting 160 telephone lines for data
transmission• installation of 180 fibre optic circuits for
the transmission of video signals• protection of 14,000 m of perimeter
fence with microphonic detection• creation of a computerised database for
the tracking of incidents, with 425 plansof the various sites.
The operations phase lasted from 1 July to10 August 1992. The CCTV and intruderdetection systems were operational fromApril.
The duties of the electronic securitysection during this period were to attendto reports of technical incidents, advise
the operators, control and replacematerials and to prepare and store thechronological archives.
To cover these necessities two workprogrammes were designed: a trainingprogramme and a maintenanceprogramme. The training programmeinvolved courses for 1,200 group headsand 21,000 operators. The programme wasstaffed by 115 technicians, seconded bythe suppliers and installers, and 56volunteers with a technical background.In all 16 courses were given, each lastingbetween 6 and 64 hours.
The maintenance phase of the operationinvolved the employment of 75technicians in charge of electronic securityassigned to the various sites, supported by50 volunteers, as well as 36 specialisttechnicians assigned to the CIOT.
All the Olympic venues, suchas the Palau d'Esports inBadalona (2) and thePavelló Olímpic inGranollers (3), weresurrounded by perimetersecurity fences equipped withintrusion detection systemsconnected to the CCTV.
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Access control for spectatorsand members of the OlympicFamily was theresponsibility of thevolunteers.
1
2 3
178
The Olympic Stadium theday after the closingceremony. To coordinate theoperations phase and thedismantling of thetechnological equipment,each venue had its ownorganisation headed by thetechnology manager anddirected direct from theCIOT.
The organisation of thetelecommunications operation
To coordinate the planning, operation anddismantling of the telecommunicationsservices at each territorial unit, a specificorganisation was set up, responsible to thehead of technology and coordinated fromthe CIOT.
The territorial structure revolved aroundthe head of telecommunications, who wasa key figure in the installation phase.Secondment agreements with suppliers,engineering schools and public bodiesmade it possible to train a team of nearly100 people, which was already operationaltwo or three months before the Games.
The entire territorial structure wascoordinated and exhaustively trackedfrom the CIOT, with the cooperation of
the heads of telecommunications, so thatinformation was permanently available onthe state of each system and overallstrategies could be established.
At the CIOT, the telecommunicationssection was divided into four projectareas, including the CATV projects, inwhich, in addition to the COOB'92project heads, there were representativesof the project heads of the supplyingcompanies. The organisation was headedby a head of telecommunications systemswho coordinated the four project areaswith the aid of managers from theTelefónica Group'92.Telecommunications staff at the CIOTamounted to almost 60. From 25 June to10 August, the CIOT dealt with 479incidents (180 in the installation phaseand 299 during the Games).
4
4 179
1
The Olympic Charter statesthat the OrganisingCommittee of the OlympicGames has to provide anOlympic Village forcompetitors and officials. Inthe case of Barcelona, giventhe scarcity of hotel rooms inthe city for members of theOlympic Family, two otherVillages were organised forthe media (Vall d'Hebronand Montigalà) and one forreferees and judges (Parc deMar). In the photograph, acurious image of the roomsat the Vall d'HebronVillage.
In the contract signed in Lausanne on 17October 1986 by the IOC, the COE andthe Barcelona City Council, theOrganising Committee undertook toprovide accommodation for the OlympicFamily at as low a price as possible, to beset two years before the opening of theGames. The Olympic Family includeseveryone coming to Barcelona to takepart in the Games, whether directly(competitors, team officials, judges,referees and sports management) orindirectly (press, photographers, radioand TV broadcasters, technicians,sponsors and guests).
Moreover, the Olympic Charter makes itan obligation to house the competitors inan Olympic Village reserved exclusivelyfor them, though in the end, because ofthe location of the venues, three Villageswere provided by COOB'92. Moreover,the Lausanne contract contemplated thepossibility of providing a Media Village aswell and COOB'92 extended the idea tothe judges and referees. But all thatcovered only part of the accommodationrequirements; the rest had to be found atthe hotels available in the city.
This entire operation was theresponsibility of the two COOB'92divisions, Villages and Accommodation,which worked in close, permanentcooperation.
As we have said, the Olympic Charterprovided for an Olympic Village wherethe competitors could live during theGames. In Barcelona it was built inPoblenou, as explained in theCandidature Dossier, as part of thereconstruction of a new district on thereclaimed city sea front. At the same time,bearing in mind the distance between thecity and the venues for two of the sports innatural settings —wild water canoeing inLa Seu d'Urgell and rowing inBanyoles—, it was decided to open twomore Villages in those towns.
After the experience of Seoul and in viewof the lack of hotel rooms in Barcelona,there was a plan to organise two Villagesfor the media —in Vall d'Hebron andMontigalà— and one for the judges andreferees —the Parc de Mar Village—beside the Olympic Village.
Once the initial agreements with theadministration and the owners of thevarious property developments had beensigned and in order to have the fiveVillages ready for their guests, activitybegan on various fronts which werecommon to all the residences. First,agreements and contracts were drawn upwith the promoters to settle the terms ofthe cession of the residential complexes.Second, the space was shared out amongthe different departments which would beworking at the Village and the conversionworks which would turn empty,incomplete constructions into facilitiesappropriate for Olympic use and thespecific needs of the future residents wereassigned. Third, services were contractedfrom specialised companies to covercleaning and laundry and commercial,recreational and cultural amenities. Inaddition, agreements were established forthe provision of religious services.
In the case of the Olympic Villages theOrganising Committee was in directcontact with the National OlympicCommittees (NOC) to plan the servicesthey would require and assign their placesof residence within each Village.Relations were also maintained with thepress agencies and the InternationalFederations (IF) for the organisation ofthe other Villages. To smoothcommunication between COOB'92 andthe NOCs visits to the Villages wereorganised and information bulletins, suchas the Chef de Mission Dossier,published.
At an early stage the requirements for therooms in the Villages which would be metby the promoters were defined; in short,they came down to avoiding bathroomswith direct entry from a bedroom (as therooms would be shared and access to thebathroom could not be limited), installingthe telephone and cable TV network,making master keys and equipping thebathrooms and cupboards with thenecessary accessories.
The precise conditions in which theapartments and premises would be cededto COOB'92 and returned afterwardswere negotiated with the promoters; thecost of possible repairs was assessed, thehandover dates and, in some cases, thepayments were fixed.
1 Introduction
The Villages
Agreements with the promoters
183
This process, which began in 1989, cameto a conclusion in 1991 with the signing ofthe agreements with the followingpromoters: at the Olympic Village, withVOSA-Vila Olímpica SA, NISA-NovaIcària SA, OMSA-Olympic Moll SA,Eurocity SA, Mapfre, Generalitat ofCatalonia-Catalan Institute of Health andArchbishopric of Barcelona; at Montigalà,with Montigalà SA and Levitt Bosch-Aymerich SA, at Vall d'Hebron, withUTE Coisa-Conycon; at Parc de Mar withMediterrània de Promotions SA; atBanyoles, with Consorci de la VilaOlímpica de Banyoles SA, and at La Seud'Urgell, with La Instruction Popular SA.
Space distribution and adaptationworks
At the outset the Villages Division made alist of requirements for the differentservices (security, transport, catering andaccommodation, among others) and
began to draft the basic projects indicatingthe furnishings, lighting, air-conditioningand the electricity, water, telephone,computer signal and cable TV networksfor each place.
Coordination meetings attended byrepresentatives of all the departmentsinvolved in a project (security, technology,accreditations, transport, medical care andsports, among others) were held to givethe green light. The next step was to draftthe executive projects with the help of anoutside engineering company. Contractsfor the conversion works were signed withthe most suitable firms.
From January 1992, as soon as eachVillage had a technical team in charge, theworks were supervised and manageddirectly from the departments responsiblefor each aspect.
As the works were finished, themaintenance teams went into action.
View of part of the OlympicVillage in Barcelona,showing the differentarchitectural styles of thebuildings. Between 1989 and1991 COOB'92 signedagreements with theadministrations and theowners of the propertydevelopments setting theterms and conditions for thecession of apartments andpremises to the Olympicorganisation.
The Team'92 restaurant areaat the Barcelona OlympicVillage. In 1989, theVillages Division drafted thebasic space distribution andconversion projects for theVillages, which graduallytook shape until theexecutive projects wereproduced.
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1 2184
The Villages operationsplan, presented in July 1991,described the criteria andgeneral procedures andcalculated the human andtechnological resourcesnecessary for it to runsmoothly. From that plan,each Village, including Valld'Hebron (3) and Montigalà(4), drafted its ownterritorial operations planand the calendar for itsimplementation.
Given the extremely tight time limits inwhich the works on the Villages had to becompleted, adaptation and maintenanceoverlapped. The maintenance servicefunctioned 24 hours a day during the 33operational days of the BarcelonaOlympic Village and performed over6,300 operations, from opening locks forresidents who had mislaid their keys torepairing leaks and rescuing peopletrapped in lifts. The last phase consistedof the dismantling of the furnishings andthe installations in order to return thebuildings to their owners in the conditionagreed.
The planning and organisation modelfor the Villages
From the preliminary project drafted inJuly 1989 and the organisation projectsand the first organisation charts of July1990, the organisation structure, thedivision into departments, the functions of
each group and the numbers of staffrequired were established in November ofthat year. The Operations Plan, presentedin July 1991, described the generalorganisation, criteria and procedures andcalculated the human and technologicalresources.
On 30 September 1991 the VillagesDivision moved into the Eurocity buildingin the Olympic Village. Theimplementation plan was presented at thesame time; it described step by step theactions that would have to be taken toconvert and furnish the premises, to bringin the staff and set the technologicalequipment in motion. Then, the goodsand services supply contracts for all theVillages were finalised.
Next the services were contracted:cleaning (from a temporary consortium ofcompanies) and laundry, domesticfurnishings (rented), launderette,household electrical equipment (among
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43 185
others, from Philips), beds (from Flex)and office furniture (also rented).
Each Village developed its ownoperations and implementation plans andacquired greater autonomy as itsparticular needs emerged. From then onnew staff went directly to work at eachVillage and took on increasingly specificresponsibilities until the managementsteams for each unit were appointed andconfirmed in November 1991. In the samemonth direct contacts with the volunteersbegan; they were assigned to Villages,where they did general training coursesbefore being allocated to their particulardepartments, where each person in chargetook over the special training.
The hiring of staff for the VillagesDivision began in 1987 and by 199020 people were working in it. Over that
period the Division's responsibilitiescovered all the Villages. From 1991 morestaff were taken on and the responsibilitywas concentrated in the BarcelonaOlympic Village. At the end of 1991,27 people had been hired; the numberrose to 39 in January 1992, 64 inFebruary, 102 in March, 122 in April,245 in May, 482 in June and 680 in July.
The table shows the figures for humanresources at the Barcelona OlympicVillage by departments.
The Olympic Village was divided into twozones: the residential zone, where theapartments, offices and NOC medicalpremises were located; and theinternational zone, which included theshopping centre, the beaches, the marineparade, the Olympic Harbour jetty andmost of the common services.
Management
Protocol
Security and protection
Internal security
Training centres
Press centre
Concessions
RTV centre
Staff
Administration
Information
Accommodation
Religious services
Culture and recreation
Catering
Adaptation and maintenance
Materials management
Computers
Telecommunications
Ceremonies and public relations
Reception
NOC Services Centre
Accreditations
Transport
Medical services
Sports Information Centre
Pass management and left luggage
Hosts
Total
17
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
4
7
6
3
2
9
3
4
1
1
12
3
83
8
2
4
2
9
19
13
8
5
138
1
31
29
1
98
4
13
23
18
85
2
59
5
3
580
4
21
635
50
20
15
4
34
82
406
40
241
79
69
21
25
28
47
182
755
414
198
126
482
3,978
1
3
592
48
27
350
1
28
863
119
2,125
174
16
24
32
7
2
124
8
4
4,548
30
28
592
688
77
22
375
24
48
9
117
1,409
42
395
2,240
181
117
93
55
36
50
73
206
965
425
273
131
488
9,189
Human resources at the OlympicVillage
Human resources
The Barcelona Olympic Village
Perm. staff Temp. staff Volunteers External staff Total186
The apartments at theBarcelona Olympic Villagehoused between two andtwelve people, though mostof them were occupied by sixor eight residents.
The shopping centre at theBarcelona Olympic Villagewas run by El Corte Inglés.
Apart from the fact that for the first timein the history of the Games thecompetitors were offered freeaccommodation for eighteen days, one ofthe most innovatory aspects was theinstallation at all the Villages of residents'centres, where all the domestic services—maintenance, laundry, etc.— wereconcentrated. Besides their efficiency insolving most everyday problems, thecentres became meeting points whereresidents lived and breathed the Olympicatmosphere from day to day.
The commercial services available were ashopping centre (El Corte Inglés),photographic material (Kodak),hairdresser's, opticians (Bausch andLomb), sports footwear repairs (Asics),licensed material (Promovip),flowers, couriers, sales ofcommemorative stamps (the post office),news kiosk, travel agency,telephone booths (Telefónica) andbanks (Banesto).
The cultural and recreational activitieshad the support of the Cultural Olympiadand the sponsorship of some companies,such as the ones providing the videogames and bowling alleys.
Accommodation
The apartments at the OlympicVillage held between two and twelvepeople; most were occupied by six oreight. The bedrooms were usually twin.The beds measured 190 x 90 cm andcould be extended by 20 or 40 cm.Beside each bed there was a tableand a lamp. The wardrobes had tenhangers for each resident and therewas at least one bathroom forfour people.
The kitchen and washing areas were notaccessible, as the residents had a freerestaurant service 24 hours a day andcommon launderette areas.
1, 3 and 4
2
1 2 4
3
187
12345
678
910111213141516171819
1
2345678
Olympic Village
General planEntrancesReception centreCeremonies SquareJetty restaurantShopping centre and mainrestaurantOrganisation buildingPolyclinicSecurity and technology centreand meeting roomsSports facilitiesStaff changing roomAbraham religious centreBus poolOrganisation restaurantGoods transfer areaAthletics trackDiscoParc de les DunesBeachesSponsors' areas
Residents centreZone manager and assistant'sofficeWashing and drying areaLounge and waiting roomAdministrationPublic telephonesDrinks dispenserStoreCA TV rooms
188
The room also contained a dining tableand chairs and easy chairs for all theoccupants. There was a TV table withsocket; the television sets and videoscould be rented on request through thechef de mission.
The rooms for the chefs de mission of thesmaller delegations —the ones with amaximum of 25 competitors— had a safe,television, fridge, desk and lamp,armchair, intercom telephone with anoptional outside line, flag stand,typewriter, waste paper basket and filingcabinet.
The rooms were cleaned every daybetween 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. The bed linenwas changed every four days and thetowels —one bath and one hand towel perperson— every two days; in any case, theresidents could change them at any timeat the residents' centre. Altogether225,000 kilograms of clothes, 137,000items of bed linen and 310,000 towelswere washed.
There were 21 residents' centres aroundthe Olympic Village with a freelaunderette, drier and iron, lounge withtelevision, public coin or cardtelephone boxes, indoor games, softdrinks and an Olympic Familyinformation terminal. Each centreprovided for 680 residents.
Besides these centres there was aninformation desk manned by volunteersconnected to the maintenance and towelchanging services. Ten of the centres wereopen 24 hours a day and the others from6.00 to 22.00.
In the catering area, the competitors andteam officials staying at the OlympicVillage had a wide choice of foodsupplied by the main restaurant and theones along the Olympic Harbour jetty, inaddition to a packed lunch service for thecompetition venues. The supplyincluded breakfast, lunch and dinner anda limited service with a narrower rangeof dishes 24 hours a day. The restaurants
Surface areas and other data for theOlympic Village adaptation
Total surface area of the precinct
Residential area
Public parks
Roads and pavements
Beaches and jetties
Interior gardens
Flower beds
Commercial area
Offices
Car pool
Bus pool
Goods transfer area
Outdoor disco
Sports facilities
Polyclinic
Abraham religious centre
Canteen and service lines (3,500 places)
Restaurant (store area)
Restaurant (cooking and washing area)
Restaurant (staff canteen)
Staff changing rooms
720,000 m2
280,000 m2
182,000m2
155,000m2
86,000 m2
60,000 m2
15,200 m2
53,200 m2
27,700 m2
23,000 m2
11 ,900 m2
7,700 m2
6,000 m2
4,723 m2
3,300 m2
2,285 m2
8,500 m2
20,000 m2
4,000 m2
400 m2
750 m2
UnitsSurface area
Trees
Pass controls
Bay controls
Gates
5 x 5 m tents
3 x 3 m tents
2,800
26
11
13
23
22
189
190
1
23456789
1011121314151617181920
2122
232425262728
29303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253
545556575859
6061626364656667686970717273
Olympic Village
Residential areaPass control from internationalzone to residential zoneResidents' centresCommon medical servicesNOC headquartersTelevision roomsVideo games roomsViewing roomHairdressersLibrary and magazine libraryMusic libraryCOOB'92 licensed materialShoe repairsMinicircuit roomGames roomBankCinemaVolunteer services centreMusic barBilliards and bowlingExhibition hall and videocinemasParalympics informationFoundation for Hospital Artspainting exhibitionAMIC terminalsInformationWelcome ceremoniesPermanent exhibitionCash pointFlower shop
Main centreTelephone kiosksPress and publicationsInformation and lost propertyMeeting pointCompetitors commissionIOC officeOlympic Museum standPost and telegraph officeTravel agencyCourier serviceBankPhotographic exhibitionPhotographic material salesAMIC terminalsComplaints officeEye testing centreLeft luggageShopsSports Information CentreComputer maintenanceReprographics centreNOC Services CentreEntrance to canteenMeeting roomsRadio hams room
Main restaurantKitchenDay storeWashing areasService linesCompetitors' canteenCatering staff canteen
Reception centreVehicle requestsCar pool exitPass managementReceptionAccreditations managementAccreditations roomAccreditations waiting roomGuests' pass managementOlympic Radio and TelevisionPress centreCar poolProtocol roomPress roomReception room
191
on the jetty served paella, pizza, tapasand fruit.
The catering services are explained indetail in Chapter 8 of this volume.
Transport
Transport to the venues was covered by ashuttle service from the Olympic Villagescheduled according to the competitiontimetables. Teams were provided with abus service. The training facilities wereserved by a similar arrangement. All theservices stopped at different pointsaround the Village.
Inside the Village there were two lines:one around the international zone and theother around the residential zone.
Communication and information
The Village had telephone services,AMIC (Multiple Access to Information
and Communication) terminals,information points and a telephoneinformation service.
The telephone boxes at the OlympicVillage had lines for local, domestic andinternational calls and facilities forsending telegrams, telex and fax. Therewere 70 boxes in the streets of the Villageand 80 inside the buildings.
The operators at the Olympic Villageexchange, which covered the whole Parcde Mar Area, handled a total of 129,923calls.
The AMIC was one of the systems bywhich the residents could obtain up todate information about the Games. Thelarger delegations, 50 and above, had theirown offices with one or two terminalsaccording to the number of members.
Four information kiosks were installed:two were devoted exclusively to
The Villages had AMICterminals (3), informationpoints (2 and 4) and atelephone informationservice. The switchboardoperators at the BarcelonaOlympic Village handled130,000 calls.
There were telephone officesat each Village for domesticand international calls andfor sending telegrams, telexand fax.
1
2, 3 and 4
1 2 3192
The religious services centreat the Barcelona OlympicVillage, the AbrahamCentre, was a large churchwhich could be used byfollowers of Buddhism,Catholicism, Islam, Judaismand Protestantism. Inaddition, each religion hadits own special area.
tourist information and the other twowere general; at one of them the lostproperty service was centralised.The languages used were Catalan,Spanish, French, English, German andItalian.
Access to the telephone informationservice could be made from any of theintercom phones around the Village or bydialling the service number from theoutside line phones. The servicefunctioned round the clock in Catalan,Spanish, French, English and German andfrom 7.00 to 23.00 also in Korean,Cantonese, Mandarin, Japanese,Portuguese and Russian.
Medical services
The Olympic Village was equipped with apolyclinic, open from 11 July to 12August, with a 24 hour a day emergencyand pharmacy service. It provided internalmedicine, sports medicine, traumatology,
ophthalmology, ear, nose and throat,dentistry, chiropody, optimetry andrehabilitation. The other specialities wereattended at the Olympic Hospital(Hospital del Mar) just 300 metres fromthe main gate of the Village.
5 and 6
4 5
6
193
Religious services
The planning of the religious services wasbased on an observation of the SeoulGames by the Archbishopric ofBarcelona. That initiative prompted theconstitution of the Religious ServicesAdvisory Council with representativesfrom each major religion.
The Archbishopric of Barcelona tookcharge of the construction of theAbraham Centre, which contained a largechurch for the celebration of serviceswhich could be used by followers ofBuddhism, Catholicism, Islam, Judaismand Protestantism. Each religion also hadits own space.
The three main activities of the AbrahamCentre were the services, the pastoral careand the complementary and parallelactivities, such as discussion groups,exhibitions and lectures.
Commercial services
There was a branch of the Banco Españolde Crédito (Banesto) in the Village whichprovided the usual banking services:foreign exchange, opening accounts,cashing and depositing cheques andtransfers.
The post office provided the followingservices, among others: sales of stamps,express parcel service, post and telegraphgiro, collection and delivery of post at theVillage and the sale of commemorativemedals.
The Village shopping centre had a travelagency selling tours and tickets. Therewere also clothes shops, shoe shops,perfumery, small household electricalgoods, sports material, stationery,books, sweets and chocolate,Barcelona'92 licensed articles, dry-cleaning and pressing, international newskiosk, flower shop, photographic
All the Villages had leisureareas and cultural andrecreational services for theresidents. In thephotographs, a terrace andthe billiards room at theParc de Mar Village.
At the Barcelona OlympicVillage there were eightgames rooms with videogames, billiards, tabletennis, pinball machines,table football, bowling,darts and board games.
On 8 July, when a group ofreporters visited theBarcelona Olympic Village,there were variousperformances of streettheatre.
1 and 2
3
4
1 2 4
3
194
equipment, hairdresser's, optician's,sports footwear and tickets for thecompetitions.
Cultural and recreational services
The Olympic Village had a library withbooks and magazines in various languageswhich held 130 people. It also had softdrinks dispensers.
There were four cinemas showing films inthe official languages of the Games. Therewas also a video library with twelve roomsfor recording and watching the sportsevents, viewing rooms for four people anda few more with a large screen which heldtwenty or thirty.
The residents also had a record librarywhere they could listen to music or watchmusical videos.
The outdoor disco held over 1,500 peopleand was the setting for several live
performances. Only non-alcoholic drinkswere served. It also had a games room.The music bar, which held 150, also hadlive groups.
Around the Village there were eightgames rooms with video games, billiards,table tennis, pinball machines, miniaturefootball, bowling alleys, darts and boardgames.
The Village was also equipped with asports centre and an athletics track.
Services for the National OlympicCommittees
The services which would be provided forthe NOCs were decided at the beginning:office space and equipment according tothe number of members of eachdelegation, spaces for each committee'smedical services, stores, vehicles and hostsassigned to each delegation.
12345
6789
NOC headquarters
General servicesChef de missionAssistant chef de missionWork roomMultipurpose roomHosts
Medical servicesSurgeryConsulting roomExamination cubicleMassage room
195
Administrative services also had to beprovided and the procedures prior to thearrival of the delegations established. TheNOCs had to be kept constantly informedand the apartments and premises for eachdelegation set aside.
In April 1992 the number ofparticipants had to be negotiated with theNOCs in an attempt to reduce the totalfrom the over 19,000 entered to 15,000(the number on which the planning hadbeen based).
The NOC Services Centre handledmeeting room bookings, provided officeservices (photocopies, typing andtranslation) and equipment hire, receivedcorrespondence, sold tickets for thecompetitions, dealt with requests forpasses for guests and checked the state ofthe committees' accounts. The officeservices, hire of apparatus andequipment, meal vouchers and ticketshad to be paid for.
One of the Olympic Village buildings hadmeeting rooms for the delegations. Therewere 7 rooms for 12 people, 3 for 16, 3 for36 and 1 for 80.
Among the apparatus and equipment forhire were televisions, videos, faxmachines, photocopiers, typewriters,fridges, coffee machines, walkie-talkies,fans, tables, chairs, filing cabinets andsafes.
The NOCs could reserve tickets up to 15June 1991; during the Games they wereallocated a special quota.
To admit guests the chefs de mission hadto present a list for the day in advance atthe Services Centre. The maximum dailynumber was set according to the numberof members of the NOC at a ratio of 2 foreach 25 competitors.
The delegations had their own officesaccording to the number of members: the
The Olympic Villages hadself-service launderettes forthe residents. In thephotograph, the launderetteat the Olympic Village inBanyoles.
The 70 public telephones inthe streets of the BarcelonaOlympic Village were for theuse of the residents and staff.There were a further 80boxes at the sites.
2
1
1 2196
The Olympic Village inBanyoles, where thecompetitors and officials ofthe rowing competitionstayed, had reception,accreditation, catering andrecreational services similarto those at the BarcelonaOlympic Village and regulartransport to and fromBarcelona.
chefs de mission of the delegations withfewer than 25 had items of officeequipment in the lounge of theirapartments, as explained in detail above.The offices of each NOC were on theground floor of the blocks of apartmentswhich had been assigned to them or inadjacent buildings.
There were five medical centres aroundthe Olympic Village with surgeries,examination cubicles and massage rooms.Each one was shared by different NOCsaccording to a preset timetable. Thedelegations with more than twenty-fivemembers had medical premises besidetheir offices.
In addition to the hosts at the OlympicVillage, who were there to provideassistance for the residents, eachdelegation had a number assigned to takecharge of accreditation and registrationformalities, transport procedures,information about the functioning of the
Village, coordination of the sports(venues and competition and trainingtimes), general information, culturalprogrammes and miscellaneousprocedures; in short, their function was toact as liaison between the members of thedelegations and COOB'92.
Space was reserved for each NOC to storeequipment in the basements of thebuildings occupied by the delegation ornearby.
Each NOC had a vehicle for the use of thepresident and the secretary general, aswell as cars and minibuses according tothe number of competitors.
There was a restaurant service for thedelegations which wanted to lay on areception or cocktail party; it included theroom, the waiters and canapes or foodand drinks. The expenses were paid byeach committee.
3 and 4
3 4 197
The Sports Information Centre (CIE)provided the team leaders with variousservices, among them information abouttraining and competition timetables, listsof participants and printouts of thecompetition results.
The Centre also managed bookings fortraining times and transport to thecompetition venues and training facilities.It also dealt with complaints aboutsporting matters.
The Olympic Villages in Banyolesand La Seu d'Urgell
The Banyoles Olympic Village was besidethe lake where the rowing competitionswere held, 130 kilometres from Barcelona.As with La Seu d'Urgell —178 kilometresfrom Barcelona— where the wild watercanoeing competitions were held, thedistance justified having independentVillages to avoid long journeys to andfrom the venues.
The capacity of the Banyoles Village was1,012 places for the competitors andofficials of the rowing events. Theresidential zone was next to the swimmingclub where the boats were kept. TheVillage was open from 11 July to 5August.
There was a transport service on arrivaland departure between Barcelona andGirona airports and Banyoles. A busservice linked the Village with thefinishing area at the competition venue.There were two departures to Barcelonaeach morning and two returns in theafternoon.
Registration, accommodation,accreditation and the services provided—including food— were similar to theBarcelona Olympic Village, with thenatural differences arising from thesmaller number of residents. That wasalso the case with the Village in La Seud'Urgell.
The Banyoles OlympicVillage was near the lakewhere the rowingcompetitions were held,beside the swimming club.
La Seu d'Urgell Village, 178km from Barcelona, washome to the competitors andofficials in the wild watercanoeing events.
1 and 2
3
1 2
3
198
The Parc de Mar Village,where the referees and judgeslived, occupied two blocksnext to the BarcelonaOlympic Village. The greenzones were the scene for theleisure activities and thecommercial zones andcommon services were onthe ground floor of thebuildings.
With a capacity for 300 residents, La Seud'Urgell Village was home to thecompetitors in the wild water canoeingevents and the team officials. It was openfrom 11 July to 6 August.
On both arrival and departure there was atransport service from Barcelona airport;there was also a heliport. A bus servicesconnected the Village with thecompetition canal and the trainingfacilities. As with Banyoles, there was adaily bus service to Barcelona.
The Parc de Mar Village, for the judgesand referees, occupied two blocks next tothe Olympic Village, with green zones inthe middle. With the commercial area onthe ground floor, they were the scene forthe recreational activities and thedifferent Village services. Block 1consisted of 21 apartments and 18premises and Block 2 of 184 apartments
and 26 premises. There were a maximumof five apartments in each block.
The services provided were similar to theOlympic Village and the apartments wereequipped to the same standards of quality.
The Vall d'Hebron Media Villageoperated like a large hotel, with a capacityfor 2,200 residents in 489 apartments,339 of which were equipped withair-conditioning. The apartments were anew promotion. The promoter leased theinstallations (apartments, premises andbasements) to COOB'92 from 1 April to31 October; they were adapted forOlympic use over that period.The total built surface area was95,420 m2 (of which 58,375 m2 wereapartments).
The apartments were functionally butcomfortably furnished. In the living room
4 and 5
The Vall d'Hebron Village
The Parc de Mar Village
54 199
there was a fridge, a coffee machine and atelevision with seven regular and sixteencable channels.
Like the Olympic Villages, the Valld'Hebron Village provided residents witha series of services, from reception andinformation to a press centre, notforgetting laundry and cleaning, catering,transport, medical and commercialservices.
The Montigalà Village
The Montigalà Village, also designed forthe media, was situated in the Batllòria-Montigalà estate between Badalona andthe Marina hills on 200 ha of land.On 1 January 1992 the promoters cededthe apartments and commercial premisesto COOB'92 so that they could beadapted for the Olympics. The Villagehad a capacity for 5,366 residentsdistributed in 3,628 rooms (1,890 single
and 1,738 double) in 842 apartments and56 houses.
The Village was divided into two zones.The first was formed of six blocksenclosed by five-storey buildings withinterior gardens, with four nine-storeybuildings at the ends. The second was alarger block with a big interior gardenconsisting of blocks of six-storey buildingsbeyond which there were two rows with56 houses with outside terrace and garden.These two built-up areas were separatedby a central passage which was used forcommon activities and where the musicbar was installed.
To make travelling easier for theresidents, a small train which held 60passengers ran around the Village. Therewere also 500 trolleys for carrying luggageand technical equipment. The 2.5kilometre perimeter of the Village wascontrolled by a double sensitized fencewith closed circuit television.
Occupation of the Olympic Village200
The Montigalà Village,assigned to the media, hadtwo residential zonesseparated by a centralpassage with the commonactivities and the music bar.
The Vall d'Hebron Villagewas a group of newbuildings with large gardens.
Occupation of the Villages
The Barcelona Olympic Village, with amaximum capacity of 14,000 residents,received a total of 14,406 at various times.The maximum number at any one timewas 13,394.
At the Parc de Mar Village, with acapacity of 1,600, the total was 1,510and the maximum at any one timewas 1,425.
At the Village in La Seu d'Urgell, whichhad been designed for 300, there wereeventually 187 residents, with a maximumat any one time of 178, and in Banyoles,with a capacity of 1,012, the total was 879(with a maximum of 863 at the sametime).
The Montigalà Village had a capacityfor 5,366; in the end the total came to4,462, with a maximum of 3,902 at any
one time. Lastly, at the Vall d'HebronVillage, which had space for 2,200,there were 1,912 journalists; themaximum number at the same timewas 1,748.
The table on page 200 shows a summaryof the day to day occupation at theBarcelona Olympic Village.
As explained in more detail in Volume IVof this Report, the functioning of theVillages and the degree of satisfaction ofthe occupants were very positive. Theproximity to the sea in the case of theBarcelona Village and the privilegedlocation of the others, near to thecompetition venues with excellenttransport connections, and the highstandards of quality of the servicesprovided by the members of theorganisation for the residents weredecisive in achieving such a favourableresult.
1
2
1 2 201
1
One of the outstandingnovelties of Barcelona'92, asfar as accommodation wasconcerned, were the floatinghotels in the port ofBarcelona.
Hotels and ships
Planning
The first task of the AccommodationDivision to ensure that it was on the righttrack was to make an estimate of thedemand for places which would bereceived by COOB'92, a study of thehotel rooms available in Barcelona(which had been seen to be inadequatesince the Candidature phase) and aproposal for possible solutions to increasesupply.
Estimating demand
For the purposes of access to theaccommodation reservation system theOlympic Family could be divided into tengroups: competitors and team officials;NOC, IF and IOC management; judgesand referees; COOB'92 and contractedcompany staff; radio and television withrights; press and photographers; guests ofassociate companies; guests of institutions;security staff; and observers. The first ofthese groups would be housed in theOlympic Villages and did not thereforepose any problems; for each of the others,however, their particular characteristicshad to be considered in terms of thenumber and category of places required.
The first calculations made it clear thatthere were over 45,000 people to beaccommodated; that there would be aneed for four and five star hotels and forefficient, cheap and comfortableaccommodation. Moreoveraccommodation had to be organised inthe subsites which were farthest away.The next step was to make contact witheach group and the IOC Press Office,which made it possible to define specificrequirements. The global figures whichhad been considered at the beginningwere not varied until later on when, withthe Games just around the corner, theprovisions for each group could be madeexact and some bookings were corrected—usually downwards—, which in the endmade it easier to meet the needs.
In terms of the services to be provided, itwas decided from the very beginning thatCOOB'92's involvement in the bookingprocess would be restricted to theOlympic Family, for two main reasons:first (partly because it is an obligationimposed by the Olympic Charter, but alsofor financial reasons), COOB'92
undertook the operation with no intentionof making a profit and had to concentrateperforce on the groups which were itsresponsibility by definition; second, thecountry's long experience of tourism wasa guarantee that the visitors would be welltreated without the need for any specialintervention by the organisers.
Increasing the available resources
The number of rooms available in hotelsin Barcelona was far lower than thedemand for places during the Games.Even if the existing infrastructure couldbe considered deficient, the Olympicperiod could not be considered as areflection of the permanent needs of thecity either; it was therefore necessary tothink about increasing the number ofhotel rooms, but also about adaptingother forms of accommodation speciallyfor the occasion.
The judges and referees and mediaVillages
As explained earlier in this chapter, threeVillages were built in addition to theOlympic Villages for competitors andteam officials: the Parc de Mar for judgesand referees and Montigalà and Valld'Hebron for the press and broadcasters.
The hotels
In 1989 there were just over 10,000 roomsin three, four or five star hotels inBarcelona in operation, underconstruction or at the planning stage.The prospect of the Games led the CityCouncil to approve a Hotels Planaccording to which eight new hotelswould be built, providing an additional2,635 rooms.
To ensure that the necessary number ofplaces would be available for the OlympicFamily, COOB'92 reached an agreementwith the Barcelona Hotels Association toreserve 80% of the available rooms, tounify prices by category, to defineminimum and complementary standardsof service and to set a fixed bookingperiod (the Olympic period) withpreliminary reservations for the nightsbefore the opening of the Games toencourage the staggering of arrivals.
For the hotel-keepers the agreementmeant guaranteed bookings, from themoment of signing, pre-payment andinteresting rates. The later development
1
203
of prices on the market and the rise in thevalue of the peseta led to final costs thatwere considered excessive, which meantthat in November 1991 the prices wererenegotiated with the Association, whichagreed on a 15% reduction in the cost ofsingle rooms.
At the same time the Olympicorganisation contracted the services ofone and two star hotels in Barcelona, onthe Maresme coast and in Salou,in addition to student residences andsimilar.
The ships
As a totally innovatory measure,COOB'92 also used luxury cruise linersanchored in the Port of Barcelona asfloating hotels. Because of the location,the number of places available and thestandards of service, the ships were mostsuitable for the guests of the associatecompanies of the Games. In this way, aswe shall explain in detail below, another
group of the Olympic Family wasaccommodated without taking up hotelresources.
The Olympic host
Another unique proposal which wasbrought into operation in the end was toaccommodate part of the Olympic Familyin private houses. The project wasmanaged through an agreement with theBarcelona'92 Hotel Union, a company setup by the Hotels Association. AsCOOB'92 was providing other services forthe Olympic Family (transport,information, medical care, etc.) as well asaccommodation, the grouping of theprivate residences around hotels made itpossible to overcome the logisticalproblems arising from the dispersion oflodgings.
The booking process
Once the objectives and the groups whichhad to be provided with services and
Barcelona
5* hotel de luxe
HQ hotel
5* hotel
4* hotel
3* hotel
2* and 1* hotel
Residences
"Olympic host"
Ships
Villages
Montigalà
Vall d'Hebron
Parc de Mar
Salou and surroundings
Hotels
Subsites
Hotels
Total
292
863
818
3,004
1,816
601
257
2,628
1,738
574
485
1,077
1,348
12
123
79
409
293
164
592
603
1,890
1,038
630
75
352
304
986
897
3,413
2,109
765
849
603
2,628
3,628
1,612
1,115
1,152
1,700
21,761
Rooms available for the OlympicFamily (except Olympic Villages)
Doublerooms
Singlerooms Total
204
The "HQ hotels", where themembers of the IOC stayed,were all in the DiagonalArea: the Hilton (2), theMelià Barcelona (3) and thePrincesa Sofia (4).
guaranteed accommodation had beenidentified, a long process began to ensurethat each person taking part in theOlympic Games would have a reservationmade before arrival.
The first allocation was made by groupingthe accommodation according to the typeof guest, the number of people per room,the services required and the logisticalproblems. Thus it was decided that themembers of the IOC would stay at threehotels in Barcelona (the so-called"headquarters hotels": Princesa Sofia,Hilton and Melià); the IF directors in fourstar hotels; the press, photographers andbroadcasters in three and four star hotels;and the guests of the sponsors on boardthe ships or in five star and luxury hotels.
This allocation set in motion a process ofconfirmation and adjustment whichremained valid until the end of theGames. All details of accommodation hadto be agreed with as many organisation aspossible; changes in requirements,
unsatisfied requests and newavailabilities had to be spotted; and, mostof all, there had to be an undertaking todeal with all matters arising. So thenumber of rooms, the category of thehotel and even the allocation of oneparticular hotel or another werenegotiated with each institution,organisation, company or group. Settingthis process in motion well ahead of timemade it possible to deal with mostrequests and readjustments, although overhalf the reservations underwent a changeof some kind.
Last came the process of obtaining detailsperson by person and room by room: thename of everyone to be accommodated,the arrival and departure dates and theroom they would be occupying had to beconfirmed so that registration could bemade firm to reduce the number ofchanges to a minimum. Thus in May, Juneand July 1992 there were about 300communications a day to make bookingsand adjustments.
For the first time in thehistory of the Games, theOlympic host project lodgedmembers of the OlympicFamily in private houses.The response from the peopleof the city was splendid andthe guests were delightedwith the arrangement.
1
2, 3 and 4
1 2 3
4
205
Economic management
The objective here was to prevent the costof the operation from exceeding thebudget; there was only a small reserve tocover non-payment and unoccupiedrooms.
Payments made to third partiesbefore the event amounted to6,885 million pesetas (for hotels,residences and Olympic friends); therewas also 2,215 million to be found for thesale of promotions in the Villages(Montigalà, Parc de Mar and Valld'Hebron); moreover, 1,436.6 million hadbeen invested in accommodation expensesfor COOB'92 itself, most of which hadgone to groups with the right to freeaccommodation (IF technical delegates,etc.) or at very low cost (presidents andsecretaries general of the IFs and theNOCs, etc.). It was thereforefundamental to establish a strictpolicy for planning and receivingpayments.
The keys to the good results of theeconomic management were basicallythese. First, the invoicing began as soon aspossible (the first bills were issued inFebruary 1991 and all debts fell duebefore 30 April 1992). Second, there waspermanent, uninterrupted contact withthe representatives of the customers toensure that the reservations correspondedto the updated requests, so that therewould be no problems when it came topaying. Last, a strict cancellations andpayment on arrival policy was established.As the groups which had outstandingpayments when they arrived in Barcelonawere asked to pay off the debt beforebeing accredited and taken to theiraccommodation, 1,402.7 million pesetaswas collected during the arrivals at theGames. It should be said that thesemeasures could be applied because thenumber of debts was small by the time theOlympic Family arrived.
In short, the success of the economicmanagement was based on an implicit
One of the first formalitiesto be completed by themembers of the OlympicFamily on arrival inBarcelona was checking intotheir accommodation. Thesmooth, comfortable way inwhich this process wascarried out was a decisiveelement in establishing agood image of Barcelonaand the Games organisation.
The hotels paid specialattention to all their guests.
1
2
1 2206
The hotels became centresfor channelling informationand services for the OlympicFamily.
90% of the 700 people whoworked on accommodationduring the Games werevolunteers.
agreement with the customers: they wereoffered a commitment that all problemswould be solved and maximum comfortguaranteed provided they kept in touchwith COOB'92 and observed the paymentdates; otherwise, their case would not begiven maximum priority. This meant thatat the end of the Games the outstandingdebt was only 100 million pesetas.
The operation
Objectives
The operations phase consisted ofproviding access to the accommodationreserved for the customers and solvingany problems arising from bookings.This phase was part of the Games arrivalsand was considered critical, as theOlympic Family's first impression ofBarcelona and the organisation woulddepend on how it functioned. For thisreason certain strategic options wereadopted.
First, the Organising Committee had tosolve the customer's problems right wherethey arose and prevent procedures andinformation from being centralised at asingle point; the accommodation staff hadto be at the airport, the Villages and thehotels and to count on a goodcommunications structure with a highdegree of independence. Secondly, therehad to be specialised staff capable ofsolving problems in a decentralisedsystem, which made it necessary for theteam to start work some months beforethe Games. Lastly, predictable incidentshad to be reduced to a minimum.
These objectives were set out in theTerritorial Operations AccommodationPlan which had to define the proceduresand resources to be used to meet allneeds. The Plan insisted on the fact thatthe customers had to receive permanentattention at the hotels themselves; in thisway, they became centres for channellinginformation and services for the OlympicFamily. Moreover, it proposed the
3
4
43 207
coordination of the variousaccommodation centres through thefigure of the "person in charge of thegroup", which meant that the same peoplewho had dealt with each customer becamea second level for handling any incidentswhich might arise. Lastly, the Plan defineda last level of coordination located at thereservation exchange management whichwas structured by areas of responsibility.
Human resources
To make sure that the system functionedproperly a large number of staff wererequired. Of the total of 700 people whoworked on accommodation tasks duringthe Games, 90% were volunteers. Toguarantee the optimum training of thisbranch of the staff, a programme wasdesigned to recruit people from theschools of tourism in Barcelona. Thestudents who joined the programmefollowed a special training course and didcomplementary practice which was of
great value to their studies, besides givingthem an opportunity to work on theBarcelona'92 organisation.
Functioning during the Games
The efforts made to keep in constanttouch with all the sectors involved inaccommodation meant that the vastmajority of reservations could be madebefore the arrival of the guests and for thenumber of incidents was far smaller thanexpected. The cases in which theaccommodation was rejected were fewand far between.
The activity of the accommodation staffwas intense during the days when theOlympic Family arrived in large numbers,especially concerning occupation controland payment of outstanding debts.Throughout the operation, activity wascentred at the hotels which provided theservices for the Olympic Family.
The information desks ateach hotel dealt withincidents on the spot as theyarose.
1 and 2
1 2208
The Olympic Family hadaccess from the hotels to theservices of the AMIC andDOCUMENT systems.
4 and 5At the hotel Princesa Sofía,the IOC had meeting rooms(4) and offices, like this onefor the president, JuanAntonio Samaranch (5).
One of the Olympic Familyservices to be centralised atthe hotels was transport.
The project to use a number of ships asfloating hotels over a period of eighteendays, which had already been mentionedin the Candidature Dossier, had noprecedent on a similar scale anywhere inthe world.
The operation provided for sixteen ships,which would be home to the guests ofCOOB'92 and the sponsor companies ofthe Games. However, the increase in thesupply of hotel accommodation made itpossible to reduce the scope of theoperation to ten and the customers, in theend, were only the guests of the sponsors.
In March 1990 the two agreementsmaking the project viable were signed: theone between COOB'92 and the Port ofBarcelona, which reserved the quayswhere the ships would moor, and the onewith the Customs Authority whichallowed the ships to be temporarilyimported free of tax.
The preparation phase
In 1991 the details of the project werefilled in, both for the construction andconversion works in the port and thestrategies which were to be followed. Forthis purpose three sectors weredistinguished: the residents (the guests ofthe associate companies who would spenda minimum of one night aboard ship, notcounting the crew), the guests (includingeveryone who went aboard withoutspending the night) and the operators(the crews, the consignees, the suppliers,the COOB'92 and port security staff, etc.).
For the residents and guests COOB'92dealt exclusively with the people in chargeof the hospitality programme of eachsponsor. For the operators thefundamental figure was the consignee,who took direct charge of therequirements of the ships (supplies,routine port services, etc.). The reductionin the number of intermediaries wascentral to the success of the planning and
3
6
The ships
3 4 5
6
209
123
456789
10111213
14151617181920212223242526
Port of Barcelona
Access to the precinctPedestriansVehiclesVehicles
ShipsBerlinGolden OdysseyChrystal HarmonyRoyal Viking SunDaphneSea Godness IIVistafjordSeabourn SpiritCunard PrincessClub Med 1
PavilionsRank XeroxSeatCoca-ColaMarsNBCIBMChannel 7Time3MKodakCampofríoAlcatelOfficial French delegation
210
27282930313233343536373839
4041
Parking spacesRank XeroxSeatCoca-ColaMarsNBCIBMChannel 7Time3MKodakCampofríoAlcatelOfficial French delegation
OrganisationCO OB '92 services centreOperations centre
the operation, which was carried on incoordination with the Barcelona PortAuthority through a liaison committee.
Requirements and services
The permanent contact with therepresentatives of the different groupsand a study commissioned inOctober 1990 made it possible todetermine precise requirements and theservices that had to be provided. Therequirements were extensive and weregrouped in five projects: infrastructures(which would take care of theestablishment of the COOB'92port area, the preparation of the quaysand the marquees for the receptionsgiven by each sponsor —a key point—,lighting and waste water disposal),telecommunications, security (on land, atsea and at the access points), image andaccommodation.
Construction work on the elementsprovided for by the different projects was
carried out in the first four months of1992.
The operations phase
To carry out the operation a team of280 people was required, 250 of whomwere volunteers. Their job consisted ofensuring that everything went off withoutincidents.
Each sponsor's hospitality teams tookcharge of organising the receptions andparties on board ship and coordinated thecomings and goings of the guests who, ingeneral, changed every four or five days.The shipping company consignees, fortheir part, guaranteed the supplies and theport services. Thus the task of the peoplein charge of the unit centred onorganisational coordination and generalservices.
Among the outstanding aspects of theoperation were the personal and vehiclepass controls (public or private transport
Ships moored in the Port ofBarcelona
1 Vistafjord
2 Cunard Princess
3 Sea Goddess II
4 Royal Viking Sun
5 Golden Odyssey
6 Seabourn Spirit
7 Daphne
8 Chrystal Harmony
9 Berlin
10 ClubMed1
Total
Cunard
Cunard
Cunard
Royal Viking Line
Royal Cruise Line
Seabourn Cruises
Costa Crociere
Chrystal Cruises
Peter Deilmann
Club France
387
399
59
370
223
102
205
480
210
193
2,628
Time
Kodak, Campofrío, Alcatel
Channel 7
NBC
SEAT
3M
IBM
Coca-Cola, Mars
Rank Xerox
Delegación oficial francesa
From 23-7
From 23-7
From 23-7
From 23-7
From 24-7
From 25-7
From 21 -7
From 23-7
From 21 -7
From 24-7
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
10-8 1992
10-8 1992
10-8 1992
10-8 1992
11-8 1992
10-8 1992
10-8 1992
10-8 1992
13-8 1992
9-8 1992
Ship Shipping company Number of cabins User Period of operation 211
without a pass was not allowed into theport area reserved for COOB'92); thenumber of vehicle passes was restricted to500 to guarantee traffic flow and accesscontrol.
The permanent security and maintenanceof the installations were two of the keys tothe smooth running of the floating hotels.But most of all the decisive factors werehaving done the planning well in advanceand the constant coordination with thesponsors, as well as the decision tocentralise accreditation control and toestablish a general operationalframework, leaving the management ofthe quay for its ship to each sponsorcompany.
Summary
The final balance for accommodation inhotels and on board ships as well as inprivate houses (the "Olympic host") waspositive. In this field the experience of theCompetitions'91 was crucial, as it made itpossible to introduce significantmodifications to the previous planning; sowas the observation of the WinterOlympic Games in Albertville. Thanks tothat, most of the efforts could beconcentrated on three aspects which, inthe end, were fundamental: theimportance of solving problems on thespot, coordination of the hotels throughpeople in charge of groups (who were theusers' permanent intermediaries) andpayment of debts before the arrival of theguests.
The innovations introduced for theBarcelona'92 accommodation model alsoscored a remarkable success. The Olympichost programme was very well received bythe people of the city and the service was
The COOB'92 area at thePort of Barcelona providedcommon services for theguests staying aboard theships moored in the harbour.
Each sponsor had a pavilionfor organising activities.
1 and 2
3
1 2
3
212
The use of floating hotels asaccommodation centres washighly appreciated by theassociate companies, both interms of the optimallocation of the port and thequality of the servicesprovided by the liners.
to the satisfaction of the users (the"Olympic friends"). The use of floatinghotels in the port, in turn, was highlyappreciated by the sponsors; if at firstthere was a certain reticence, in the endthe festive side of the operation (after all,the guests were living aboard a cruise ship
and visiting the site of the OlympicGames) became a bonus added to thequality of the service provided and theoptimal location of the port, next to thehistoric centre of Barcelona and theOlympic Ring.
4 and 5
4 5 213
1
The International YouthCamp (IYC) was set up atthe College of Sant Ignasibelonging to the Jesuits ofSarrià.
The Barcelona'92 International YouthCamp was the eleventh in Olympichistory. It offered the greatest diversity inthe number of NOCs represented (67),but also had the smallest number ofparticipants (497, between 18 and22 years old). If the participation of somany NOCs was the fruit of the effortsof the organisers and the strictimplementation of the process ofallocation of places by quotas, the limit tothe number of visitors was largely aconsequence of the problems of finding alocation for the Camp.
The organisation and functioning of theCamp is described in Volume IV. Theexplanation here is centred on theaccommodation aspects: the choice,adaptation and resources of the placewhere the young people stayed.
During the Candidature phase, when itwas proposed to organise an InternationalYouth Camp during the Games, theBarcelona City Council intended tolocated it at the Liars Mundet, to beprepared as a huge youth hostel whichcould also be used after the Games. Theproject, however, turned out to beunviable, and the next suggestion was touse the former Hospital de Sant Llàtzer(the property of the Hospital de la SantaCreu i de Sant Pau). Then there was theidea of tents on the campus of theAutonomous University of Barcelona inBellaterra in order to take advantage ofthe student canteens and some of theservices and sports facilities, but thatoption involved security problems and thelocation was far from Barcelona.
Given that it was impossible to build anew facility and there was no site in thecity large enough for the purpose whichcould be adequately prepared for the
International Youth Camps andparticipants Stockholm
Berlin
Helsinki
Rome
Tokyo
Mexico City
Munich*
Montreal
Moscow
Seoul
Barcelona
1912
1936
1952
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1988
1992
5
23
17
5
23
19
45
44
54
43
67
1,200
700
3,000
1,250
1,018
819
1,514
907
1,085
882
497
12-18
15-18
16-22
14-18
15-25
15-25
17-20
17-20
18-22
18-22
18-22
*ln addition to the IYC, Munich organised an International Student Camp in which 418 young people aged between 20 and
25 took part, and a Young Sailors' Camp (with the HQ in Kiel, where the yachting events of those Games were held), in
which 264 yachtsmen and women took part.
1 The locationThe International Youth Camp
City Year NOCs Participants Age 215
occasion, COOB'92 had to opt for anproject which was ambitious in terms ofquality and services and diverse in termsof participation, although of necessitysmall in terms of the number of people. Itwas then that the idea of using thebuildings of the Sant Ignasi Jesuit Collegein Sarrià was mooted; they were suitable,accessible and ideal for the kind of campthat COOB'92 wanted to organise.
On 25 April 1991 an agreement wassigned with the Company of Jesus cedingthe college buildings and facilities toCOOB'92 in return for no considerationother than a few improvements to thesports grounds. The adaptation of thecollege for the Camp was undertaken byCOOB'92.
The adaptation
COOB'92 considered the Camp as onemore Village and therefore the adaptationproject and its implementation were the
responsibility of the Villages Division,within which the IYC Departmentoperated. The differences with the otherVillages, however, meant that the IYCteam managed the contracts andsupervised the adaptation works directly.
Once the basic adaptation project and theapartment implementation plan (whichdetailed the furnishings, decoration andequipment for the accommodation areasin the IYC) had been approved, workbegan on the organisation of the camp. Asit was special, the IYC team had to takecharge of the preparation of the computerprogrammes which were to manage theaccommodation and activities, thetelephone project and the design andexecution of the look and signposting.
The loan of the facilities by the Jesuitscould not become effective until the endof the academic year, 25 June 1992, but itwas possible to start on some of theadaptation works beforehand. Preciseprogramming and coordination of the
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
AND
ANT
ASA
AUS
AUT
BEL
BER
BIZ
BRN
BUL
CAN
CAF
CAY
CHI
CHN
CRO
CUB
CYP
DEN
ECU
EGY
ESA
ESP
EST
EUN
FIN
FRA
GBR
GER
GRE
GUM
HKG
HUN
IRL
Andorra
Antigua
American Samoa
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bermuda
Belize
Bahrain
Bulgaria
Canada
Central Africa
Cayman Islands
Chile
People's Republic of China
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Denmark
Ecuador
Arab Republic of Egypt
El Salvador
Spain
Estonia
Unified Team
Finland
France
Great Britain
Alemania
Germany
Guam
Hong Kong
Hungary
Ireland
2
6
2
8
8
8
2
2
2
6
12
4
2
2
4
2
2
2
8
1
5
1
44
2
2
8
22
20
45
7
2
4
8
4
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
ISR
ISV
ITA
JAM
JPN
KOR
KSA
LIE
LUX
MEX
MLT
MOZ
NED
NGR
NOR
NZL
OMA
PER
PHI
POL
POR
QAT
ROM
SLO
SUD
SUI
SUR
SWE
TCH
TPE
TUR
UAE
USA
Total
Israel
Virgin Islands
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Korea
Saudi Arabia
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Mexico
Malta
Mozambique
Netherlands
Nigeria
Norway
New Zealand
Oman
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Romania
Slovenia
Sudan
Switzerland
Surinam
Sweden
Czech and Slovak Fed. Rep.
Chinese Taipei
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
United States of America
4
4
20
2
20
17
4
2
4
19
2
4
6
9
7
8
4
4
9
4
12
2
5
2
5
8
1
8
8
4
7
4
19
497
Participants in the InternationalYouth Camp
NOC Participants NOC Participants216
The number of young peopletaking part in theBarcelona'92 Youth Campwas smaller than on earlieroccasions, but the number ofNOCs represented was largerthan ever.
The fine amenities of theCollege of Sant Ignasireduced conversion expensesto a minimum, as many ofthe school services could beeasily adapted for theirtemporary use.
operation, together with the fact that allthe suppliers observed the establisheddeadlines to the letter, meant that theadaptation was completed in just threeweeks.
The material resources available to theIYC came from the college itself or frompublic or private entities (which cededthem free of charge), plus the equipmentand goods acquired or rented byCOOB'92. Economically the choice of thecollege was decisive, as the excellent
condition of the facilities (meeting rooms,sports fields, kitchens, libraries) not onlymade for an excellent standard of servicebut also reduced expenses, which wentmostly on accommodation, i.e., on theconversion of the classrooms intodormitories.
The team in charge of the operation of theCamp was made up of 562 people. Ofthese, 58 were from COOB'92, 18 fromthe services contracted by COOB'92 and252 from companies contracted directly bythe IYC; the remaining 234 werevolunteers.
1, 2 and 3
The resources4
1 2 3
4
217
1
2
220
The accreditation was thedocument that identified themembers of the OlympicFamily and the organisationduring the Games. The MainAccreditations Centre (1)was in the Plaça d'Espanya,next to the CommunicationsMedia Centre.
At an event on the scale of the OlympicGames, with sportsmen and women,reporters, large numbers of visitors andVIPs, in addition to the organisation staff,the Organising Committee must have themeans of identifying the participants andcontrolling their privileges. Thisguarantees proper administration andsecurity at the accesses withoutinterfering with the smooth running ofthe event.
According to the 1987 OlympicCharter and the criteria of COOB'92, theusers of accreditations were the peoplewho needed access to the Olympicfacilities, excluding the spectators.For the control of horses, vehicles, arms,boats, radios and technologicalequipment other special procedureswere applied.
The first stage of the accreditationsproject was preparation and design. Later,in order to put the decisions that had beentaken into practice, the project wasapplied to different events in whichCOOB'92 was involved: the Associationof National Olympic Committees(ACNO), the Association of SummerOlympic International OlympicCommittee Federations (ASOIF) and theCompetitions'91.
The second stage, which lasted fromSeptember 1991 to June 1992, marked thebeginning of the pre-arrivals operation(registration period). Registration,understood as the reservation of anaccreditation within a quota assigned toeach sector, consisted of the formalitiesinvolved in the preparation of thedocuments (forms to be filled in and theexplanatory manuals that went withthem), which varied from one sector andcategory to another, and the receipt andconfirmation of the numbers to beaccredited. During that period there waspermanent contact with the differentorganisations which had to sendrepresentatives to Barcelona to ensure theflexibility and fluidity of the finaloperation. There is no doubt that that wasthe most critical and decisive phase: it wasthe moment for equipping the departmentwith resources, training the volunteers,closing the participation quotas with all
the organisations and installing theaccreditation centres.
The third stage, from July to August 1992,was the operations phase and it beganwith the arrival of the Olympic Family inBarcelona.
Four criteria were adopted for theoperation strategy:
The first was the idea that accreditationwas a tool at the service of theorganisation and not a status symbol.
The second took account of the fact thatdefinition, administration and decision-making about the allocation ofaccreditations and privileges had to becentralised, even though the productionservices had to be distributed at differentunits (during the Games, both the peopleresponsible for groups and the directors ofthe accreditation centres had decision-making capacity, but they all dependedfunctionally on the AccreditationsCentre).
The third criterion was related to the needto identify the organisations which wereto receive the accreditation documentsand establish contact with them in orderto agree on the participation quotas.
The fourth and last established that, forthe smooth running of the operation, theproduction time for an accreditation hadto be under 10 minutes at all the officialcentres, which were located at the placeswhere the largest number of people wouldarrive, as it was often the visitors' firstcontact with the organisation.
The Accreditations Department took overthe following functions: defining andmanaging the data base and the computersystem required for registration andaccreditation; taking part in thenegotiation of participation quotas;deciding and assigning the privilegesappropriate to each type of accreditation;deciding the criteria and structure of thepass system at the facilities; and dealingwith all applications and registrationsbefore accreditation.
1 and 2 Accreditations
Basic criteria
The phases of the project
The project: scope, elements andtechnology
221
Olympic Family
COI
Fl
CNO
B
C
D
E
F
G
J
O
P
RT
Members of the IOC
Presidents and secretaries general of the IFs
Presidents and secretaries general of the NOCs
IOC, IF and NOC staff. Members of commissions, technicians, chefs de mission, etc.
IF and NOC guests (transferable). IF photographers
Judges and referees
Press and photographers
E
EP
ES
EPs
ETE
ENR
PC
Writers
Photographers
Specialised writers for a sport
Specialised photographers for a sport
Technicians. Laboratory staff
Radio and television without broadcasting rights
Auxiliary press staff (couriers, interpreters, etc.)
Sports delegations
F
Fo
Fx
Guests
G/Gv
Gs
Competitors
Delegation official
Extra-officials: accompanying persons or extra technical staff
Guests, in two categories according to rank
Retinue of certain dignitaries
International Youth Camp
Observers. Organising Committees of other Games
Associate companiesPa/Pb Senior executives
Radio and television
RTA
RTB
RTC
RTL
Television network management
Commentators, producers and technicians
Support staff with limited access to IBC
Similar to RTC, but without accommodation rights
Subtotal Olympic Family
Operations staff
COOB
RTO
SC
X
-
COOB'92 staff
RTO'92 staff
Service and support company staff
Security staff
Subtotal operations staff
Total
230
110
620
1,141
1,022
2,375
4,000
15,378
8,739
1,000
500
1,369
6,000
42,484
33,202
3,000
35,000
15,000
86,202
128,686
2,825
778
309
100
290
221
357
10,253
4,845
1,966
2,182
158
177
5,725
1,803
246
242
101
520
1,293
1,309
2,387
4,880
17,064
2,340
497
496
382
7,951
39,462
41,650
3,483
23,474
21,116
89,723
129,185
People accredited by categoriesCategory Description 1st estimate Accreditations
222
The most visible element ofthe accreditation, apart fromthe photograph, was the codefor the category to which theholder belonged. Themembers of team'92,whatever their status(COOB'92 staff, volunteers,associate companies) weregrouped under the "COOB"heading (1).
The staff working on theproduction of theinternational televisionsignal bore the letters"RTO" on theiraccreditation.
Numbers and categories ofaccreditation
For a large part of the organisation, thecalculation of the number ofaccreditations was a basic item ofinformation in the planning of theservices. The accreditations team drafteda periodic document called"Accreditation forecasts" as the results ofthe different agreements gradually tookshape. The first figures were calculatedaccording to the requirements of theOlympic Charter (1987 edition), theundertakings of the Candidature and thefigures for previous Games, thoughmodified by the increase in the number ofsports and venues over Seoul.
The categories which were establishedappear in the table, which includes thefirst estimate and the total number ofpeople actually accredited per category.
Although the total forecast was more orless the same as the final result, an
analysis by categories shows significantchanges which occurred as a result ofexternal events, mainly the increase in thenumbers of journalists and broadcasters,and internal ones, such as the restrictionson the number of guests.
Each accreditation category carriedcertain access privileges and services,provided by the organisation, which couldbe varied individually. The category code,which figured prominently on theaccreditation, helped to identify clearlyand efficiently the group of the OlympicFamily to which the holder belonged.
One novelty introduced at Barcelona'92in this area was the distinction of guests intwo groups: the G/Gv categories forcommitments to the institutions, and thePs/Pb categories for commitments to theassociate companies. Another categorycreated was RTL (support staff withrestricted access to the InternationalBroadcast Centre without accommodationrights), which made it possible to extend
1 and 2
3 and 5The category "F" identifiedthe competitors.
4
1 2 4
3 5
223
Sportspictograms
Zones
0
1234568I
R
All zones (sportsvenues)
Competition zone
Competitors zone
Training zone
Organisation zone
Media zone
Olympic Familyservices zone
Public zone
International zone ofthe Olympic Village
Residential zone ofthe Olympic Village
Transport
T-0
T-1
T-2T-3T-4
T-5
Own accreditedvehicle
Exclusive use /assigned to persons
Exclusive use /assigned to groups
Group pool
General pool
Collective (onrequest, scheduled,shuttle)
ServicepictogramsAll competitionvenues
All residences
Press
Universal access
Olympic Village
Media Village
Judges andReferees Village
International YouthCamp
Harbour
Perimeter zones
Main Press Centre
InternationalBroadcast Centre
Obverse
Photograph of holder
Category of holder ofaccreditation
Surname and first name
Olympic function
Organisation
Access code to venue bysport
Venue code
Country code
Access zone code
Bar code
Reverse
Electronic mail access code
Accreditation no. and date
Other functions
Explanation of pictogramson obverse
Other access rights
Other rights
224
Access to the venues wasrepresented by pictograms.The bar code controlled theaccess of accredited staff bymeans of a portable reader.
the accreditation quotas for the TVnetworks without having to takeadditional commitments foraccommodation, access, etc.
Another case was the creation of the SCaccreditation for the staff of the servicecompanies, which consisted of twodifferent elements: the operations pass, adocument without a holder's name whichwas the same size as an accreditation andcontained the function and access details(pictograms and zones), and the companycard, with a photograph and the holder'sdetails, which was in a similar format to acredit card. Those two documents wereonly valid if they were presented together.
The privileges
Within the Olympic Movement and in thecontext of accreditations the access rightsto the Olympic sites of each member ofthe Olympic Family are known asprivileges.
Two types of privilege were established:access privileges, represented on theaccreditation by a pictogram, whichconferred the right of entry to one ormore units, and interior movement orzone privileges, coded from 0 to 9, whichpermitted entry to particular zones of theunits.
The design of the accreditation card
When choosing the model for theaccreditation card the ones which hadbeen used at other Olympic Games weretaken into consideration. The photographand the name combined had to be theidentifying element of the bearer. Thecard also had to show the function and theorganisation to which he or she belonged.The privileges, whether for access orservices, had to appear for the guidance ofthe control staff. The accreditation had tobe thick, but also comfortable to carry, forexample, in a shirt pocket. Lastly, it had tobe equipped with safety devices to
1 and 2
1 2 225
prevent forgery or other kinds ofmanipulation. In comparison with otherGames, Barcelona had the addedcomplication of having to prepare theaccreditation in different languages,chosen from the four official onesaccording to the group.
Other elements of identification
The accreditation was not the onlydocument which was valid for access tothe Olympic sites. Alternative identifyingelements were also prepared to coveridentification and access requirementswhich did not come under the heading ofaccreditation.
The day pass was a document devised forexceptional, occasional situations. Giventhe short period of validity of thisdocument, it did not have a photographand could only be used at the facilitywhere it was issued. Each unit had a daypass management office.
Nowadays, the function of the OlympicIdentity Card (OIC), originallycontemplated in the Olympic Charter asan accreditation, has been reducedto that of a visa for entry into the hostcountry —which is why it is known as the"Olympic passport"—, although it is notvalid unless accompanied by an officialpassport. This document was approved bythe foreign and interior ministries andmanufactured by the Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre (the Mint). We mightmention that it is the first officialdocument recognised by both ministrieswhere the texts are also in Catalan.
Besides these accreditation elements,there were other special ones for certainactivities: the ceremonies passcomplemented the accreditation of theoperations staff for the opening andclosing ceremonies; the ceremoniesbracelet identified the artists performingin them, which avoided having to accreditabout 8,000 people for a single event; thetorch bearers' bracelet identified the
As well as theaccreditations, COOB'92prepared other identifyingelements to meet occasionalneeds during the Games,such as the passes for theopening ceremony formembers of the organisation(1) and for the competitorsparade (2 and 4), or the daypasses which allowed theholder access to a particularsite (3).
1,2, 3 and 4
1 3
2 4
226
The television cameras, aswell as the members of thephotographers pool whocould go to the competitionarea, had an easilyidentifiable coloured bibwith a number.
Technology wasfundamental to the processof obtaining anaccreditation. At theBarcelona Games imagedigitalization techniquesand printing with automaticcolour selection were chosen.
runners and cyclists and entitled them touse the transport services to the startingpoint of their relay; the doping controlpass was used by the people with access—including the competitors who had topass the test— to the special medical zoneand was administered by the dopingcontrol officer at the venue.
Journalists who wished to visit theOlympic Village had to exchange theiraccreditation for a special press passwhich gave them the right to enter theinternational zone only. Similarly, eachNOC was entitled to a number of dailyvisitors' passes for its members. Todistinguish them from the day passes theywere a different colour and entitled theholder to entry to the residential zone ofthe Village. The photographer's and TVcameraman's bib, familiar at allcompetitions, made it possible todistinguish the reporters who wereentitled to be in the competition area at adistance.
Technology
Technology played a major role in theaccreditation process. It was necessary tohave an information system about thepeople providing services for theorganisation and the production elementshad to be highly efficient.
The idea of obtaining a documentintegrating data (provided by the IBMsystem) and image (taken with Kodakequipment) was discarded from the verystart for various reasons: the newness anddifficulty of the technique couldjeopardize the service; the flexibilityneeded in production made it advisable tokeep the handling of image and dataseparate, especially for privileges,function and category. In the end, theorganisation opted for techniquesusing digitalized image and printingof the category with automatic colourselection.
5
6
5 6 227
The elements which composed theaccreditation made it practicallyimpossible to forge, given the shortduration of the operation. The supportwas banknote paper, supplied by theFábrica Nacional de Moneda y Timbre,with a protective watermark. There was abar code, easy to print and legible byportable readers, which made accesscontrol far more fluid. The photographwas taken with cameras which are hard tofind on the market and the laminatedcover bore a hologram which wouldhave made it extremely difficult tosubstitute.
The information collected about people inthe accreditation system also served tofeed the computer systems of the MultipleAccess to Information andCommunication (AMIC), resultsmanagement, accommodation, etc. Thisinvolved the creation of a data base whichwas shared with other systems andprovided a guarantee of coherence andunity for the information.
The computer system was also designedwith an emergency mechanism whichmade it possible to continue withregistration and accreditation in the eventof being cut off from the centralcomputer. This feature was particularlyuseful on the days when groups werearriving outside the established servicehours.
This was the stage of selecting andtraining the staff, obtaining the materialresources, setting up the centres and soon, but the most important aspect wasobtaining information about the peoplewho were to be accredited.
To identify the accreditation holders, theywere grouped according to function(press, television, competitors, VIPs,service companies, operations staff). Aninternal COOB'92 liaison officer was thenchosen for each group, a list was made of
Accreditation application
Personal details and function (for all sectors)
Estimate by number
Estimated participation by sport and event
Entry by name for competitions
Specification of events in which each person will compete
Press
Other OF
Competitors
Competitors
The estimates by number and entries by name for the competitions were done by each NOC.
30/5/91
30/1/92
31/1/92
15/4/92
30/9/91
15/5/92
25/3/92
10/7/92
Registration period for the OlympicFamily: documents and dates
The pre-arrival operation
Sector Sent Received228
the organisations connected with theGames and each one was asked also toproduce a single liaison officer. The nextstep was to agree on the participationquotas by organisation and the contactswith each one according to a pre-established calendar.
The Olympic Family registrationprocess
Application for registration at the Gameswas made on forms which COOB'92 hadsupplied to each organisation according tothe established quotas. Those numberedregistration forms made it possible tocontrol replies.
To solve the traditional problem of repliesnot arriving within the time limits set bythe organisation and the large number oflast-minute changes, a plan was draftedbased on three points: staff specialising ina particular group, regular contact withthe organisations and continuous
monitoring to complete the information.Thanks to this plan, by 15 May, the finaldate for registration, 75% of theinformation was available and a monthlater 90%. As an example of the successof these measures, eight months beforethe Games 70% of the requests from thepress had been collected.
By March 1992 it was known that the firstestimate for participation in the Gamesfor competitors and officials had been setat 19,000 people, although COOB'92could only cope with 15,000. That was thebeginning of a long process of negotiationwith the NOCs which had gone over thenumbers. The deviations were caused bythe lack of limits on participation for somesports (athletics, swimming, yachting,among others) and the increase in thenumber of NOCs due to political changesin the former Soviet Union andYugoslavia.
Olympic Family accreditation229
The registration of operations staff(COOB, RTO, SC and X)
The registration of operations staff—Team'92, security staff and contracted
companies— followed other circuits.Information about organisation staff—volunteers, COOB'92 staff and staffseconded by the associate companies, allwith the COOB category— was collectedby the Planning and Control Division. Thedetails had to include the job and thefacility where they were to work. All theinformation was placed at the disposal ofAccreditations so that they could processit, assign the pictograms, the privilegesand the functions and prepare theaccreditations.
The details for the service companies staff—category SC— were provided by thecompanies when the allocation to facilitieswas decided. It was very difficult to takethis step as early as was desirable, whetherbecause the company had not yet hiredthe staff or because the allocation had still
to be decided. The creation of the specialSC accreditations helped to palliate thedelay in obtaining information about thisgroup.
The accreditation process for members ofthe security staff —category X— wascomplicated by the fact that they had tostart to operate before the others and hadto be accredited before their destinationswere known. The initial informationabout this group was not available untilearly July 1992.
The accreditation system was designed toprovide for both the Olympic Family andTeam'92, but the results show that theyshould have been accredited by twoseparate paths. The difficulty inaccrediting the Olympic Family lay infinding out who would come, but oncethat knowledge was available theiraccreditations could be prepared(assignment of category, function andprivileges was practically automatic). Inthe case of Team'92, it was usually known
The staff of the servicecompanies (cleaning,catering, sales of drinks andother products), came underthe "SC" category. Thoseaccreditations consisted oftwo elements: a documentwith the data of thecompany and the accessprivileges and a card in thename of the holder with aphotograph and personaldetails. The two documentswere only valid whenpresented together.
Signposting at an accesscontrol for accreditationholders.
1
2
1 2
230
who the people would be, but not theirfunction or place of work.
highly pressured conditions that werecommon currency on the busiest days.
The volunteers at the accreditationcentres had to work as a team. They hadto be able to handle cameras andcomputers which many of them had neverused before and in many cases they wouldbe the first members of the organisationto meet the Olympic Family. For thesereasons a pilot centre was set up to givethe volunteers intensive practice andselect the group leaders. Difficultsituations involving a variety of incidentswere simulated and they were taught thespecial vocabulary for their task in thefour official languages of the Games.
This experience before the eventproduced results, not only in the shape ofthe best possible treatment of the users ofthe service, but also in the volunteers'considerable capacity of reaction in the
After studying various possibilities, it wasdecided to set up various accreditationcentres at key points where the differentgroups would be gathering: the airport,the three Olympic villages for the sportsdelegations, the Princesa Sofia hotel forthe VIPs and Montjuïc for the operationsstaff and dealing with incidents that couldnot be resolved at other centres.
For the Olympic Family the operationalphase began on 11 July 1992 when thefirst accreditations were issued at thecentres.
For the operations staff —a considerablenumber of people and subject to constant
Accreditation centres calendar
1 st period
2nd period
3rd period
from 1/7/92 to 8/7/92
from 9/7/92 to 25/7/92
from 26/7/92 to 31/7/92
from 8.00 to 22.00
from 8.00 to 24.00
from 9.00 to 18.00
4
12
4
Montjuïc
1st period
2nd period
3rd period
from 24/6/92 to 8/7/92
from 9/7/92 to 31/7/92
from 1/8/92 to 9/8/92
from 8.00 to 24.00
from 8.00 to 24.00
from 9.00 to 18.00
4
8
2
The lines indicate the capacity for simultaneous issue of accreditation cards.
Training the volunteers Accreditation centres
The operation
1st period
2nd period
3rd period
from 1/7/92 to 8/7/92
from 9/7/92 to 25/7/92
from 26/7/92 to 9/8/92
from 8.00 to 22.00
from 8.00 to 24.00
from 9.00 to 18.00
4
10
4
1 st period
2nd period
from 1/7/92 to 24/7/92
from 26/7/92 to 3/8/92
from 9.00 to 22.00
from 9.00 to 18.00
2
2
1 st period
2nd period
from 1/7/92 to 24/7/92
from 26/7/92 to 3/8/92
from 9.00 to 22.00
from 9.00 to 18.00
2
2
1st period
2nd period
from 11/7/92 to 25/7/92 from 9.00 to 22.00
from 26/7/92 to 9/8/92 from 9.00 to 20.00
4
2
Airport
Dates Times Lines Dates Times Lines
Olympic Village
Dates Times Lines
Princesa Sofia
Dates Times Lines
Banyoles
Dates Times Lines
La Seu d'Urgell
Dates Times Lines
231
July 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
August 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
105
43
44
92
98
156
147
97
129
136
272
210
295
216
343
460
431
927
758
2,043
1,290
2,160
1,428
1,594
370
251
150
288
123
105
118
14,879
386
641
800
362
200
1,058
1,060
1,101
1,173
1,106
800
300
2,019
1,700
1,588
1,449
2,300
1,000
452
2,159
1,730
1,950
1,699
1,197
819
311
660
461
429
473
280
550
180
277
239
145
39
26
26
33
33,178
15
4
72
100
148
181
203
70
79
162
148
202
212
400
280
79
77
82
45
88
90
150
112
118
111
101
89
127
68
3
3,616
400
475
570
530
540
300
425
250
450
250
558
275
476
285
367
300
450
1,100
1,000
1,200
1,700
2,672
2,456
1,430
630
280
310
670
513
261
130
350
123
40
80
42
20
22
6
2
21,938
121
224
236
196
110
101
236
71
31
64
122
48
59
64
55
76
98
50
67
32
100
277
274
171
163
53
16
30
40
25
10
80
20
3,320
47
114
67
58
22
104
103
150
55
77
134
59
66
57
59
26
19
25
13
29
18
16
41
45
18
24
39
105
40
25
30
15
5
8
1,713
Accreditations by dates and centresAirport Montjuïc Princesa Sofia Olympic Village Banyoles La Seu d'Urgell
232
Cobi pointed the way to theaccreditation centres. Theiropening times —they cameinto operation on 1 July1992— were adjusted toestimates for arrivalsprovided by the people incharge of the OlympicFamily reception project.
Reception and informationpoint at the MainAccreditations Centre inMontjuïc.
changes due to the adjustments madewhen the plans for each unit wereimplemented—, the accreditation processwas put forward in order to reduce thework load expected on the last daysbefore the Games. It was decided to takethe photographs of the COOB'92 staffwell in advance of the issue of theaccreditation. A space was set up inL'Espanya Industrial, where theaccreditations staff worked from 24February to the beginning of July, whenthe accreditations were issued in largenumbers and the photographs which hadbeen taken long before were added.
The functioning of the centres
The dates, the opening times and thenumber of points at the accreditationcentres were adjusted according to theexpected number of arrivals of theOlympic Family in Barcelona, using theinformation provided by the receptionproject.
Most of the people who arrived at theairport were accredited there, irrespectiveof their category, especially in the case ofgroup arrivals. The sports delegationswere an exception to the rule; they wereaccredited at the Olympic villages. Mostof the press and broadcasters wereanother (especially the radio andtelevision staff); they preferred to go toMontjuïc.
The accreditation centre at the BarcelonaOlympic Village dealt with almost all thesports delegations and a large number oflocal personalities. At the centres at thePrincesa Sofia hotel, Banyoles and La Seud'Urgell the estimates were provedcorrect, as they had not been conceived aslarge production centres but as specialisedattention points. The Montjuïc centrerecorded a higher volume of accreditationholders than expected and additionalteams had to be sent there on the firstdays of operation. This was caused by thedelay in the accreditation of theoperations staff (especially security and
1
2
1 2 233
the service companies), the loss ofphotographs, the high number of last-minute changes in the COOB'92 staff(between 1 and 20 July about 5,000accreditations had to be redone) and thelarge numbers of television workers(category RT).
During the production period thepermanent contact with the otherdepartments of the organisation wasfundamental to the decision makingprocess. The External RelationsDepartment, the Main Press Centre andthe Olympic Village (management,relations with the NOCs and reception)cooperated assiduously to resolve theincidents which arose among the VIPs,press and competitors, respectively.
Since the NOC delegations arrived inlarge numbers, the chefs de missionprepared the whole accreditation processwith the management of the Village inorder to avoid queues.
The accreditations came into forcegradually, according to the needs of theunits (the Villages and the MPC wereamong the first; the Montigalà Villagecame into operation on 24 June and theother Villages and the MPC on 11 July).Furthermore, the technical staff for theperiod before the opening of the units(assembly, supplies, etc.) needed adifferent identification to enter their workplaces.
The 1987 edition of the Olympic Charterestablishes an accreditations quota whichthe Organising Committee has to assign tothe NOCs and the IFs for their guests.These accreditations, which were notassigned to a single holder but could beused by different people during theGames, were known as transferableaccreditations. Because of their specialcharacteristics, they were issued at onlyone accreditations centre to guaranteethat when a new accreditation was issuedan old one would be cancelled.
The Accreditations Centre atthe Barcelona OlympicVillage was used by thesports delegations and alarge number of local VIPs.To avoid queues when thedelegations arrived at theVillage, the chefs de missionprepared everything requiredfor the accreditation processwith the people in chargewell in advance.
1
1234
Other uses of accreditation
The Olympic accreditation was used toidentify the people connected with theGames in whatever capacity and includethem in a sector; as well as providingaccess to the Olympic sites, it entitled theusers to other services.
For example, it could be used on publictransport in Barcelona and in the canteenat the Barcelona Olympic Village or thePalau de Victòria Eugènia. Bearing inmind that it often acted a filter at eventsrestricted to a particular group orcategory, it was vital to place each personin the correct one.
The system was highly efficient,particularly owing to the bar code readers,which brought all incidents, such as thecancellation or duplication of anaccreditation (with the consequentwithdrawal of the original) to lightimmediately. However, this did also meanthat on occasions due attention was not
paid to the photograph and some peopleused an accreditation which was nottheirs.
2 and 3The organisation staff coulduse the canteens in the Palaude Victòria Eugènia, in theMontjuïc Area, at certain settimes.
4The entrance to theAccreditations Centre at theBarcelona Olympic Village.The NOCs and IFs wereassigned a transferableaccreditations quota fortheir guests. The concessionof these accreditations wasmade from a single centre toguarantee that the issue of anew accreditationautomatically cancelled theold one.
2 3
4
235
1
2
236
Most of the Olympic Familyarrived in Barcelona at theairport (1), but theCOOB'92 reception teamwas also present at otherpoints, such as the Estacióde França (2).
The reception project was responsible forthe detailed preparation of the operationwhich would monitor the arrival anddeparture of the Olympic Family inBarcelona. The main arrival point was tobe Barcelona airport, though a largenumber of people were also expected atthe Girona-Costa Brava airport, Madridairport and the main railway stations inBarcelona and so COOB'92 receptionteams were set up at all of them.
The services
To make the reception and departureoperation effective, an Olympic Familyreception plan was drafted. It placedspecial emphasis on the first contactbetween visitors and the Olympicorganisation and the city and it was clearlycrucial that that first impression should befavourable.
COOB'92 provided the following servicesfor the arrival of the Olympic Family:reception, hosting, information andadvice; the accreditation of some groupsin the Olympic area at Barcelona airport;confirmation of accommodation bookings,making changes to bookings andpayments due, and transport of passengerand luggage to their accommodationcentres.
Each sector of the Olympic Familyreceived a particular kind of service.Olympic directors and VIPs wereattended in a reserved room which haddirect access from the internationalterminal at the airport (Olympic ProtocolLounge), where they could be accredited.From there they were driven to theiraccommodation in the vehicles assigned,accompanied by hosts (volunteers with agood knowledge of languages). The sportsdelegations, for their part, were takendirect to the buses and accredited at theOlympic Village. Most of the rest of theOlympic Family were accredited at theOlympic area at the airport, from wherethey were driven in buses or minibuses totheir accommodation.
As well as the members of the OlympicFamily, all the associate companies hadtheir own guests. Altogether they invitedabout 30,000 people to Barcelona; most ofthem stayed on ships anchored in the port.The Olympic organisation was notresponsible for looking after them, but it
did cooperate on the activities which thecompanies laid on.
It must be borne in mind that this wholeoperation took place in a period ofsummer which is normally highlyproblematic because of the number oftourists who arrive by plane in Barcelona;moreover, many COOB'92 departmentsworked on the accommodation,accreditations, Villages, transport,logistics and protocol projects. This calledfor a strict arrivals plan and constantdirect contact with each group in order tohave all the necessary information.
The Olympic area at Barcelonaairport
In May 1991, COOB'92 and Barcelonaairport reached an agreement by which anumber of spaces were temporarily leasedto the Olympic organisation: what wasknown as the Olympic area.
The surface area was 6,000 m2 and it waslocated in the old Barcelona-Madridshuttle building between terminals B andA as they now are. As the space was notreally an airport terminal, the travellerswere not attended by the COOB'92 teamuntil after they had gone through customsand completed all the formalities at theterminals proper.
In the technological equipment chapter,apart for the basic elements (telephones,fax, computers, AMIC terminals), thestaff who worked in the Olympic area hada computer system which suppliedinformation in real time about the arrivaland departure of planes and theirexpected movements.
Human resources
The operational period of the Olympicarea at the airport began on 1 July andended on 14 August. It had to be open24 hours a day, which meant that the staff,who were totally dedicated, had to workin shifts. 632 people worked there, 130 ofwhom were on contracts and 502volunteers. We should also mention thecooperation of the airport operators,without whom the Olympic Familyreception service would not have beenviable.
The volunteers in charge of welcomingand accompanying the members of the
1 and 2 Reception
237
1234567
8
910
111213
14151617
181920
212223242526
272829303132333435363738
Barcelona Airport
Location planInternational TerminalDomestic TerminalBarcelona-Madrid shuttleOlympic TerminalOlympic fleet parking areaOF bayVIP bay
Olympic Terminal
LobbyAccess for the organisation, press,competitors and judgesInformationSouvenir shops, bookshops andvehicle rentalToiletsLeft luggagePublic telephones
Reception and waiting roomRest areaChef de missions' roomsNBC roomBanesto branch
Accreditations roomAccreditationsIncidents roomInternal security room
VIP areaEntranceReception deskRest areaAccreditations areaToiletsExit to the bay
Organisation areaManagement officeWork roomTransportSecurity control roomMeeting roomAccreditationsAccommodationComputer roomRest areaStoreRadio control roomAir-conditioning equipment
238
Arrival was also the firstcontact of the OlympicFamily with the city and theGames organisation.
The hosts (volunteers withlanguages) were in charge ofreceiving, accompanying andproviding information andadvice for the visitors at theairport.
Olympic Family were selected wellbeforehand and special emphasis wasplaced on their language skills. They weregiven training courses in behaviour andhow to deal with people in the four officiallanguages of the Barcelona Games.
The evolution of the project
The preliminary project for the operationwas presented at the end of 1989, but ithad to be amended after the decision wastaken to install an accreditation centre atBarcelona airport. The final project wasdrafted in September 1990 and definitivelyapproved in March 1991. Some finaltouches were added in January 1992, afterthe experience of the Competitions'91,which provided the final test.
Previously, however, COOB'92 had takenresponsibility for some small receptionoperations at the airport: in September1989, the World Athletics Cup; in June1990, the VII General Assembly of the
Association of National OlympicCommittees (ACNO); in July 1990, theCoca-Cola Athletics Meeting, and in April1991, the 43rd Joint Meeting of the IOCExecutive Board and the ASOIF.
The arrivals monitoring service came intooperation in January 1992, with thesending of the first form to the NOCs andthe media, the initial step in the drafting ofthe arrivals plan, which asked all theorganisations to prepare their journey wellin advance and make sure they had ticketsbooked. By April about 250 organisations,or 43% of the participants in the Games,had already replied, a sufficient figure tomake provisions, and in May the definitiveform was dispatched. The Olympicorganisation made it quite clear that itwould provide assistance for all thegroups, but had to have information aboutthe arrival date and any possible last-minute changes. Under the same cover abooklet was sent explaining the steps to betaken and formalities to be completed forentry into Spain and describing the arrival
1
2
1 2 239
1 July
2 July
3 July
4 July
5 July
6 July
7 July
8 July
9 July
10 July
11 July
12 July
13 July
14 July
15 July
16 July
17 July
18 July
19 July
20 July
21 July
22 July
23 July
24 July
25 July
26 July
27 July
28 July
29 July
30 July
31 July
1 August
2 August
3 August
4 August
5 August
6 August
7 August
8 August
9 August
Total
3
1
2
1
4
13
6
12
23
23
60
79
63
74
153
189
178
102
186
245
215
30
8
26
11
4
6
4
14
13
12
1,760
1
8
7
1
3
19
41
209
142
203
105
205
82
504
844
839
944
1,623
2,256
2,462
1,342
337
360
201
544
292
150
107
202
31
60
28
18
8
14,178
2
1
12
6
38
13
38
20
68
83
120
146
303
304
383
258
69
27
6
22
21
11
3
2
11
1
1,968
5
2
1
9
9
3
22
5
19
95
53
44
40
82
57
188
262
281
439
441
670
597
373
69
18
19
27
3
2
2
3
1
1
2
3,844
52
27
38
77
71
107
77
35
80
105
114
256
167
171
322
200
290
500
273
935
706
694
363
153
63
61
39
63
38
44
7
9
5
5
5
5
2
6,159
22
10
1
12
5
37
57
27
10
32
59
267
53
4
6
12
20
30
40
25
28
17
11
36
9
10
1
841
1
1
10
2
25
14
12
17
78
22
30
24
48
40
45
92
261
63
101
8
10
66
44
130
20
71
19
132
86
62
11
31
1,576
61
29
39
88
79
128
82
74
119
197
442
516
475
411
744
512
1,151
1,909
1,783
2,717
3,225
4,187
4,201
2,869
684
579
305
689
444
287
290
276
151
113
188
148
81
21
31
1
30,326
Olympic Family arrivals by date andcategory
Olympic Dir. Delegations Referees Press Radio and TV VIPs Others Total
1
240
The COOB'92 Olympicarea at Barcelona airport,in the old Madrid shuttlebuilding, had a surface areaof 6,000 m2.
process. Luggage labels were alsoenclosed, indicating the destination(Villages, hotels, etc.). There was a highresponse rate from all groups (80%), andlater on COOB'92 reminded all those whohad still not answered that they had toprovide the information.
The estimates and monitoring of thearrivals were controlled by a computersystem which took account of the situationof each person or group concerningaccreditation, accommodation, etc.
The Olympic area adaptation project wasapproved in September 1991, Barcelonaairport handed over the facilities toCOOB'92 in March 1992 and the worksbegan immediately according to the plans.
Summary of the stages of the project
The calendar for the preparation of theproject may be divided into the followingstages:
• March 1991: Reception and departureplan and computer back-up systemapproved.
• July 1991: Participation inCompetitions'91. Validation of theapproved projects.
• September 1991: Project for theconversion of the Olympic area atBarcelona airport approved.
• January 1992: Projects modifiedaccording to the experience of thesummer of 1991.
• March 1992: Barcelona airport handsover the space for the Olympic area:conversion work begins.
• May 1992: The computer system comesinto operation.
• June 1992: Staff move to Olympic area.Conversion works completed.
• July 1992: The Olympic area opens on 1July and operates until 14 August.
1
The recent modernisationand extension of the airport(2) and the signposting indifferent languages (3)simplified the work ofinstalling the Olympic signsand look.
2 and 3
2 3 241
The operations phase
The Olympic area was one of the firstoperational units to start to function and itwas therefore vital to make a great effortto have all the signposting and Olympicimage elements installed there beforeother places. Furthermore, the spaces hadto be made ready, the infrastructures(computers, telecommunications, etc.)mounted and the volunteers trainedsooner than elsewhere.
Civil was in charge of protecting theOlympic area and the National Policesupervised immigration control, a processwhich had been greatly simplified by thefact that the Olympic Family carried theOlympic identity card.
To coordinate the arrivals operation, theOlympic area at the airport kept in closetouch with the Olympic Village, the MainAccreditations Centre, the BookingExchange and the Transport OperationsCentre.
The arrival
On the first days of the operation, whichbegan on 1 July, there were very fewarrivals, which made it easier to break inthe facility and the staff and the technicalhitches of those first days were rapidlycorrected.
The same period saw the start of theactivity of the security forces: the Guardia
Altogether, over 15,000 people wereaccredited and over 25,000 taken to 129different destinations.
The 22 and 23 of July were the climax ofthe operation. All the services in theOlympic area were functioning flat outand in spite of the huge concentrations ofpeople in the facilities, the longest waitingtimes for all the formalities were nevermore than one hour.
Olympic Family arrivals atBarcelona airport
242
The critical point of thereception operation came on22 and 23 July, with thearrival en masse of membersof the Olympic Family.
Departure
During the Games, the Olympicorganisation at the airport began toprepare for the departure operation. Daysof maximum activity and largeconcentrations of travellers were expectedand the experience of previous Gamessuggested that delays could reach four toeight hours. And so COOB'92 establisheda special plan of action for the departureof the Olympic Family with the airlines,the security forces and the airportmanagement.
The greatest concentration of departureswas on 10 and 11 August, but thanks tothe measures taken the spectacularincrease in passenger and air traffic washandled smoothly. A vital factor in copingwith the volume of passengers was thatthe delegations' luggage (a quarter of thetotal for the whole Olympic Family) waschecked in at the Olympic Village.
On 10 August there were 571 take-offsand landings, a record for Barcelonaairport; only 18 flights were subject tomajor delays, between two and two and ahalf hours.
1 and 2
1 2 243
1
The Games were a meetingpoint for VIPs from all overthe world. From thesignposting of the accessesana reserved zones to thelocation of the grandstandfor the ceremonies,transport, accommodationor security, everything wasdesigned to provide personalattention.
From the moment it was created, theCOOB'92 External Relations Divisionguided the activities connected withorganising and managing the programmesof services for the members of theOlympic Family who would be visitingBarcelona during the period leadingup to the Games and, in particular,personal attention to the members of theIOC, VIPs and Spanish and foreigndignitaries. The division was alsoresponsible for drafting the protocolproject for the Barcelona'92 OlympicGames.
The characteristics of the BarcelonaGames and the special circumstancessurrounding them —among which weshould mention both the fact that theycoincided with other events held in Spain,such as the second summit of LatinAmerican heads of state, the year ofMadrid as cultural capital of Europe andExpo'92 in Sevilla and the easing oftension on the international politicalscene, which manifested itself in anunprecedented number of countries andsportsmen and women taking part—meant that Barcelona became a meetingpoint for dignitaries and VIPs from allover the world.
To coordinate the relations of themembers of the IOC, the Olympic Familyand the official delegations, the post ofdirector of the External RelationsDivision was given to a career diplomatwith the rank of Spanish ambassador. Thefunctions of the division from the outsetwere based on the work that had beendone by the International RelationsCommittee, which was responsible for thisaspect of the Barcelona Candidature.
The protocol project
In mid-1990, a plan of services for theVIPs and dignitaries from political,economic, cultural and sporting life whowould be attending the Games wasunveiled. The project brought innovationsin regard to earlier Games and was basedon a series of points: the importance ofbilateral relations, the Olympic past ofeach country, the number of competitors;also, special attention was paid to theindications received through diplomaticchannels about the presence of dignitariesfrom some of those countries at theGames.
The protocol project was shaped with thecooperation of the State protocol services,the Prime Minister's Office, the Ministryof Foreign Affairs and the IOC.
According to the organisational criteriafixed by COOB'92, a decentralisedstructure was chosen with protocoldepartments integrated into theorganisation chart of each unit.
Structure of the External RelationsDivision and human resources
The External Relations Division wasdivided into three broad departments:protocol, institutional relations andservices for foreign dignitaries and VIPsand visits by official delegations andservices for members of the IOC.They covered their specific spheres ofaction within the protocol project,relations with the various institutionsconnected with the Games and servicesfor the visitors.
A cabinet, created in January 1992,assisted the director of the division withthe planning of different aspectscontemplated by the general protocolproject. From this cabinet, and in contactwith the three broad departmentswhich made up the division, humanresources were assigned to the differentunits.
During the Games, the External RelationsDivision was restructured with thecreation of the protocol departmentsassigned to the territorial units. At eachone there was a protocol team consistingof a director, one or more assistantdirectors and protocol hosts; at the unitswhich required it, there was alsosecretarial and administrative staff.
The Protocol Support Unit, whichdepended on the Main Operations Centre(CPO), guaranteed the smooth running ofthe different protocol departments at theterritorial units and provided assistancefor the CPO on strictly protocol matters.Furthermore, coordination with theprotocol departments of the differentinstitutions (the Royal Household, StateProtocol, Generalitat of Catalonia,Government Delegation, Barcelona CityCouncil, Parliament of Catalonia,Barcelona Provincial Council, IOC andCOE) was guaranteed, mainly inconnection with the presence of Spanishand foreign dignitaries and VIPs.
1 Protocol
245
The Foreign Ministry provided supportfor the project and seconded a largenumber of diplomats to work withCOOB'92 as directors and assistantdirectors of protocol at the units duringthe Games. Further cooperation came forthe IOC, the COE, the local institutionswhich were part of the COOBconsortium, the Centre of InternationalStudies in Barcelona and theDiplomatic School in Madrid, as well asthe Schools of Public Relations inBarcelona and Girona.
From then on, all efforts wereconcentrated on training the staff bymeans of seminars on protocol with abasically practical orientation, in whichcertain matters were heavily stressed, suchas the functioning of the units, theaccreditations, the victory ceremonies oran exhaustive study of all aspects of theOlympic Charter related to protocol.The trainees also practised accompanyingand seating people on the grandstandsand VIP services in general. The sessions
were illustrated with audio-visualprojections and also contained elementsof theory.
The External Relations Division workedon the drafting of the HQ Hotels ServicesGuide and produced a VIP ServicesGuide, as well as special protocolinstructions for the Games and theProtocol Manual, which contained variousitems of useful information.
Visits and other official functions
Since September 1987, the Department ofVisits by Official Delegations and Servicesfor Members of the IOC, which was incharge of this sector, coordinated andorganised —with the Chief ExecutiveOfficer's Cabinet, the Barcelona CityCouncil, the Government Delegation andthe various companies and entitiesresponsible for the Barcelona'92facilities— a large number of visits bySpanish and foreign VIPs, official
Mikhail Gorbachev (1) andQueen Elizabeth II ofEngland were among themany personalities thatvisited the MontjuïcOlympic Ring to see thepreparations for the Games.
Ambassador IgnasiMasferrer directed theProtocol Division until hisdeath in 1991.
Double page overleaf.At the opening ceremony, theroyal box with the King andQueen of Spain and, on theirright, H.E. Juan AntonioSamaranch, President of theIOC, and his wife, and H.E.Pasqual Maragall, Mayor ofBarcelona and President ofCOOB'92, and his wife; ontheir left, H.E. FelipeGonzález, Prime Minister ofSpain, and his wife, and theRt. Hon. Jordi Pujol,President of the Generalitatof Catalonia, and his wife.In front of the King andQueen were the heads ofstate, among them thePresidents of Guatemala,France, El Salvador, Cuba,Costa Rica, Bolivia,
1 and 3
2
1 2246
Germany, Argentina, Brazil,Chile, Ecuador, Estonia,Hungary, Uruguay, Panama,Nicaragua, Honduras,Mexico and Paraguay.Among the other VIPs werethe President of the ItalianSenate, the Co-prince andthe Prime Minister ofAndorra, the King ofMalaysia, the Grand Dukeand Duchess of Luxembourg,the President of theEuropean Parliament, theVice-president of the IslamicRepublic of Iran, the Vice-president of the Czech andSlovak Federated Republic,the President of theEuropean Commission,Prince Guillaume ofLuxembourg, the PrincessesElena and Cristina, theCrown Prince of Thailand,the Crown Prince of Japan,Prince Philippe of Belgiumand the Prime Minister ofSlovenia.
delegations, members of the IOC,ambassadors and consuls.
At the 99th Session of the IOC, which washeld in Barcelona on 22 and 23 July 1992,the department also organised, jointlywith the IOC Secretariat General, anextensive programme of cultural visits forthe people accompanying the members ofthe IOC.
In the period leading up to the Games, theExternal Relations Division, oftenworking with the Image andCommunication Division, providedsupport for activities such as thepresentation of the official coins for theGames, the constitution of the subsitecommittees, the handing over of theOlympic flags to the city councils, theBarcelona'92 travelling exhibition, theAssembly of the Association of NationalOlympic Committees (ACNO'90) and theAssemblies of the InternationalFederations (ASOIF'89 and ASOIF'91),among others.
In view of the need to combine the ruleslaid down in the Olympic Charter and theGeneral Ordinance for Precedence inSpain (Royal Decree 2099/1983), aprotocol working party was set up. It wasmade up of the people in charge ofprotocol at the Government Delegation inCatalonia, the Generalitat of Catalonia,the Barcelona City Council, the BarcelonaProvincial Council and the Parliament ofCatalonia and was coordinated by thedirector of External Relations atCOOB'92. The working party metregularly from May 1991, to set down thebases for reconciling fundamental criteriaamong the protocol services directly orindirectly involved at the Barcelona units,the subsites and, naturally, the Gamesthemselves and in particular the openingand closing ceremonies. This measureproved to be correct, given the juridicalcomplexity of the operation and the lackof precedents at earlier Games, whichmeant that there were no unified Olympic
The protocol working party
3 247
protocol regulations which could beapplied.
The working party was later extendedwhen it was joined by representatives ofthe State Centre for the Coordination ofProtocol (CECOPE), the Higher SportsCouncil and the COE. From October1991, the meetings were definitivelyinstitutionalized and all kinds of matterswere dealt with at them, including thenumber of accreditations which had to begranted to each institution, tickets, placeson the stands at the opening and closingceremonies, transport, accommodationand security. The climate of dialoguewhich prevailed at all times at thesemeetings was conducive to the orderlymanner in which the events during theGames attended by members of theOlympic Family, VIPs and distinguishedvisitors took place within the establishedframework.
The opening ceremony was attended byeighteen Latin American heads of state,who were taking part in the summit,sixteen foreign ministers and fortyobservers and members of the retinuewhich made up that important meeting.Beside them on the grandstand were thePresidents of Estonia, France, Germanyand Hungary, the Grand Duke andDuchess of Luxembourg and the King andQueen of Malaysia. The Prime Minister ofSpain and the President of the Generalitatof Catalonia sat with the King and Queenof Spain and the Princesses Elena andCristina and the President of the IOC inthe president's box. In the royal box,alongside the members of the IOC, werethe leading dignitaries of the central,autonomous and local administrations. Tothe right and left of the box, in accordancewith the Olympic Charter, were thepresidents and secretaries general of theinternational federations and thepresidents and secretaries general of the
Barcelona Olympic Games openingceremony. Seating on the grandstand
Royal boxSpanish sports VIPs, The Royal Household,members of the IOC and the COEHeads of state, heads of government and royal familiesVIP guests
Foreign ministers attending theII Summit of Latin AmericanHeads of StateEntourages of heads of state and other VIPsMembers of the IOC
Members of the Spanish government and theautonomous and local authoritiesPresidents and secretaries general of the IFsPresidents and secretaries general of the NOCsCouncillors of the Barcelona City Council
The grandstand at the ceremonies
250
The GV accreditations werereserved for VIPs with therank of minister or above.The category GV HorsClasse, for heads of stateand members of royalfamilies.
Francois Mitterrand,President of France, was oneof the guests at the openingceremony.
NOCs. A special stand was set upfor the foreign delegations and thediplomatic and consular corps. Never inthe history of the Games had such anumber of dignitaries and VIPs beenassembled.
Nor were there any precedents for theclosing ceremony. The King and Queen ofSweden, the Grand Duke and Duchess ofLuxembourg, the Presidents of Croatiaand Lithuania, the Prime Ministers ofAndorra, Bulgaria and Latvia andministers from Austria, Eire, Finland,France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,Luxembourg, Madagascar, Monaco andNorway honoured with their presence theevent which brought the Games of theXXV Olympiad to a close.
VIP services
For the accreditation of the people in thisgroup, it was decided to establish anidentical number —two Gv (Guest VIP)
and four G (Guest)— for each country,with the possibility of increasing thenumber.
The Gv accreditations were reserved forpeople with the rank of minister or aboveand a special category, Gv hors classe, wascreated for heads of state, prime ministers,crown princes and other members of royalfamilies. The heads of state, foreignministers and observers at the summit ofLatin American heads of state alsoreceived special treatment. The presenceof these top level VIPs was coordinated atall times by the CECOPE and theCOOB'92 External Relations Division didthe support work.
Accommodation was covered bypreferential booking at four Barcelonahotels (Ritz, Avenida Palace, Hesperiaand Master), with a package of tickets forthe opening and closing ceremonies andthe sports competitions. There was aprotocol team at the hotels made up ofdiplomatic staff, who coordinated with the
1
2
From their arrival at theairport, the VIPs wereaccompanied by "liaisonofficers", who provided themwith information andchannelled their requests toensure that they had asuitable reception.
3 and 4
4
2 3 2511
COOB'92 services. The CECOPEcarried out a special operation at theHotel Juan Carlos I, where most of theheads of state attending the Gamesstayed.
Following the model of the Madrid peaceconference, the figure of the "liaisonofficer" was included. These were peoplewith proper training, initiative, mastery ofEnglish and French and a goodknowledge of the project. Diplomats fromthe Barcelona Centre of InternationalStudies, diplomats on the internationalstudies course at the Barcelona DiplomatsSchool and public relations techniciansworked on this project. Their functionswere to accompany the VIPs, providegeneral information, channel requests inorder to ensure the best possiblereception. These liaison officers, whowere in contact with the consulates,played an important part in the complexarrivals operation at the airport on 23, 24and 25 July and the departure operationon 10 and 11 August.
The group transport operation for theVIPs from each country from the airportto the hotels and from there to the venueswhere the ceremonies were held wasexceptional and was also based on themodel for the Madrid peace conference.
Summary of the Games operation
During the operational phase of theGames, one of the main tasks of theProtocol Support Unit was to make dailycontact with the protocol directors at allthe competition units, the airport and theOlympic Village to make sure thateverything was functioning smoothly, toanalyse possible incidents and by doing soto reinforce the services at the units whichrequired it.
The most complex task was to satisfy allthe distinguished visitors to the Games inthe same way, given the diversity ofprotocol treatment that the organisationhad to take into account (members of the
The Hotel Princesa Sofíawas the home of themembers of the IOC duringthe Games.
Personalities, such asArnold Schwarzenegger,representing the president ofthe United States, visitedBarcelona during theGames.
1
2
The protocol departments atthe sites dealt with the VIPsattending the competitions,the grandstands and thevictory ceremonies.
3, 4, 5 and 6
1 3 5
2 4
252
The King and Queen ofSpain and the PrincessesElena and Cristina, thePresident of the Generalitatof Catalonia, the Presidentof the IOC and the Mayor ofBarcelona and President ofCOOB'92 with their wiveson the day of the opening ofthe Games in the VIP loungeof the Olympic Stadium.
IOC, official delegations, localdelegations, etc.) and the concentration ofVIPs at certain sports events, which meantthat even the most generous provisions ofseats on the grandstand were insufficient,as in the case of the Piscines BernatPicornell during the first week of theGames.
Every day, the Protocol Support Unit alsoprovided the competition unit protocoldepartments with the medals schedule,which contained the times and allocationof the members of the IOC responsiblefor giving the medals. In some cases, theunit designed special events in Barcelonaduring the Games and in others providedsupport. Among these, we should mentionthe 99th Session of the IOC, the openingof the Olympic Village and the Parc deMar Village, the opening of the oval roomat the Palau Nacional and the receptionwhich the King and Queen gaveafterwards for the Olympic Family in thePalauet Albéniz, the medals awards to thecompetitors in the yachting events and the
dinner at the Reials Drassanes forsponsors, members of the IOC andrepresentatives of COOB'92.
The protocol elements of the Games wereguaranteed at all times by the function ofthe protocol working party and theagreements made beforehand aboutgeneral aspects and in particular theplacing of the VIPs and members of theOlympic Family on the grandstands forthe opening and closing ceremonies.
7
6 7 253
1
In spite of its scale(40,000 people a day), thetransport operation closedwith a very positive balance,even taking into account thedays of maximum traffic atthe same place, such as theaccess to Montjuïc on theday of the openingceremony.
The COOB'92 Transport Department wasresponsible for all the journeys connectedwith the Games (training, competition,official events, arrival and departuresfrom Barcelona) which had to be made bythe members of the Olympic Family. Inorder to guarantee that during theoperational period —when the trafficsituation was expected to be difficult— allthe services would function in optimumconditions of comfort, safety and speedand to see that the needs of people of thecity and visitors to the Games would alsobe satisfied, three years before theopening COOB'92 set up a system ofcoordination with the city trafficauthorities.
The complexity of the transport operationcan be appreciated if we bear in mind thenumber of people to be moved (about40,000 a day) and the variety of reasonsfor their journeys (with tremendousvariation in the timetables and routes andconsiderable dispersion of the startingpoints and destinations). To all that weshould add that it was essential for theservices to function properly so as not tothrow out the timetables of the sportsevents and that it was not possible to carryout a test before the operational phase.Moreover, the work of the TransportDepartment covered a wide range, inaddition to managing its own fleet ofvehicles: free passes for public transport,managing parking spaces and controllingand monitoring the transport for thesponsors' guests. In the end, however, theservice met the travel needs of all thedifferent groups and the few incidents thatarose were concentrated on the first fewdays.
The planning of the operation, which gotunder way at the end of 1989, consisted offour fundamental phases: the first was toestablish the resources required andestimate the cost, from which anoperational model was proposed anddeveloped on a computer; the second wasto obtain and distribute the materialresources, according to a detailed definitionof the operational procedures for eachservice, function and work place; the thirdwas the phase of Competitions'91; and thefourth and final phase was the starting up ofthe definitive operation which, in the caseof transport, began on 24 June with thebeginning of the arrivals operation andended on 13 August with the departures.
Each sector of the Olympic Familyneeded particular kinds of vehicles andtransport services, according to thecharacteristics of the journey and theaccreditation category.
The competitors
The competitors and team officials(coaches, doctors, technical auxiliaries)were almost all staying at the OlympicVillages in Barcelona, Banyoles and LaSeu d'Urgell. From there they were takento the competition venues and trainingfacilities in buses according to a schedulewhich responded to the needs of the day.The timetables for these services could beconsulted through the Multiple Access toInformation and Communication(AMIC) system terminals and thebooklets for each sport. The transportwas almost always for the exclusive use ofthat group and direct from a particularVillage to a particular unit. Transportwas also provided for competitorstravelling to the units as spectators. Forthe team sports the players travelled tothe competition venues and trainingfacilities in team buses, not necessarily inthe same vehicle every day. Altogether,100 competitors' bus lines werescheduled and 23,930 services provided,which meant that a total of almost350,000 people travelled by this means.Except in the case of some sports with aparticularly large number of participants,such as athletics and swimming, thesupply was sufficient, and it was evenexcessive in the case of some trainingsessions in the first week that theOlympic Village was open.
The National Olympic Committees
Each National Olympic Committee(NOC) was provided with a certainnumber of vehicles from the Olympic fleet(cars and minibuses) for its ownoccasional use. They were driven byvolunteers. The base (car pool) was in anunderground car park beside the OlympicVillage with a rest area for the almost 800volunteer drivers who took part in theoperation. The cycling teams had asupplementary car for following the racesand assisting the riders. Altogether, therewere 472 vehicles based at the OlympicVillage.
1 Transport The services
255
Referees and judges
The referees and judges also had officialtransport, which was scheduled accordingto the competition timetable. The startingpoints were the Parc de Mar Village andthe hotels where they were staying. Theschedules for the services, which coveredcompetitions and technical sessions, alsoappeared on the AMIC and in a series ofbooklets which were given out to them.For this group 71 bus lines were laid on,making 3,120 services transporting 39,050people.
The media
In the design of the transport for themedia, the elements to be borne in mindwere the diversity of residences and units,the length of their schedules (particularlyin the case of broadcasts to countries witha big time difference) and the largenumber of people who made up thissector. The total number of lines providedfor them was 89: 21,570 services carrying
287,100 passengers. In the case of La Seud'Urgell, Banyoles, Zaragoza andValencia, there was a direct servicebetween the hotels and the unit. Theservices were scheduled and the timetablesappeared in the Media Transport Guide.
The media also had access to a shuttleservice between the Montigalà Villageand El Fondo subway station in Badalona,from where they could take Line 1 directto the Plaça d'Espanya, where theCommunications Media Centre (CMC)was located.
There was also a shuttle service(originally, exclusive to the media butlater extended to Team'92), whichcovered the route between the CMC andthe competition venues in the OlympicRing (INEFC, Palau Sant Jordi, OlympicStadium, Piscines Bernat Picornell andPiscina de Montjuïc). There was a vehicleevery five minutes and, at night, after thesubway had closed down, the routecontinued as far as Plaça Catalunya.
Media transport services256
Each NOC had vehiclesfrom the Olympic fleet,driven by volunteers.
Like the Olympic Family,the members of Team'92 hadfree public transport.
In addition to these services for the press,COOB'92 took charge of the transport formost of the broadcasters of RTO'92 fromtheir residences to the units where theywould be working. Altogether, this sectorhad 20 bus lines.
VIPs
The sports VIPs connected with theGames (the highest ranking members ofthe IOC, the international federations andthe NOCs) and the guests of COOB'92(sponsors, official delegations) wereprovided with individual transport. Therewere two kinds: 522 vehicles for theexclusive use of one person or more,which were on call 14 hours a day, andvehicles on request, which functionedrather like radio taxis, which could beordered by people who wanted to travelto a particular Olympic venue. For thissecond mode, 502 vehicles were supplied.As it was feared in the planning phasethat the number would not be enough, theusers were given access and parking
permits so that they could use their ownvehicles to compensate for any deficit.
COOB'92 also had a helicopter for VIPs,another for the official film and five morefor medical care and television broadcasts.There were seventeen helistops at theunits, which were also used by thehelicopters of the Spanish RoyalHousehold, the state security forces andsome television networks.
Arrival and departure
The arrivals operation in Barcelona beganon 1 July, reached maximumconcentration between 21 and 24 July andcontinued, though less intensely, until 8August. 75% of the members of theOlympic Family arrived at Barcelonaairport, from where they were taken totheir residences in different kinds ofvehicles (cars, minibuses, buses). Fromthe estimates for arrivals, a daily schedulefor the vehicles required was drafted, plusa reserve for unexpected demands.
1
The competitors were takenby bus from the OlympicVillages to the venues andtraining facilities.
2 and 3
4
1 2 3
4
257
Outside the Olympic area at the airport aspace was reserved for parking and pick-up for eight cars, two buses and sixluggage vans, and there was a 5,000 m2 carpark. At rush hours there was also ashuttle to the Olympic Village and themedia Villages and vehicles on request tothe 120 other destinations.
For departure, which was concentratedbetween 10 and 12 August, the luggagewas checked in at the Olympic Village toavoid jams at the entrances.
The opening and closing ceremonies
At the opening and closing ceremoniesthere was a maximum concentration ofmembers of the Olympic Family at asingle point —the Olympic Stadium—with little parking space. For that reason,access for cars was restricted and almostall the transport was by bus.
The transport of the 21,600 members ofthe Olympic Family to the opening
ceremony called for 305 buses from 60different starting points (villages, hotels,subsites), with a total of 83 convoys; inaddition, a further 245 buses wereorganised and made ready. At the end ofthe ceremony, the members of the IOCwere back at the Princesa Sofia hotelwithin 30 minutes and in 50 minutes all theresidents at the official hotels had alsoreturned, whilst the first convoy ofcompetitors arrived at the Olympic Village75 minutes after the end of the event.
At the closing ceremony, there were fewerpeople in each group and the planning ofthe operation was less complex.
The official events
At certain official events, the transport ofVIPs was expected to be done mainly bybus to avoid traffic jams at entrances andin car parks. These were the opening ofthe 99th Session of the IOC at the Palaude la Música Catalana (20 July), theOlympic Gala at the Liceu (23 July), the
Location of the transportterritorial units
1234567
89
1011
Transport Operations CentreBus pool Zona FrancaCar pool Princesa SofiaCar pool SumasaCar pool EnsancheCar pool Rius i TauletCar pool SEAT and rentalvehicles centreOlympic Village car poolCar pool LepantoCar pool Escola IndustrialOlympic Village bus pool
258
At some sites, such as theOlympic Canal inCastelldefels (1) or theOlympic Village (2), thecompetitors were providedwith "unusual" means oftransport.
The cars and buses of the fleettook the members of theOlympic Family to the venues.
royal reception at the Palau National (27July) and the reception at the Palau dePedralbes (30 July).
Other special services
A circle line (L 501/502), open to allholders of accreditations, connected thefour Barcelona Olympic areas (Montjuïc,Parc de Mar, Vall d'Hebron andDiagonal). It ran in both directions andstopped at Sants railway station and thePort of Barcelona. It functioned every dayfrom 8.00 to midnight at 15 minuteintervals.
Because of their size, some units had aninternal transport service. They includedthe Olympic Village, the OlympicHarbour, the Mollet shooting range, ElMontanyà equestrian centre, Banyoles,the Port of Barcelona and the MontigalàVillage.
A pool of 30 vehicles was available at theCoordinating Medical Centre for journeys
made by members of the IOC MedicalCommission, transport of the dopingcontrol samples and the competitors whohad to be taken to the Olympic Villagepolyclinic.
COOB'92 took direct charge of thetransport of the volunteers when they hadto cover the circuit events or wereassigned to units which could not bereached by public transport. For otherpeople connected with the Games, such asthe participants in the InternationalYouth Camp, over 200 bus orsupplementary minibus services werescheduled.
In addition, a sponsorship agreement wassigned with RENFE, which included theOlympic train between Barcelona andReus, used by the members of theOlympic Family staying at hotels in theSalou and Cambrils area, from where theywere taken by bus to Reus station. From23 July to 10 August, four journeys a dayeach way were made between that city
1 and 2
3
1 3
2
259
and Barcelona and over 20,000 peopletravelled.
The management of parking spacesat the units
In order to fulfil the undertaking in theBarcelona Candidature, which was similarto those made at other Games,agreements were signed with publictransport management to provide a freeservice for the Olympic Family andTeam'92 during the operational period ofthe Games. 94,500 public transport passeswere distributed to the Olympic Family;they entitled the holders to use all the cityand inter-city bus lines in Barcelona andthe 17 towns of the metropolitan area, thesubway lines and the city lines of theGeneralitat railways (FGC). The onlycondition was that the passes had to beshown with the holder's accreditation.The accreditation also provided access tothe inter-city lines of the FGC, andTeam'92 could also use the local RENFElines. Free transport for Team'92 was alsoavailable on some public transport lines inthe surrounding area.
The Transport Department was also incharge of managing the parking spaces atthe units. For security reasons andbecause of the limited amount of spaceavailable, it was necessary to establishrestrictions on the indiscriminate access ofvehicles and adopt a pass system. Thesepasses distinguished the parking areasavailable (beside the unit —ACI—,Olympic fleet car parks and spaces forvehicles with pass) and two kinds ofprivilege: access (only for loading andunloading) or parking. They were alsosubject to certain limits in time (from oneday to the whole period of the Games)and space (one unit or more). This meanta total of 230 models of pass.
The criteria for restricting the allocationof access and parking passes helped toensure a congestion free transportoperation. The total number of spacesavailable was 16,750 (at 53 car parks) and
Final organisation chartof the Transport Division
260
As joint partner of theGames, SEAT supplied thecars and vans of the fleet.The company also had aship in the port for its guests.
The Olympic fleet, when notin service, was parked in thecar pools.
the Transport Operations Centredistributed 4,375 Olympic fleet passes,4,175 single unit passes, 190 ACI passes,370 for the circuit events and 2,100 for theceremonies; and at the units themselves, afurther 25,700. Although the wide varietyof passes created certain difficulties ofinterpretation at the vehicle accesscontrol, the restrictive measures provedeffective and occupation of the car parkswas very low.
The vehicles of the Olympic fleet weresupplied by SEAT, joint partner of theGames (the company's contribution is setout in the table below), and Yamahawhich, as official supplier of the Games,provided COOB'92 with 198 scooters,33 motor cycles and 8 special vehicles.During the Games, both companiestook charge of the maintenance andrepairs to the vehicles, and SEAT paid forthe fuel.
The fleet of buses was the most expensivepart of the transport operation. In orderto cut down the cost, the services wereadjusted to the demand for journeys bythe different groups estimated with acomputer module linking the scheduledservice journeys, which variedconsiderably over the operational period.In this way, the established transportcriteria were varied according to thecharacteristics of each day. As shown inthe diagram the period of maximumactivity was between 25 July and 3August. The inclusion of a guide on eachbus and the increased Olympicsignposting were decisive factors inensuring that the constant changes to theroutes were not a problem for theprofessional drivers, even when they hadno previous knowledge of the Olympicitineraries because they came from otherparts of Spain.
Most of the scheduled journeys weremade with the contracted fleet of buses,located in the bus pool in the Zona
Distribution of vehicles ceded bySEAT by type and services
SEAT
Toledo
Ibiza
Terra
AUDI
100
80
VOLKSWAGEN
Passat
Caravelle / Kombi
Transporter / LT
Total
270
30
20
202
522
527
16
543
126
173
173
472
47
47
95
70
5
160
87
417
22
30
10
2
1
7
27
99
1,040
100
15
32
21
382
423
87
2,100
1
2
Resources
Assigned On request Assigned NOC Scheduled Organisation Reserve and special Total
1 2
261
Franca, which serviced the venues andresidences in Barcelona and the subsitesin the metropolitan area. At the subsiteswhich were far from Barcelona localoperators were contracted to cover thescheduled journeys around the towns.
The Olympic Family transport requiredover 6,800 people working over the 44 daysof the operation. During this phase almost500 people were contracted, among theminstructors from Catalan driving schoolsand over 4,300 volunteers, of whom manywere members of the Reial AutomòbilClub de Catalunya. The interest of the staffand their enthusiasm at doing such anexceptional job made it possible to organisea highly motivated and, overall,well-integrated team.
Organisation during the operationalphase
During the operational period, whichbegan, as far as transport was concerned,
on 24 June, the organisation andmanagement of all journeys wasconcentrated at the Transport OperationsCentre, which supplied the services,managed the fleet of vehicles, controlledtheir operation and monitored the state ofthe traffic. Moreover, each unit had atransport department which controlledthe provision of services and managed theparking spaces, the staff and theresources.
Traffic and transport regulationsduring the Games
COOB'92 expected the Olympic Familytransport and the overall increase intraffic (confirmed by a study which itcommissioned jointly with the BarcelonaTourist Board) to generate seriousproblems of mobility in the city. And so,in April 1989 a working party (calledTransgrup'92) was set up. It was formedby COOB'92 and the Barcelona CityCouncil, and was later joined by
Buses in service during the Games262
During the operations phase,4,300 volunteers took partin the management of thefleet, driving the vehiclesand registering the entriesand exits from sites such asthe Olympic Village (1) orrunning car pools like theone on Montjuïc (2).
Before the Games, all thevolunteer drivers tooktraining courses.
Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona(TMB), Entitat Metropolitana delTransport (EMT), Generalitat railways(FGC), RENFE and the TrafficAuthority. Starting from the requirementsof COOB'92, each institution or entityformulated a plan of action involvingclosing areas of the city to traffic, theoccupying circuits and estimating trafficflow.
In the case of the highways between cities,the matter was in the hands of the TrafficAuthority. Meetings were held at each ofthe subsites to define the itineraries whichwould have to be used, the trafficrestrictions and the specific measureswhich would have to be taken.
In its turn, in June 1991 the BarcelonaCity Council proposed a strategic plan formobility during the Games, which set asits goal encouraging the use of publictransport by means of a series of parkingrestrictions, closing problem areas andsetting up parking spaces connected to the
subway and railway network. COOB'92and the City Council defined therestrictions to be imposed on thecirculation of vehicles, the loading andunloading of goods and parking in the citycentre, which were later published in theform of a mayoral decree. The year beforethe Games, the company Empresa deMobilitat Olímpica'92 (EMO'92) wasconstituted. It was formed by the SocietalMunicipal d'Aparcaments i Serveis andthe public transport bodies. It wasresponsible for putting the strategy fordiscouraging the use of privatetransport defined by the City Council intopractice.
The guidelines for providing increasedmobility for visitors and the OlympicFamily and avoiding saturation of theroutes into Barcelona took three mainaspects into account: decongestion of theroad network, public transport andOlympic Family transport.
1 and 2
3
1 2
3
263
Decongestion of the road network
The first point to be made here is thatwhen several strategic sections of the roadnetwork came into operation andimprovement works were completedshortly before the Games, there was anotable increase in the ease with whichthe traffic flowed around the city: this wasthe case with the Ronda Litoral (coastalring-road) and the Ronda de Dalt (upperring-road), the Vallvidrera tunnels, thesection of the second ring-road as far asBadalona, the slipways of the A-19motorway through Badalona, the Garrafand Rubí-Terrassa motorways and theconversion of the N-152 to Vic and theC-150 from Girona to Banyoles to dualcarriageway.
Secondly, we should consider a series ofspecial offers by EMO'92 whichencouraged people to use public transportto come into Barcelona: Park Tren'92(which provided new car parks connectedwith Barcelona by train), Park Bus'92
(which provided parking spaces for busesconnected to subway stations) and ParkCentre'92 (which reserved parking spacesfor cars, combined with an Olympic ticket,in particular areas of the city and for aspecified time). Fewer people thanexpected took advantage of these threepossibilities, but even so they had asignificant influence in dissuading peoplefrom using private cars to drive into thecity centre.
Lastly, the City Council reduced theloading and unloading times for goods,restricted heavy goods vehicles on the ringroads and the motorways into the city atrush hours and reserved parking space forduly accredited residents' vehicles, whileeliminating 2,741 parking spaces in theblue zone and strictly controlling illegalparking.
Public transport
The bus and subway, both dependent onthe TMB, extended their usual running
The Montjuïc funicular,reopened shortly before theGames, was one of themeans of public transportused to reach the OlympicRing.
1
The special Olympicsignposting (2 and 4)smoothed the journeys toand from the venues. Thetransport information wasalso most useful (3).
2, 3 and 4
1 2 4
3
264
The Olympic ticket gave theholder the right to unlimiteduse of the bus, the subwayand the Generalitatrailways.
The Olympic signposting,which gave priority to publictransport, was also designedto smooth the flow of privatevehicles.
times —23.00 to 1.00—, and ran asfrequently as on working days in winter;moreover, special bus lines were laid on inthe Montjuïc and Vall d'Hebron Areasand the modernised Montjuïc funicularwas brought back into operation. TheEntitat Metropolitana del Transportscheduled shuttle buses betweenCastelldefels station and the Olympicrowing canal, Viladecans station and thebaseball stadium and Badalona stationand the boxing and basketball venues.The night bus service laid on specialservices to Badalona and between Plaçad'Espanya and Plaça Catalunya inBarcelona. RENFE and FGC also put onmore local trains.
Along with this increase in supply went aseries of special Olympic signs for all thelines, stations and bus stops on the publictransport system; special transport guideswere published and information abouttransport in general was made morereadily available. We should point outthat the combined tickets were widely
used, especially the Olympic ticket (theoutcome of an agreement between TMB,EMT and FGC).
Olympic Family transport
In order to guarantee greater safety andmobility for the Olympic Family transport,a series of Olympic sites were closed togeneral traffic and reserved for vehicles ofthe Olympic fleet and those with a pass:Montjuïc, Vall d'Hebron, Parc de Mar,Diagonal, the Estació del Nord andFrontó Colom (Rambla). Local residentswere provided with a pass for theirvehicles.
An especially notable feature of theoperation was the reservation of 66kilometres of lanes for the exclusive use ofthe Olympic fleet and vehicles withpasses, which were also allowed to use the40 kilometres of bus lanes.
Passengers per day on publictransport (25 July to 9 August)
RENFE
FGC
Subway
TMB busses
Night bus
TMB shuttles
EMT shuttles - Night bus - COOB'92
Montjuìc Funicular
Total
188,398
60,944
551,485
292,902
3,546
1,097,275
303,402
100,410
845,019
357,037
6,443
52,651
1,515
28,794
1,695,271
61 %
65 %
53 %
22 %
82 %
54%
39 %
32 %
60 %
50 %
0 %
5
6
1991 1992 Increase in passengers Increase in supply
5 6
265
The cooperation among all the institutionsinvolved made it possible to haveimmediate information about the trafficsituation and to coordinate the measuresthat needed to be taken. Forecasts wereprepared about problematic times andstretches of road, which enabled thepeople in charge at the subsites, the citypolice and the Traffic Authority to takethe necessary steps to deal with eachsituation. All this was possible thanks toup-to-date information about traffic alongthe thoroughfares which were relevant tothe Games, both in Barcelona and thewhole of Catalonia.
During the Games, 252 bulletins about 12key points on the roads in Catalonia and 10in Barcelona were drafted from the datasent in; this information was sent by fax tothe managers of the fleet and the OlympicFamily transport services. For their part,the city police and the Guardia Civil wereready to take action if necessary.
We should say that the most significantactions by these bodies were along theroute of the Olympic torch, on the 100 kmtime trial cycling event (Meridiana,Circuit de Montmeló by the A-17) and themen's and women's Marathons (1 and 9August respectively) between Mataró andthe Olympic Stadium: in all these casesthe roads affected had to be closed. Bothforces (the Barcelona city police and theGuardia Civil) also had to act at theaccesses to the Olympic Stadium on thedays of the opening and closingceremonies, at the accesses to the airportat periods of maximum concentration andalso at some of the subsites.
The state of traffic within the city ofBarcelona, along the ways in and at theOlympic subsites was exceptionally good,with no important jams, thanks to the themeasures we have described and thepromotion campaigns (including the
Near the zones which wereclosed to traffic therewere car parks, such as thisone for scooters in the Plaçad'Espanya, at the foot of theOlympic Ring.
The vehicles of the fleetcould use the Olympic lanes,prepared to avoid possibledelays in the journeys of theOlympic Family.
Traffic during the Games 1
Summary
2
3 and 5The TransportsMetropolitans de Barcelona(TMB) subway lines hadinformation points inside thestations (3) and in thesurroundings (5).
1 2 4
3
266
Taxis were also used todiscourage the use of privatevehicles and boost publictransport.
RENFE laid on freetransport for members of theOlympic Family and specialservices for people staying athotels in Salou.
publication of the leaflet "How to getaround Barcelona during the OlympicGames" and the Olympic TransportGuide, and by means of advertisements).
The large number of visitors who werestaying some way outside the city also hada fundamental influence on the RENFEand FGC local lines (where extra serviceswere laid on), but not on the roads into
the city. In fact, traffic in the city droppedby between 15 and 20%, thanks to thewidespread use of public transport.
We should also mention the reduction—in terms of both number andseriousness— of traffic accidents duringthe Olympic period. On the roads ofCatalonia there were only 32 deaths, asopposed to 55 for the same period in 1991.
4
6
5 6 267
1
Besides providing freemedical care for theOlympic Family andcarrying out the controlsrequired by the IOC, theCOOB'92 services includedfirst aid for spectators and
competitors at thecompetition venues.
The medical and public health services atthe Olympic Games, as at any other largescale international event, are a proof ofthe capacity of the city and the hostcountry in the field. This idea was aconstant encouragement to COOB'92 inpreparing to provide the Olympic Familywith top quality medical care.
It should also be borne in mind that thehoning of sporting abilities is increasinglylinked with maximum development of thecompetitors' physical and psychologicalresources and therefore the role of sportsmedicine and its associated disciplines, isfundamental. This was why every possiblesupport was given for a sports medicinesymposium and congress and, on theinitiative of the IOC, a film aboutbiomechanics.
The health care services at the BarcelonaOlympic Games included medical care forthe Olympic Family, first aid forspectators and visitors andimplementation of the medical controlsrequired by the International OlympicCommittee.
Planning the health care services
The first phase of the COOB'92organisation strategy was the planning,which concluded with the publication ofthe Olympic Health Care Plan(PASÓ'92), a detailed analysis of the leveland quality of services which had to beprovided and the resources required.
The first step was to study the obligationsarising from sports regulations andOlympic rules. The main sourcesconsulted were: The Olympic Charter,Rule 48; the Medical Guide, drafted in1984 by the IOC Medical Commission(IOC-MC); the obligations imposed bythe IOC-MC; and the document"Requirements for Medical Facilities atthe Olympic Village", which sets outguidelines for the minimum servicesto be supplied by the OrganisingCommittee.
Another aim in the planning phase was toinvolve health care organisations andspecialists to ensure that the study wouldbe both scientific and detailed and theoperation efficient and flexible. For thispurpose, an advisory committee wasconstituted, made up of representatives of
the Department of Health and SocialSecurity of the Generalitat of Catalonia,the Public Health Department of theBarcelona City Council, the Health CarePlanning Department of the Ministry ofHealth and Consumer Affairs and theSpanish Olympic Committee (COE)Medical Commission. Also involved asassociate institutions were the Red Cross,the Military Health Services, local,regional and national professionalassociations and organisations connectedwith sports medicine. Technicalcommittees were also set up; they weregroups of experts, whose conclusions weretaken into account in the drafting ofPASO'92.
As a consequence, it was possible toestablish with some accuracy what theresponsibilities of COOB'92 were:to provide free medical care for theOlympic Family at the residences,competition venues and training facilities;to provide medical care and first aid foroperations staff on duty and spectators atthe venues or inside the Olympic sites; toprovide the doctors and other medicalstaff accredited by the NationalOlympic Committees (NOC) with thenecessary facilities and resources; tosupply physiotherapy and massageservices for the competitors; toimplement public health prevention andcontrol measures; to supervise cateringhygiene and the quality and nutritionalvalue of the food; to supervise theenvironmental quality of the units; tocarry out the necessary drug tests andanalyses according to the rules of theInternational Olympic Committee; tocarry out the gender verification test forfemale competitors; to propose andsupervise studies in physiology,biomechanics and related disciplinesduring the Games; to coordinate andguarantee the best possible relations withthe IOC-MC and the medical teams ofthe NOCs; to provide individual andstatistical medical information about thehealth care services at the Games; and toprovide information about proceduresand activities in the field of health carefor everyone taking part.
To fulfil these obligations and be faithfulto the criteria established by the IOC-MC,a series of health care programmes weredesigned to decide the level of service,quality standards, equipment and humanresources required for each one, with theaim of providing the finest medical careavailable in Barcelona, which is equal to
1 Health care services
269
the most demanding internationalstandards.
Human and material resources
Almost all the medical staff werevolunteers with accredited experience inthe field, particularly in hospital work orsports medicine. They were required tobehave professionally according to thestrictest criteria of the spirit of theOlympic Movement and to respectinternationally established medical codes.
In the period leading up to the Games,there was special training for medicalstaff. For doctors, nurses and everyonefrom the field of health care in general,there were training sessions for specifictasks and motivation over a two-yearperiod. The Red Cross staff had a specialtraining plan, designed and carried out inclose cooperation with the training staff ofthe organisation itself. At the sportsvenues and other critical points, the
medical staff had undergone specialtraining in emergency medical care andsports medicine.
First-aid treatment was provided byqualified paramedical staff, capable ofperforming a cardiac massage if required,assisted by volunteers. Advancedcardiopulmonary reanimation and lifesupport devices were provided at thevenues and other high risk points. Therewere intensive care units, emergencysurgery and blood banks at the officialOlympic hospital (Hospital del Mar) andall the associated hospitals. There werehospitals no more than 15 minutes fromevery venue.
There was at least one ambulanceavailable at each competition venue andone 5 minutes from each training facility.There was a medical ambulance (mobileICU) in all the Olympic areas.
The first-aid treatment was completed bya twenty-four hour emergency home visit
Management
Medical directors
Doctors
Nursing staff
Physiotherapists
Masseurs
Auxiliaries
Administrative staff
Language hosts
Encoders
Data recorders
Doping control officers
Doping control technicians
Escorts
Transport coordinators
First-aid workers
Emergency service crews
Total
46
385
274
40
158
40
64
33
55
188
1,159
99
2,541
36
2
226
81
82
74
76
64
24
12
14
2
24
6
157
512
1,392
36
48
611
355
122
232
116
128
24
12
14
33
57
212
6
1,316
611
3,933
Human resources for health careSports venues Other sites Total270
All the first aid workers werevolunteers and were trainedbefore the Games. Like theother members of Team'92,they had a free restaurantservice at the sites where theyworked (in this case, theHockey Stadium inTerrassa).
All the medical technicians—like the ones at theOlympic Stadium— hadworked in hospitals or thefield of sports medicine. Thisguaranteed that all the taskswould be covered byexperienced professionals.
service with ambulance on call from anytelephone number on the Olympicnetwork. Round-the-clock medicalservices were also available at the VIPhotels, press centres and Olympic Villagepolyclinic.
Information was provided for spectatorsand competitors about the location of andaccess to the medical services, easilyidentifiable by the international RedCross symbol, and the procedures to befollowed. The medical staff attending thecompetitors and other members of theOlympic Family spoke at least one foreignlanguage.
The IOC-MC was in permanent contactwith the NOC medical delegations tokeep them briefed on regulations andtechniques. Whenever they asked, thedelegations were informed of thediagnosis and treatment applied topatients and they were allowed to attendsurgical operations as observers. Althoughthe authorisation of the patient, or his or
her legal representative, was required incases which might involve risk, the personadministering the treatment bore soleresponsibility.
We should also mention that thephysiotherapy services at some of thecompetition venues and training facilitieswere substantial and provided with thelatest equipment and that a groupinsurance was taken out for anycontingencies or situations not covered bythe established medical services.
The Coordinating Medical Centre(CMC)
The organisation structure of the CMCfor the operational phase of the Gamesconsisted of a directorate and five basicmanagement units or deputy directorates:health care, emergency and transport,general services, medical controls and
1
2
The operational plans
1 2 271
public health and the Olympiclaboratories.
Through the operations coordinator, theCMC directorate supervised the activitiesof the medical services at all thecompetition and residential territorialunits and, in exceptional cases, dealt withproblems which were too complex to besolved at the unit itself. The CMC wasalso the centralised management of themedical transport.
During the Games, the CMC handledabout 2,700 telephone calls. From 2 Julyto 10 August 1992 a total of 498 patientswere carried, of whom only 119 (24%)required a medical ambulance.
Medical controls
The Barcelona'92 medical controls werecarried out according to the establishedrules. The IOC-MC forbids the use ofcertain pharmacological substances andRule 48 of the Olympic Charter, 1991
edition, concerning doping sets out thesanctions to be applied if an athleterefuses to submit to the doping control orcomes up positive on it. It also specifiesthe procedures for selecting the athletesand taking samples. Along broad lines,the controls are applied to the first fourclassified in each event or sport and aquota of other competitors chosen atrandom.
The Barcelona doping control laboratorywas at the Municipal Institute for MedicalResearch (IMIM) Department ofToxicology, officially recognised by theIOC in 1985.
The operations phase of the dopingcontrol began on the morning of 26 Julywith the samples taken in the road cyclingevent and ended on 9 August with themen's Marathon. The samples werecollected at 36 doping stations at thecompetition venues and the sealedcontainers were transported by themembers of the IOC-MC in charge of
The Coordinating MedicalCentre supervised theactivity of the servicessupplied at the sites andcentralised the managementof medical transport.
All the competition venueshad a medical ambulance(mobile ICU).
The Department ofToxicology andPharmacology of theHospital del Mar was theOfficial Medical Laboratoryfor the gender tests and
doping controls required bythe IOC.
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2
3
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There was a polyclinic ateach Olympic Village(Barcelona, Banyoles andLa Seu d'Urgell).
During the Games, 1,870urine samples were analysedby 18 different analyticalmethods to determine thepresence of any of thesubstances prohibited by theIOC Medical Commission.
Some items of medicalmaterial used for the Games,such as the containers andforms for the doping control,were designed for theBarcelona Olympic Games.
supervising the process in a fleet ofvehicles laid on specially for this purpose.
The relaxed atmosphere and thecomfortable conditions at the dopingcontrol stations helped to achieve goodrelations with the athletes. The relationsbetween the station officers and themembers of the IOC-MC were alsoexcellent; the technicians did their jobefficiently and no appeals against theprocedure were registered.
Altogether, 1,870 urine samples wereanalysed; 1,316 (70%) from men and554 (30%) from women. To identify allpossible banned substances, 18 differentanalytical methods were applied toeach sample, giving a total of 33,600analyses.
As the results had to be available thesame day, the work was organised in shiftsaround the clock. After the analyses hadbeen carried out, there were only fivepositives (three stimulants —strychnine,
mesocard and norephedrine— and twobeta-agonists —clenbuterol in bothcases—), which shows that the use ofdrugs is in decline, as had already beenobserved at major competitions.
The IOC-MC has set the basic criteria forthe gender tests: respect for the athlete,reliability of the method and total secrecyfor the results. The sample taking andbiological analysis of gender were carriedout using a new method based on nuclearbiochemistry, officially approved by theIOC Executive Board on 20 September1991.
Holders of the gender certificate endorsedby the IOC-MC and the InternationalAmateur Athletics Federation (IAAF)were exempted from the test. The othersportswomen gave a sample of theirbuccal mucous so that gender could bedetermined by chromatin. In borderlinecases, when required by the IOC-MC, aclinical examination was carried out, witha study of the secondary sexual
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5
6
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characteristics, the morphology of thesubject and the psychological behaviour.
The gender tests were carried outbetween 10 July and 4 August at the threeOlympic Villages. A total of 2,406 sampleswere collected: 2,207 at the Barcelonapolyclinic, 172 in Banyoles and 27 in LaSeu d'Urgell.
Hospitals
The Hospital del Mar dealt with specialcases which could not be covered at theBarcelona Olympic Village polyclinic. Itwas also the hospital to which members ofthe Olympic Family and other groups,including spectators, were normallyadmitted.
The associate hospitals acted as referralcentres for admission and emergencytreatment, especially for spectators andaccredited persons apart from thecompetitors; they also took charge of the
management of subsite competitionvenues. The Olympic subsite hospitalswere: the Badalona Municipal Hospital,the Consorci Hospitalari del Parc Taulí inSabadell, the Hospital de la Creu Roja inL'Hospitalet, the Hospital de Sant Joan inReus, the Fundació Sant Hospital in LaSeu d'Urgell, the Mútua de Terrassa, theHospital de Badalona Germans Trias iPujol, the Hospital de Viladecans, theHospital de Granollers and the ConsorciHospitalari de Terrassa.
The polyclinics
Polyclinics were set up at the threeOlympic Villages according to theestimated needs. In Barcelona there was afour-storey block built by the CatalanHealth Service, which was to be used as aprimary care centre after the Games; inBanyoles business premises weretemporarily converted and in La Seud'Urgell part of the hospital itself wasadapted for the purpose.
The Barcelona OlympicVillage polyclinic providedtreatment in basicspecialities —such astraumatology, chiropody,dentistry, ear, nose andthroat and ophthalmology(1)— and electrotherapy andphysiotherapy services (2).
The Barcelona'92 mascot,Cobi, also put on hisdoctor's gown.
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3
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At the sick bay at the venues,such as the OlympicStadium, medical care wasprovided for the competitors.
The Hospital del Mar,300 m from the BarcelonaOlympic Village, was theofficial Olympic hospitalduring the Games.
The Barcelona polyclinic (and the othertwo to a lesser degree) had every auxiliaryresource for diagnosis and treatment anda round-the-clock emergency service withbasic specialities (traumatology,chiropody, dentistry, ear, nose and throatand ophthalmology) and full-scalephysiotherapy and electrotherapysupport.
The Barcelona polyclinic managementprovided contact with the NOC medicaldelegations and back-up for preventiveand curative treatment at the OlympicVillage.
The competition venues
The competition venues had separatemedical care systems for competitors andspectators. The person in charge of themedical care structure at each venue wasthe medical director, who depended onthe venue director, and at his orders werethe head of the Red Cross, the athletes'
clinic doctor, the spectators' clinic doctor,the doping control officer and the medicalemergency staff.
Services for the delegations
According to the guidelines of the IOC-MC, the PASO'92 included a programmefor cooperation with the NOC medicaldelegations. It stipulated that premiseswould be provided during the Games forconsultancies and physiotherapy andrehabilitation areas. They were set up asclose as possible to the athletes'residences and the size and equipmentprovided the delegation doctors and othermedical staff with the best possibleworking conditions. At the OlympicVillage, for example, there were 17 icemachines with a production capacity of3,300 kilograms a day; at the otherVillages there were similar ones.
All NOC doctors were provided with anaccreditation signed by the Council of
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Institutes of Doctors of Catalonia and allthe documents they needed to work. Thetotal number of medical staff with FOaccreditation (access to the OlympicVillage) was 394 doctors, 109 paramedics(physiotherapists, nurses, etc.) and324 masseurs; the staff with FXaccreditation (restricted to certainvenues) was 69 doctors, 26 paramedicsand 85 masseurs.
Public health
COOB'92 organised a public healthprogramme for the Olympic Villageand helped set up the means forcoordinating with the public healthauthorities.
Under the epidemiological surveillanceprogramme, 1,138 cases of declarablediseases were monitored between 11 Julyand 12 August. They break down asfollows: acute respiratory infections(62%); enteritis and diarrhoea (23%),rashes and other cutaneous eruptions(6%) and others (9%). Almost all thecases were isolated ones with noepidemiological significance. Among theindividual declarable diseases, one case ofmalaria and one recurrence of hepatitis Bwere identified. We should mention anoutbreak of chemical conjunctivitis(41 cases), caused by the use offlares by spectators at the openingceremony.
At the competition venues,medical care coveredspectators (1) andparticipants (2 and 3), butwith separate services.
At the Olympic Villagepolyclinic there was also apharmacy service.
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4
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All the competition venues—such as El Montanyà (5)or the archery field (6)—had medical care areas andcould take patients tohospital by ambulance inless than 15 minutes.
The food control activities wereparticularly intense, given the size, varietyand complexity of the organisation of theOlympic Family and Team'92 cateringservices. They were divided into twobroad phases. The first was before theoperation, when all the food preparationinstallations for the Olympic Family in thecity of Barcelona and the subsites wereinspected and quality control proceduresfor raw materials reviewed. The secondphase, the operation itself, consisted ofthe collection of 2,034 samples forepidemiological surveillance and amicrobiological analysis of certainfoodstuffs which were particularly likelyto be affected by the changes in the coldchain: fourth and fifth range products andthe ones cooked at the facilitiesthemselves.
The monitoring programme for thecoastal waters in the city, extended to theregatta zone, kept a close watch on themicrobiological quality of the sea water
according to EC standards. In spite of afew deficiencies detected on the first days(mostly the result of the heavy rain whichhad fallen in early July), the situationgradually returned to normal and the finaloverall quality levels were highlysatisfactory. The monitoring of theenvironmental contamination in the cityof Barcelona did not reveal any significantdiscrepancies from European standards ofatmospheric quality.
5 and 6
For first aid, the medicalstaff were assisted by RedCross volunteers.
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277
The three polyclinics haddiagnostic and treatmentequipment in the field of thebasic specialities, such asophthalmology.
The IOC MedicalCommission, which had itsheadquarters at the Hiltonhotel, supervised andcontrolled the competition.
The "smoke-free Games"campaign was one of theCOOB'92 public healthprogrammes. It was designedto protect competitors,technicians and spectatorsfrom the harmful effects oftobacco.
The Medical Care Guidewas one of the COOB'92health care publications andwas distributed to theOlympic Family.
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2
3
4
2
3
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In both the planning and operationalphases, coordination with other COOB'92departments, the institutions and the IOCMedical Commission was of the essence.This and the planning were the keys to thesuccess of the medical care services at theBarcelona Olympic Games, sincealthough the conception and design of thecare network were simple, thecoordination and communication amongthe different sectors involved were highlycomplex.
The large scale deployment which hadbeen decided on was amply justifiedwhen, for instance, there was a higherincidence of cardial ischemia thanexpected, as all the necessary resourceswere available to treat the cases with.
Moreover, the fact that the IOC MedicalCommission set up its headquarters at theHilton Hotel made coordination easier,
since it was able to exercise its supervisionand control functions without interferingwith everyday activity at the CMC.
Medical treatment during the Games
2. Cases at sports venues
Barcelona polyclinic
1. Cases at sites other than sports venues
Clinical analyses
Cardiology
General surgery
Vascular surgery
Orthopaedic surgery and traumatology
Digestive apparatus
Dermatology
Gynaecology-obstetrics
Internal medicine
Pneumonology
Neurology
Maxillo-facial surgery
Ophthalmology
Ear, nose and throat
Urology
Other
Total
3
3
23
2
43
23
26
12
9
4
8
1
23
23
18
21
242
Final considerations
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sites other than sports venues
Sports venues
Polyclinics
Hospitals
Total
3,708
5,747
5,439
812
15,706
Cases
Total 3,290 2,457 5,747
Accredited Not accredited Total
3. Cases at polyclinics
Cases Pharmaceuticalprescriptions
Barcelona
Banyoles
La Seu d'Urgell
Total
4,933
505
1
5,439
4,410
304
4,714
Cases
Clinical analyses
Physiotherapy (patients)
Sports medicine
Internal medicine
Dentistry
Ophthalmology
Ear, nose and throat
Chiropody
Radiology (X-rays taken)
Traumatology
Emergencies
Other
Total
48
375
32
772
618
344
262
554
751
575
536
66
4,933
Olympic hospital
Cases
Outpatients
Emergencies
Admissions
Total
242
462
70
774
8
30
38
250
492
70
812
Olympic hospital Others Total
4. Cases at hospitals
Home visits
Media villages and MPC
IYC
HQ hotels
Total
133
2,367
359
204
3,063
91
554
645
224
2,921
359
204
3,708
Accredited Not accredited Total
279
1
2
280
The COOB'92 LanguageServices Department wasdivided into five sections:translation and correction oftexts, style books and sportsglossaries, announcers,language hosts andinterpretation. During theGames interpretation wasprovided at 42 facilities,with 167 booths and 176professional interpreters,who covered the four officiallanguages and ten others.
A press conference at thePalau d'Esports inBadalona, with some of themembers of the Americanbasketball team. In additionto the official pressconferences at the venues,there was an interpretationservice at the IOC meetings,the IF congresses, the MPCpress conferences and theofficial meetings at the IBCand the Olympic Village.
At an international event such as theOlympic Games, it is inevitable that alarge number of languages will be used inmany different situations. The 1987edition of the Olympic Charter lays downthat the Organising Committee mustpublish all the obligatory documents inthe two official languages of the IOC(French and English) and the language ofthe host country. In the case of Barcelona,given the official bilingual status of thecity as reflected in the Statutes ofAutonomy of Catalonia, not one but twolanguages had to be added to those of theIOC; and so COOB'92, in agreement withall the institutions involved in theOlympic organisation, decided that theBarcelona Games would have four officiallanguages: Catalan, Spanish, French andEnglish.
This proliferation of languages called for acomplex programme of services from thevery beginning. The first objective of theprogramme was to provide COOB'92 withthe translation, correction andinterpretation services which were essentialto the preparatory work of the Games. Atthe same time, the services which would beprovided for the Olympic Family to ensurecommunication among the members andbetween them and the organisation had tobe planned. The staff who would besupplying these services had to beselected (and in some cases trained) andthe instruments which would guaranteemaximum quality and coherencein the sphere of language had to beprepared.
To develop the programme, in January1988 COOB'92 set up the LanguageServices Department inside the OlympicFamily Services Division. We should pointout that this was the first time that anOrganising Committee decided to treat thesubject in depth four and a half yearsbefore the Games; in the end, this foresightwas shown to have been more thanjustified.
The Language Services were organised infive sectors: translation and correction oftexts, interpretation, announcers, stylebooks and sports glossaries andlanguage hosts. With time, and because ofits inherent scope and characteristics,this last area became a separatedepartment.
This was one of the sectors which had themost work and from a very early stage.From the moment COOB'92 wasconstituted all kinds of texts had to betranslated and corrected. We might saythat this department entered theoperations phase at the moment it cameinto existence and simultaneously beganto plan the service for the period of theGames themselves. The sector wasequipped with computers and a team ofstaff which grew with the constantincrease in demand. During the last stagebefore the Games, there were threepeople for Catalan, two for Spanish, threefor French and three for English and twoothers whose job was to coordinate thelanguages and compare the texts.Moreover, each language had a largenumber of people working outside:between the four official languages andthe others to or from which translationswere done or in which texts werecorrected, about one hundred professionaltranslators and correctors worked forLanguage Services. In addition to the fourofficial languages, fifteen others wereused: Arabic, Basque, Danish, Dutch,Finnish, Galician, German, Greek, Italian,Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian,Serbocroat and Swedish. Counting all thelanguages, from the constitution ofLanguage Services to 10 July 1992, about61.5 million words were translated orcorrected.
For the period of the Games themselves ateam of 77 translators and correctors wasformed: 27 professionals and 50volunteers. The volunteers were studentsfrom European universities who weretaking part in the European CommunityErasmus exchange programme withstudents from the University School ofTranslators and Interpreters (EUTI) atthe Autonomous University of Barcelona(UAB).
During the Games the translation andcorrection services were integrated into theOlympic Agency and the main task wastranslating and correcting all theinformation generated to be loaded into theMultiple Access to Information andCommunication system (AMIC). Thetranslators used a computer systemdesigned specially for the occasion, whichoptimized efficiency and workedsimultaneously in the four officiallanguages. All the translated texts werecorrected by the professionals before being
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loaded into the network and sent out forthe use of the Olympic Family. Between 10July and 10 August 2.5 million words weretranslated or corrected.
In order to make the work of thedepartment efficient and coherent, it wasclear from very early on that variousreference sources would be required tounify criteria and achieve a homogeneousstyle within COOB'92 in each of theofficial languages. Agreements weresigned with the UAB and the Departmentof Language Policy at the Generalitat ofCatalonia. Under the first, with thecooperation of two teachers from theEUTI, the Automatic OlympicNomenclator (NOA) was prepared. TheNOA is a data base containing fourinterrelated style books (one for eachofficial language) and a dictionary withthe 2,000 most frequently used terms andtheir equivalents in the four official
languages. These terms are not strictly todo with sport, but they are all related tothe Olympic world and the organisation ofthe Games. With the Department ofLanguage Policy the agreement was tocommission the preparation of the sportsglossaries from the Terminology Centre ofCatalonia, TERMCAT, which wasdependent on the Department and theInstitute of Catalan Studies.The result was a collection of 29dictionaries, one for each Olympic sport(25), one for each demonstration sport (3)and one for general terms. Altogether,14,306 terms were collected with theirequivalents in all four languages and adefinition in Catalan. For the preparationof these dictionaries a technicalcommittee was formed for each sport withterminologists from the TERMCAT andsports technicians from COOB'92, theUnion of Catalan Sports Federations andthe Department of Sport at theGeneralitat of Catalonia.
At all the venue informationpoints, the members of theOlympic Family could useany of the four officiallanguages: Catalan,Spanish, French andEnglish.
The standards at theOlympic Village welcomeceremonies bore the name ofthe NOC in the four officiallanguages.
Style books and sports glossaries
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The announcers services wereorganised by sports, so thatone team could cover thefour official languages andwork shifts at thecompetitions with longerhours.
The interpretation provided by LanguageServices was always done by professionalconference interpreters. As withtranslation, interpretation services wererequired from the outset. The volume ofwork was not comparable, however, asuntil 1990 the demand was sporadic. In1989 an adviser was appointed to plan theinterpretation service for the period of theGames and to coordinate the hiring ofinterpreters to cover the needs ofCOOB'92. In 1991 she was appointedchief interpreter.
The scope of the operation for the Gameswas huge, but as the planning work hadbeen started early it was possible toprovide a good service. 176 professionalinterpreters were contracted: 62 fromBarcelona, 19 from the rest of Spain and95 from 18 other countries. In addition tothe four official languages, nine otherswere used (Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese,Dutch, German, Japanese, Italian,
Portuguese, Romanian and Russian),making 182 possible combinations for atotal of 338 sessions at 42 units.
Coverage was provided for all themeetings of the IOC (Session, ExecutiveBoard, commissions), internationalfederation congresses, official pressconferences at the units, the daily pressconferences at the Main Press Centre andthe official meetings at the InternationalBroadcast Centre and the OlympicVillage, all of which required aprofessional service.
Owing to the number of languagesrequired, it was decided to usesimultaneous interpretation as much aspossible. 167 booths were used, allcomplying with international regulationsin terms of size, visibility, soundproofingand ventilation. All the interpreters wereequipped with a pager and an infotypewhich kept them in contact with anelectronic voice message service wherethey could find information about their
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All the COOB'92publications for the OlympicFamily were produced in thefour official languages of theGames (1). The LanguageServices Departmentpublished an in-housebulletin (Glosso-làlia) andworked with the TERMCATto draft the sports glossariespublished by theEnciclopèdia Catalana (2).
One of the standard bearerswho led the delegations atthe opening ceremony.
During the Competitions'91,the announcers' project wastried out and the messagesset in the four officiallanguages.
5 and 6The Scoreboard at thePiscines Bernat Picornell(5). The announcers' serviceat the venues wascoordinated with the resultsmanagement system (6).
assignments. The system was connected tothe PEARL computer programme,developed by the European Communityand loaned to COOB'92, which wasresponsible for assigning the jobs to theinterpreters each day.
This sector consisted of the people whohad to make announcements over the PAsystems at all the competition venues. In1991 a person was hired to take charge.Teams of announcers were organised bysports, so that they could cover all fourofficial languages and all the shifts in thecase of competitions which went on for along time. In general no announcerworked in more than two languages toavoid confusion and interference. Astandard script was written for themessages common to all the sports and allthe venues: welcome and farewell, victoryceremonies, etc. Later the scripts wereadapted for each sport with the additional
messages and specific information whichthe people in charge of the sportsorganisation asked to be included
During the test events in 1991 theannouncers and the messages in the fourlanguages were tried out. Thecoordination between the PA system andthe different kinds of information to begiven —which depended on otherservices, such as protocol, results, orceremonies— was the most complex partof the operation and the results werehighly satisfactory.
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4
Announcers
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1
During the Games thecatering programme coveredthe restaurant services forthe different sectors of theOlympic Family andTeam'92 at the venues andservice centres.
The aim of the catering programme was toguarantee the supply of food for allgroups (competitors and officials, judgesand referees, media staff, VIPs andTeam'92), and at all the Games sites overthe operational period. To choose menusin the planning phase of the project thevariety of origins of the guests had to betaken into account: over 170 countries,with quite different religions, ethnicpopulations, cultures and food habits—,as did the differences between the groups—competitors, journalists and VIPs— andthe times and places where the mealswould have to be served. A furtherconsideration which increased thecomplexity of the operation was the factthat it had to be carried out in a part ofthe world where summer temperaturesare extremely high.
The COOB'92 Catering Division wasresponsible for planning and mounting thefacilities, defining the operations,contracting the outside companies whichwould be working on the project and,lastly, managing and supervising theservices during the Games. The divisionthus set about deciding what food wouldbe available at the Games, concocted themenus —after approving them from thepoint of view of nutritional value anddiet—, negotiated the contracts with thecompanies that would be supplyingproducts, equipment and services andsupervised the supply of over800,000 meals for competitors andofficials and 500,000 for the organisationstaff, as well as the catering service atthe media villages, the judges andreferees village and the InternationalYouth Camp.
The division was constituted in March1990 with a project manager and byDecember 1991 it had a staff of 16. In theoperational phase, however, COOB'92contracted 82 people to work onadministrative and managerial tasks at theunits. To make it more flexible, it wasdivided into three sectors: catering at thevillages, catering at competition venuesand support centres, and organisation andresources; this last one included logistics,human resources and budgetmanagement. To strengthen the structure,in June 1990 an agreement was reachedwith ARA Services which became officialsupplier of catering consultancy services.The company made a team of staffavailable to COOB'92 to define and plan
the services and to implement themduring the operations phase.
The total budget, including studies,equipment, contracting services andbuying raw materials, was 4,417 millionpesetas.
Aware of the importance of proper foodto the maintenance of physical andpsychological equilibrium, for both thecompetitors and the staff, COOB'92established from the outset that the foodwould provide a balanced diet, would beabundant and would be subject tomaximum safety precautions in hygieneand sanitation. The OrganisingCommittee also set out a global plan tocontrol the quality and safety of theingredients, which took account ofelements ranging from the design of thefacilities and stores to a rigorous selectionof suppliers, methods of production andtransport, analyses and controls.
The Catering Division managed thebuying of the raw materials directly. Itwas decided that the purchases, apartfrom basic products such as bread, fruitand vegetables, should be concentrated ina large company (Bon Preu SA) whichwas capable of responding immediately toany emergency and would accept thereturn of what was left over after theGames. By means of a competition inMarch 1991, the concessions were grantedto two companies, one for the OlympicVillage (Sodexho-Coemco) and anotherfor the Villages in Banyoles and La Seud'Urgell (Eurest). The companiessupplied the technical resources and stafffor production and distribution of thefood.
During the first half of 1991, 57 suppliercompanies were audited, among themofficial sponsors, to decide on possibleassociations with the catering service ofthe Games. In the end the ones chosenincluded: Coca-Cola (soft drinks andjuices), Mars (snacks and chocolate),Campofrío SA (meat and preserved meatproducts), Danone (yoghurt), Frigo SA(ice creams and frozen products), Cola-Cao (cocoa drink, powdered chocolateand milk shakes), Damm (non-alcoholicbeer), Freixenet (cava), Fontdor (stillmineral water), Vichy Catalán (sparklingmineral water), Comercial Gallo SA
1 Catering
Catering for competitorsand officials
287
(pasta and sauces), Carbonell y Compañíade Córdoba SA (oil and vinegar), KelloggEspaña SA (cereals), Marcilla (coffee andcoffee machines).
One of the novelties on the Barcelonaprogramme was that accommodation forcompetitors was free and so, therefore,was the catering.
The competitors and team officials had a24-hour-a-day restaurant service at thethree Olympic Villages for the wholeperiod of the operation, from 11 July to 12August in Barcelona and until 6 August inBanyoles and La Seu d'Urgell.
A restaurant service was also provided forcompetitors and team officials outside theOlympic Village at the venues where theywere competing; the same company whichsupplied the food for the organisationstaff laid on the catering in the rest areasat each one.
The Barcelona Olympic Village
The Olympic Village had two restaurantareas. The first covered a total surfacearea of 32,900 m2, including stores,production zones, kitchens and canteen.The stores were connected to theproduction zone by lifts and ramps andhad their own unloading bay for rawmaterials. The restaurant zoneconsisted of 20 self-service islands, or freeflows; each of them offered different kindsof dishes in a buffet display. The surfaceareas of the canteens was 8,500 m2 andthey could cater for 3,500 services at atime. The space was divided bymodules which opened up according tothe number of competitors and officialswanting to eat.
The second restaurant area, on the jetty ofthe Olympic Harbour, occupied a totalsurface area of 4,250 m2 and had acapacity of 1,250. It was also divided into
The Olympic Villageprovided a restaurant servicefor residents 24 hours a dayfrom 11 July to 12 August.
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288
The competitors andmembers of Team'92 alsohad a catering service atsome of the venues. Such wasthe case with the INEFC.
At all the venues, like theReal Club de Polo, cateringservices were available forthe spectators.
The catering services at theBanyoles Olympic Villagetended to the needs of 950residents from 11 July to 6August.
modules, each offering a speciality (pizza,fruit, sandwiches), and there was arestaurant for VIPs.
The opening times were: from 5.00 to11.00 for breakfast, from 11.00 to 16.00 forlunch and from 18.30 to 24.00 for dinner.Outside this timetable there was a morelimited range of food to cover the full 24hours' service. The staff required for allthe catering services, includingproduction, cleaning and logistics, was1,526 people.
In order to reduce the number ofdeliveries during the Games and forobvious security reasons, all non-perishable and non-food products werestored at the Village or on premisescontrolled by the organisation threemonths before the opening. Freshproduce, such as bread, fruit andvegetables, was delivered according toneed.
The menus for each week were drawn upfrom a list with a wide range of dishes,avoiding repetition of combinations. Thetable on page 291 shows a sample.
Production was based on the concept ofmass catering and fourth range (preparedproducts which need a complement or afinal process before being eaten) and fifthrange products (prepared products whichonly need defrosting or removing fromthe container to be ready for eating), witha very fast reaction time to adaptproduction to consumption. The totalconsumption of produce during theoperation is summarised in the table onpage 292.
Overall, the outcome was very positive andhighly satisfactory. The hygiene andsanitation regulations were observed to theletter, thus avoiding incidents of any kindduring the operation, and waiting timeswere almost non-existent. Altogether, the
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dietetic and nutritional value of the food interms of both quality and quantity, thetypes of service, the timetables, the cleaningand the staff were highly assessed by theresidents and this opinion was ratified byquestionnaires given to the delegationsafter the operation.
The Parc de Mar Village supplied servicesfrom 11 July to 12 August. A surface areaof 1,800 m2 was available for catering. Aspace adjacent to the building with thekitchens was set up as a restaurant,covered with an awning 1,000 m2 in size.To provide the services, COOB'92contracted the company LIHSA asconcessionaire; it also managed therestaurants at the Montigalà and Valld'Hebron Villages.
The occupation of the restaurant, whichfunctioned as a buffet, varied from one
meal to another:100% at breakfast, 50%at lunch and 70% at dinner. The openingtimes were: from 6.00 to 10.00 forbreakfast, from 12.00 to 16.00 for lunchand from 19.30 to 1.00 for dinner. Therewas also a cafeteria open from 6.00 to2.00. Breakfast was included in the chargefor accommodation and lunch and dinnerwere paid direct to the concessionaire at afixed price of 2,000 pesetas a meal.
Outside the Village, the referees andjudges had a rest area at all the venueswith a free supply of soft drinks, mineralwater, coffee, tea and, in some cases,isotonic drinks. If they wanted to eat, theywere given the same meal as the membersof Team'92.
The Barcelona OlympicVillage had two largerestaurant areas, one insidethe precinct (2), and theother nearby in the OlympicHarbour (1).
Catering for the judges and referees
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Competitors' lunch menus
Cold soups
Hot soups
Vegetables
Salads
Rice dishes
Pasta
Eggs
Meat
Cold meat and paté
Fish
Garnishes
Gazpacho
Pasta soup
Saute Brussels sprouts
Panache of vegetables
Chickpeas and hard-boiled eggs
Vichy
Russian salad
Melon with ham
Crudites
Rice marinera
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Macaroni napolitana
Cannelloni Rossini
Eggs florentine
Hamburger
Steak
Ossobuco
Lamb pasanda
Roast beef
Breast of turkey
Paté with green pepper
Cod
Fillet of sole meunière
Lyonnaise potatoes
Apple puree
Pumpkin soup
Fresh vegetable soup
Broad beans with mint
Panache of vegetables
Alsace
Escalivada
Chicken and pineapple
Taboulé
Crudites
Persian pilau rice
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Tagliatelle carbonara
Spaghetti marinera
Eggs with mustard
Entrecote
Hamburger
Fricandeau with wild mushrooms
Chicken curry
Roast beef
Galantine
Paté d' Ardennes
Salmon in cava
Squid with onions
Fried potatoes
Gaufrette potatoes with butter
Vichyssoise
Bouillabaisse
Cabbage with white beans
Panache of vegetables
Mushroom
Cantonese rice
Celery, cheese and walnut
Esqueixada
Crudites
Rice with squid
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Fettucine
Lasagne
Russian eggs
Hamburger
Steak
Escalope milanesa
Roghan Josh
Roast beef
Salted pork fillet
Paté aux fines herbes
Monkfish with almonds
Deep fried hake
Duchesse potatoes
Aubergines in batter
Cream of tomato
Granny's soup
Creamed courgettes
Panache of vegetables
Pasta, cheese and tuna fish
Chatchiki
Hawaiian
Avocado, carrot and shrimp
Crudites
Barcelona rice
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Casseroled noodles
Tagliatelle marinera
Scrambled eggs with salmon
Hamburger
Sirloin of veal
Pork chop
Sweet and sour chicken
Roast beef
Cold roast meat
Duck paté
Cod riojana
Trout with capers
Dauphine potatoes
Roast peppers
Day1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
Cold soups
Hot soups
Vegetables
Salads
Rice dishes
Pastas
Eggs
Meat
Cold meat and paté
Fish
Garnishes
Cream of carrot
Onion soup
Polish cauliflower
Panache of vegetables
Taboulé
Capricciosa
Endives with vinaigrette sauce
Sirtaki
Crudites
Rice with chicken
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Cavellini bolognese
Tortellini with cream
Eggs with seafood
Hamburger
Kebab
Roast leg of turkey
Lubban Oummu
Roast beef
Canary ham
Paté de campagne
Gilthead holandaise
Monkfish Cadaqués style
Fried potatoes
Ratatouille and sweetcorn
Cream of melon
Vegetable soup
Aubergines au gratin
Panache of vegetables
Rice niçoise
Artichoke hearts
Mushrooms à la grecque
Palm hearts and tomato
Crudites
Curried rice
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Ravioli with tomato
Spinach cannelloni
Spanish omelette
Hamburger
Fillet of pork with green pepper
Poussin with dates
Breast of chicken in cream
Roast beef
Smoked loin of pork
Chicken paté
Cod with ratatouille
Stewed cuttlefish
Parisian potatoes
Baked courgettes
Borsch
Minestrone
Vegetable mousse
Panache of vegetables
Lentils
Sirtaki
Endives with roquefort
Alsace
Crudites
Paella
Spaghetti with 2 sauces
Tagliatelle carbonara
Lasagne
Portuguese eggs
Hamburger
Entrecote
Roast turkey
Aloo ghosht
Roast beef
Turkey ham
Fish paté
Fish stew
Fillet of sole meunière
Potato purée
Escalivada
291
At the two media Villages, Montigalà andVall d'Hebron, lunch and dinner wereavailable over a wide range of times andthere was also a bar service open 24 hoursa day.
COOB'92 took charge of the investmentin equipment and infrastructure andpower and water consumption; theremainder was the responsibility ofLIHSA. All the services, with theexception of the bar, were buffet style;vouchers could be bought at banks in theVillages (except for breakfast vouchers,which were given to the residents whenthey confirmed their bookings). Allaccredited journalists were entitled to usethe restaurant services at the Villagewhether they were staying there or not.
The opening times were: from 5.00 to11.00 for breakfast, from 11.00 to 16.00 forlunch and from 18.00 to 24.00 for dinner.
The Vall d'Hebron Village was open from24 June to 12 August and Montigalà from3 July to 12 August.
The Montigalà Village was the residenceof 4,462 media workers. The restaurantarea was covered with a 2,340 m2 awning;it had air-conditioning and a canteen witha capacity of 820.
There were 1,912 residents at the Valld'Hebron Village. An area of 980 m2 wasadapted as a restaurant, including a largeoutdoor terrace with seating for 512 people.
The journalists' main work place was theCommunications Media Centre in theBarcelona Trade Fair precinct, next to theOlympic Ring. The complex included theMain Press Centre (MPC), theInternational Broadcast Centre (IBC) andthe Common Services Centre (CSC) in thePlaça de l'Univers. Both the MPC and IBCprovided a free refreshment service withsoft drinks, coffee and mineral water and
Food consumed in the competitors'canteen at the Olympic Village
Catering for the media
Fruit: 482,708 kg (29%)
Vegetables: 132,127 kg (8%)
Milk products: 107,477 kg (7%)
Meat and poultry: 123,784 kg (7%)
Bread: 105,548 kg (7%)
Stores: 91,990 kg (5%)
Extras: 44,511 kg (3%)
Fish: 40,311 kg (3%)
Ice-cream: 27,000 kg (2%)
Pasta: 21,840 kg (1%)
Eggs: 15,976 kg (1%)
Salads: 12,614 kg (1%)
Cereals: 5,616 kg (1%)
Soups: 2,330 kg (1%)
292
The catering services at thetwo media Villages —thephotograph shows theMontigalà Village— werefor the use of all theaccredited journalists.
the bars and cafeterias already installedwere adapted to provide better service at areasonable price. There were alsodispensing machines. The CSC was themain catering nucleus of the complex. Ithad a restaurant of 1.320 m2 with 680places; meals, buffet style, cost 2,000pesetas and offered a wide range of bothinternational and local dishes. The openingtimes were from 11.00 to 16.00 and 18.00 to24.00. Moreover, a well-known pizza chainprovided a telephone order delivery serviceto the work stations of the media staff.
The journalists also had a free soft drinks,coffee and beer service at the venues. Theradio and television staff hired their owncatering services.
Although the services supplied at theVillages and work places were wellreceived, they were used less thanexpected, bearing in mind theconsiderable diversity and functional andspatial mobility of this group.
Total number of meals supplied to the media1
Centre
MontigalàVall d'HebronMPC
Total
Breakfast
67,34936,399
103,748
Lunchand dinner
3,3892,43416,862
22,685
1 293
1
2
294
The restaurant at the Valld'Hebron Village covered asurface area of 980 m2 andhad an outdoor terrace withroom for 512 people.
The Tennis de la Valld'Hebron had a terrace-restaurant with a view of thecompetition.
For the VIPs a special refreshment servicewas provided both at the competitionvenues and the Olympic Village. All thevenues had exclusive areas in relaxedsurroundings well away from the hustleand bustle of the competitions. Theservices on offer on the days of thecompetition calendar were limited —onlydrinks, pastries and snacks— but thequality was the best. The times were fromthe start of the competition to one hourafter the end at all morning, afternoon orevening sessions. With the exception of afew venues, this service was supplied by aleading catering school.
In the Torre Mapfre in the internationalzone of the Olympic Village an area witha capacity for about 400 people was setup; it was made available to the nationalOlympic committees if they ordered it inadvance and undertook to pay the costs ofmaintenance.
Before the Games, the organisation had achance to try out the functioning andefficiency of the services which were to besupplied during the event. Thatopportunity was the Competitions'91,which were held in the summer of thatyear.
One of the conclusions drawn was theneed to exclude all units which did nothave over 150 people from the restaurantservices. In those cases, which applied tosome of the support centres and most ofthe training facilities, vouchers valid forservice outside the centre were given out.It was decided that members of staff onduty for six hours had the right to onemeal which, according to the servicetimes, would be breakfast, lunch or dinnerdistributed by the people in charge of thedifferent units.
The staff of the associate companies andthe contracted services, as well as theinternal security staff, could generally usethe services provided for the organisationstaff and the volunteers by means ofvouchers paid for by the companies.
At the Olympic Village, with a populationof about 9,000 between the staff ofTeam'92, the security forces andsubcontracted staff, an agreement was
reached with McDonald's to supply theservices from 28 June to 16 Septemberand 850 m2 of premises were set up for thepurpose. The agreement included freesupply and equipment and catering staffprovided by the company. A wide varietyof menus was on offer. At the othervillages agreements were reached with thecompanies which had the concessions forthe residents catering services. At theother territorial units, staff andinfrastructures varied from one to anotherand so it was difficult to provide the sameservices as at the villages.
A series of general guidelines wereestablished. At each centre a special zonewas set aside for the catering service, forwhich COOB'92 supplied the cold-storagerooms, the stores and the furnishings;COOB'92 was also responsible for thepower used during the operation. Fortheir part, the concessionaire companiesbrought the food, the staff, thedistribution material and the logisticalsystem for supply and quality control.
In general opening times were: from 6.00to 10.00 for breakfast, from 12.00 to 16.00for lunch and from 21.00 to 23.00 fordinner. At all meals, which were self-service, there was a choice of differentdishes. The composition and weight of theingredients for each dish was checked toensure a homogeneous supply.
A special restaurant unit was installed atthe Palau de Victòria Eugènia, inside theBarcelona Trade Fair precinct, for thestaff at the MPC, the AccreditationsCentre, the Palau de la Metal-lúrgia, thePalau d'Esports and the Font Màgicabuilding; the service was satisfactoryoverall. Another centre was set up in thePort of Barcelona and used by a largenumber of members of the security forces.
The services supplied to Team'92 are setout in the table on page 297.
The catering for Team'92 was a highlycomplex task, given the large number ofpeople making up the group (42,000), thediversity of locations and the logisticalproblems that created. The complaints ofthe users were mainly about themonotony of the menus rather than thequality of the meals served; in any case, itshould be borne in mind, on the one hand,that most of them were not accustomed tothe type of pre-cooked food they wereserved and, on the other, that the service
1
2
Catering for the VIPs
Catering for Team'92295
The members of Team'92,among them the volunteers,were provided with acatering system adapted totheir timetables and needs,whether at the OlympicVillage in Banyoles (1), theOlympic Stadium (2), theBarcelona Olympic Village(3) or any other site.
1 1, 2 and 3
2 3296
was supplied over a very long period, inmany cases more than a month (as it wasnot limited to the sixteen days of theGames).
In general, the result of the operation maybe considered satisfactory. Moreover, itwas the first time that hot or freshlyprepared food had been served to such alarge number of people and incircumstances in which it would have beeneasier and less risky to provide the usualbox-lunches or cold food.
Team'92 catering services(Total: 513,170)
Camp de Tir amb Arc
Centre Municipal de Pilota de la Vall d'Hebron
Circuit Olímpic de Marató
Circuit de Marxa
Olympic Stadium
Frontó Colom
INEFC
Palau Blaugrana
Palau Sant Jordi
Pavelló de la Mar Bella
Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron
Pavelló L'Espanya Industrial
Piscina de Montjuïc
Piscines Bernat Picornell
Polisportiu Estació del Nord
Olympic Harbour
Real Club de Polo
Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron
Velòdrom
Total
4,800
11,200
1,600
800
22,400
750
10,000
14,400
17,500
6,800
4,800
3,850
9,200
13,050
6,000
39,000
10,400
10,000
6,000
192,550
Competition venues
Zona Franca (SEAT)
Ensanche
Pegaso
Diagonal
Rius i Taulet
Total
Total Barcelona
32,400
21,750
32,730
11,790
14,250
112,920
401,070
Car and bus pools
Camp de Tir Olímpic de Mollet
Canal Olímpic de Castelldefels
Centre d'Hípica del Montanyà
Circuit de Ciclisme de Sant Sadurní
Circuit de Ciclisme de l'A-17
Estadi d'Hoquei de Terrassa
Estadi de Beisbol de I'Hospitalet
Estadi de Beisbol de Viladecans
Estany de Banyoles
Palau d'Esports de Badalona
Palau d'Esports de Granollers
Parc del Segre de la Seu d'Urgell
Pavelló del Club Joventut Badalona
Pavelló de I'Ateneu de Sant Sadurní
Pavelló del Club Patí Vic
Total
5,400
3,600
21,000
2,100
4,200
6,400
8,000
4,500
6,000
19,000
14,500
2,100
10,800
2,400
2,100
112,100
Subsites
Palacio de Victoria Eugenia
Port of Barcelona
Total
47,600
48,000
95,600
Area canteens
297
1
The Olympic MeteorologicalCentre, in the BarcelonaOlympic Village and builtwith the resources of theMeteorological Centre ofCatalonia and the NationalInstitute of Meteorology,was a fundamental supportfor the competitions ofBarcelona'92.
All Olympic Games OrganisingCommittees have considered that weatherforecasts are an indispensable element inplanning and mounting the sportscompetitions successfully.
In April 1989, in agreement withCOOB'92, the National Institute ofMeteorology prepared the MeteorologicalServices Plan (PAMOB). This includedthe creation of the Olympic MeteorologyCentre, which was constituted with theresources of the Meteorology Centre ofCatalonia and other human and materialresources from the National Institute ofMeteorology.
The unique nature of the service requiredfor the Barcelona Games was conditionedby three factors: space, as the sportsevents would be held mainly in andaround Barcelona, but also in othersubsites which were quite far away; time,as there were to be competitions on 15consecutive days during the daytime andmostly simultaneous, which called for awide range of weather forecasts and alarge variety and frequency of messages,and lastly, the high degree of sensitivity ofsome of the Olympic sporting events—especially the outdoor ones and mostparticularly the yachting competitions—to the values of meteorologicalparameters and their minimum variations,which required a great degree of precisionboth in observations and forecasts andhigh reliability in the operation of thesupport system.
Before the Games, the meteorologicalservice provided information about theclimatological conditions at the sites ofthe competitions, which was crucial to themid and long term planning of thepreparation of the competitors and theorganisation. To back up the forecast, twostudies were made of the prevailing windsin Barcelona, which served as a base forlater ones, together with four reportscollected under the title "Notes for theOlympic forecast". Later on workfocussed on a climatological study ofBarcelona and the subsites in July andAugust, which was published under thetitle A preliminary climatological study forthe Olympic Games. Other studiesfollowed: A report on the wind inBarcelona in July and August 1989 and
The wind in Barcelona during the summermonths. In 1990 the study Meteorologicalinformation Barcelona'92 was written andlast, in 1991, came The climatology of theOlympic subsites, Barcelona'92, a workproviding climatological information forparticipants, officials and visitors, whichwas the base for drafting theclimatological information bulletins forthe Multiple Access to Information andCommunication (AMIC) system.
The meteorological service also assistedwith the work on infrastructures andfacilities, such as the Palau Sant Jordi, theCollserola Tower and the OlympicHarbour. But the most notable of all wasthe work done on the Olympic Stadium todetermine the trajectories of the wind inthe interior, which was of particularimportance to the design of the openingand closing ceremonies.
Coinciding with Competitions'91, whichwere held in the summer of that year,there was a dress rehearsal of the system—with particular attention to the WorldYachting Championship, which was heldat the Olympic Harbour— , which put allthe technical staff and equipment for thesummer of 1992 to the test.
During the Games the information wasbroken down into four groups accordingto the type and the channel of supply:climatological information through theAMIC system, for the Olympic Family;direct telephone information at theCOOB'92 Main Operations Centre;meteorological and oceanographicinformation for competitors, judges andthe yachting events organisers, suppliedpersonally through monitors in real timeand information about conditions in theair space in the Barcelona area suppliedby the CECAJO (Olympic Games AirControl Centre) for the air securityoperation.
An Olympic forecast and surveillancegroup was set up to be in charge ofpreparing all the general weatherbulletins; it was operational from 21.00 on16 July until 24.00 on 9 August. TheYachting Office, near the OlympicHarbour, was responsible for preparingand disseminating all the information forthe yachting competitions; it wasoperational from 17 July to 4 August, thefirst day of the events in that sport. The
1 Meteorology
The operation during the Games
The preparation of the project
299
work of the office was backed up by stafffrom the Naval Hydrographic Institute,which was in charge of obtaining theoceanographic data, and by a specialistfrom Météo-France.
During the Games the key moment ofeach day at the Yachting Office wasbetween 6.00 and 9.00, when the teamsmet to study the forecast for the day onland and out at sea. Much of the work ofprocessing texts and transmitting bulletinswas done by Olympic volunteers, whoprovided invaluable help from 7.30 to20.00 every day.
The organisation worked basically withthe National Institute of MeteorologyIntegral Meteorological SurveillanceSystem, which collects information fromthe automatic land observation stations,the meteorological satellites (Meteosat,Tiros and Goes), the meteorological radarand the electrical discharge locationsystem. The information was treated
interactively through the system known asSAIDAS.
The equipment installed specially for theGames was: nine automatic stations indifferent parts of Barcelona and thesubsites; three devices for theconcentration and exploration of datafrom the automatic stations, whichprovided data about wind, temperature,humidity, pressure and precipitation inreal time; a satellite image receiver; aradio sounding device; anoceanographic-meteorological buoywhich supplied data about the winds atdifferent altitudes, air temperature, thespeed and direction of currents and theheight and interval of the waves; a devicefor integrating and processing theoceanographic and meteorological data inthe yachting competition area; andcurrent metres and observationequipment installed aboard the Tofiño,the ship of the Naval HydrographicInstitute.
The staff of the OlympicMeteorological Centrerecorded information aboutthe weather in Barcelonaand the subsistes each dayand sent it on to the venues.
1The weather Cobi.
2, 5 and 6
1 2 3300
Among other equipment, thecentre had anoceanographic-meteorological buoy (3)—which provided dataabout the water and thewind near the OlympicHarbour— and a satelliteimage receiver (4 and 7)which allowed theorganisation to make itsown forecasts.
As far as the operation is concerned, weshould mention the anxiety provoked bythe frequent rain that fell in Catalonia justa few days before the Games.
Another cause of worry was the delay inthe construction of the new Yachting
Office building. With an eye on theopening ceremony, the forecasts from15 July on gradually confirmed that theweather would be fine.
3, 4 and 7
4 5 7
6
301
1
2
304
The security operationprovided for two kinds ofmeasures: those designed forprotecting the sites,buildings and surroundings(responsibility ofCOOB'92), and those whichwere taken on directly by thedifferent public securityforces —such as the GuardiaCivil (1) or the NationalPolice (2)— within theframework of theircompetences.
The Higher Commission for OlympicSecurity (CSSO), constituted on 15 June1987 with the Secretary of State forSecurity as chairman, was in charge ofdirecting, planning, preparing andimplementing the security operation.
In 1988, the CSSO and COOB'92 set up aTechnical Security Cabinet whichanalysed the precedents from otherGames and observed the Winter andSummer Games of that Olympiad inCalgary and Seoul. At the end of the yearit proposed a security model for theGames of the XXV Olympiad. The modelwas an integrated system of public andprivate plans and resources under theauthority of the CSSO, as Olympicsecurity involved the participation ofdifferent security forces and bodies (theNational Police, the Guardia Civil, theMossos d'Esquadra [Catalan police], theBarcelona City Police, local police forces,the Army, the Air Force and the Navy).
The model contained a section calledinternal security, which was a group ofmeasures designed to protect the Olympicfacilities, buildings and surroundings andwas the responsibility of COOB'92, andanother called security, which covered thework of the public services within theframework of their competences.
The general planning identified and listedall possible and necessary actions andformalised them in projects andprogrammes. It was coordinated by thedirectors of the institutional programme,the heads of the security forces and theorganisations, including COOB'92, withthe support of the respective Olympicsecurity offices. The administrativeinstrument was the Olympic SecurityMaster Plan.
The Olympic Security Master Plan wasmade up of different projects: projects forfunctions, which were general, such aspublic safety or road safety, or specific,such as information security, TEDAX(Explosives Deactivation Specialists),special operations or VIP protection;projects for activities, such as sportscompetitions, accommodation andservices and technical and administrativesupport projects, such astelecommunications, computers, logistics,
resources management, accommodation,training and relations with thecommunity. These projects are listed inthe table on pages 308 and 309.
In the first place, the programmes andprojects were assigned to organisations,forces or services and an institutionaldirector was appointed to be in charge ofeach one. Each director set up his ownOlympic Security Office (the SecurityDivision in the case of COOB'92) andguaranteed the development of eachproject by supervising, coordinating,monitoring, controlling and managing it.
When, owing to the nature or complexityof a project, the cooperation of differentinstitutions was required, working partiesor subcommittees were set up withrepresentatives of all the organisationsinvolved. Most of the 86 projects on the17 programmes were carried outaccording to these criteria and were allready by June 1990.
The Basic Security Plan, which hadalready been provided for in the MasterPlan and conceived as a link betweengeneral and operational planning, definedthe model from which the operationalplans for each unit would be fashioned,with the same system used in COOB'92 topass from the standard operations plans(PNO) to the territorial operations plans(PTO).
The operational planning consisted of theconversion of the projects (grouped inprogrammes) into security and emergencyplans for each unit. The centralisedmanagement of this planning guaranteedthat the final result and the security andemergency plans developed by the peoplein charge of each operation usingdecentralised management would fit intothe strategies defined.
The forces involved in the operation ofOlympic security were extremelyhierarchic and success was based on thefact that while they all maintained theirown structure in the operations, they werehighly coordinated and used a task forcemethodology.
Each institutional operator was structuredon three levels, with three commandcentres (CEMAN), which werecoordinated by the coordination centres
1 and 2 Security at the Games
Planning
Organisation during the Games
305
(CECOR) for each level. CECOR 1 and 2were subordinate to a level 3 coordinationcentre (CECOR 3), where all theinstitutional operators were representedand which acted under the ultimateresponsibility of the government.
Level 1, or base level, was where thesecurity operations were actually carriedout at each sports facility, accommodationand services centre, as well as thefunctional and public service activities ateach one.
Each territorial unit had a securityoperation made up of internal andexternal security, but Olympic securitywent beyond the territory of the facility tocover the immediate surroundings.Moreover, the proximity of some of theunits called for another command andcoordination system in the Olympic areasand at the subsites. The nature of this setof operations made it advisable to set uplevel 2 CEMAN and CECOR with asimilar structure to level 1.
At this level 2, or area level, theoperations of a territorial area (Montjuïc,Diagonal, Parc de Mar, Vall d'Hebronand the subsites) or a functional area(VIP transport, special risk delegations)were coordinated.
At level 3 or direction level the principlesof unity and centralisation of the lines ofoperation (levels 1 and 2) which createdthe hierarchies for the implementation ofthe security plans and their subordinationto a joint organic command weremaintained.
This structure culminated in the HigherSecurity Centre (CECOR 3), where therewas a notable degree of cooperation andharmony in common decision-making andthe exchange of information among thepeople in charge of the differentinstitutional operators which wererepresented there.
Each institutional director set up aCEMAN 3 to guarantee the unity and
The minister of the interior,José Luis Corcuera, and thesecretary of state forsecurity, Rafael Vera, visitedthe Olympic Village shortlybefore the start of theGames.
The Olympic Security Centre(CECOR 3), equipped withspecial security measuresand moderntelecommunications systems,was located near theBarcelona Olympic Villagein the Poblenou district.
The Higher Commission forOlympic Security waschaired by the Secretary ofState for Security, andrepresentatives of COOB'92,of the Barcelona CityCouncil, the Generalitat ofCatalonia, the GobiernoCivil and the security forces.
1
2
3
1 2
3
306
centralisation of the lines of operation atthe various command posts, except for theGuardia Civil and COOB'92. Their officeswere also considered reserve posts andalternative to the Main Operations Centre(CPO).
The coordination of the CEMAN 3required a space from where all theoperations in progress could be constantlymonitored by staff and technical resourcesprovided by the different institutionaloperators. This CECOR 3 was thereforealso the Olympic Security Centre (CSO),located in what had been the calculationcentre of a bank in Wad-Ras street. It wasequipped with highly sophisticatedsecurity measures andtelecommunications systems. The CSOneeded complete up-to-date informationto direct security in extraordinarycircumstances and had to be able to turnitself into a Crisis Centre linked with theone in Madrid.
The eleven emergency projects weregrouped in a programme under the jointresponsibility of the Generalitat ofCatalonia and the Department of PublicSafety. An Emergency Committee(CODEM), with its HQ at CECOR 3,directed operations during the Games.
The emergency plans for all the units,areas and subsites were reviewed andapproved in the case of the existingfacilities and drafted for the new ones. Theprocedure was the same as for specificrisks, such as flood, the transport ofpassengers and dangerous material by airand sea, and abrupt changes in the climate(with the risk of high contamination).
The security operations plans were theresult of at least eight partial planscorresponding to different stages of the
Sample structure CECOR-CEMANat the Olympic Harbour
CECOR: Coordination CentreCEMAN: Command CentreCGC: Guardia CivilCNP: National PoliceGEAS: Special Underwater Activities
GroupGUB: Barcelona City Police
Emergencies
The implementation of the projects
307
Intelligence and special services
Interior
Exterior
Special operations
Explosives detection and deactivation
Staff, accreditations and ticket control
Internal security 1: COOB'92 company security
COOB'92 company security
COOB'92 staff control
COOB'92 logistics security
Internal security 2: accident and intrusion
Physical security of Olympic facilities
Ordering and physical security of surroundings
Internal security 3: access control
Accreditations and tickets
General system of access control
Transport security
Official of transport security
Mobility and road security
Accommodation security
Accommodation security
Olympic Villages security
Competitions, events and ceremonies security
Olympic torch security
Ceremonies security
Competition and training security
Olympic congress security
Cultural event security
Paralympic Games security
VIP and special risk delegation security
VIP security
Special risk delegation security
Olympic support services security
Key Olympic services security
Ordinary Olympic services security
Information security
OF arrival and departure management and security
Doping control security
Security air cover
Public safety
Crime prevention
Dealing with victims of crime
Judicial Police
Public order
Commercial crime control
Public services security
Essential public services security
Transport and communications security
Frontier security
Administration and control of territorial waters affected by the Games
Administration and control of air space affected by the Games
Emergencies
Internal security and emergencies at Olympic sites
Internal security and emergencies : power supply
Internal security and emergencies : water supply
DSE
DSE
CNP
CGC
DSE
COOB'92
COOB'92
COOB'92
COOB'92
COOB'92
COOB'92
COOB'92
CNP
City council BCNSUBS (PL, GdC)Inter. highways (CGC)
CNP
CNP
CGC
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
CNP
MTC
CGC
CNP
CNP
CNP
City councils
CNP
CNP
CNP
CGC
CGC
CGC
DEF
DEF
SEIS-GdC
SEIS-GdC
Junta d'Aigües
CNP, CGC
CNP, CGC, ME
DSE, CGC, AAEE, COOB'92
COOB'92, FCS, AOMSA, VOSA, IMPU, OCSA
COOB'92, FCSE
COOB'92, FCSE
COOB'92, GdC, city councils, DGPC
COOB'92, FCS, city councils
COOB'92, FCS
COOB'92, FCS
COOB'92, FCS
BCN (GUB, TIC, CNP); Subsites (PL, GdC, local TIC,CNP, CGC); intercity highways (CGC, JPT,Roads)
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, DEF, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92, DGPC
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, AAEE, COOB'92
FCS, AAEE, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCS, COOB'92
FCSE, DEF, COOB'92, CTNE
FCSE, COOB'92
FCSE, COOB'92
FCS, DEF, Civil Aviation
FCS
FCS, GdC, city councils
FCS
FCS
FCS, COOB'92
FCSE, DEF, service entities and companies
FCSE, DEF, service entities and companies
FCSE, DEF
FCSE, DEF, service entities and companies
FCSE, DEF, service entities and companies
Administrative and technical bodies and services,COOB'92, SEIS-BCN, SEIS-GdC, FCS, SANUR,other Barcelona municipal services and servicecompanies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Olympic security projectResponsible Participants
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Internal security and emergencies : flood
Internal security and emergencies : telecommunications
Internal security and emergencies : land passengertransport (except when involving dangerous material)
Internal security and emergencies : transport of dangerousmaterial
Internal security and emergencies : air transport
Internal security and emergencies : sea transport
Internal security and emergencies : chemicals
Thermal inversion emergency
Planning
Olympic Security Master Plan
Monitoring basic infrastructures
Basic Olympic Security Plan
Organisation of planning
Tests
Administration
Agreements
Economic management
Materials logistics
Office automation and documentation
Legal advice
Administrative support
Human resources
Human resources management
Selecting security staff
Training security staff
Accommodation for public security forces
Food for public security forces
Transport for public security forces
Medical and health care services
Social and labour relations
Telecommunications and computers
Telecommunications networks and equipment
Computer networks and equipment
Relations with the community
Image
Relations with the media
Junta d'Aigües
DGT
Dirección General deTransporte (GdC)
Dirección General deTransporte (GdC)
Nationalairports
Dirección General dela Marina Mercante,DGPC
Gerencia deProtección Civil(GdC)
City council BCN
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
DSE
Deleg. CSSO
Deleg. CSSO
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR
Competent administrative and technical entities andSEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR, companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,companies
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR,compañías y empresas
Competent administrative and technical entities andservices, SEIS (BCN i GdC), FCS, DEF, SANUR
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
CdP
FCS, COOB'92
CdP
CdP
AAEEAOMSABCNCdPCGCCNPCSSOCTNEDEFDGPCDGTDSEFCSFCSE
Foreign MinistryAnella Olímpica de Montjuïc, S.A.BarcelonaPlanning CommissionGuardia CivilNational PoliceHigher Commission for Olympic SecurityNational Telephone Company
Ministry of DefenceDepartment of Public SafetyDepartment of TelecommunicationsDepartment of State SecuritySecurity ForcesState Security Forces
GdCGUBIMPUJPTMEMTCOCSAPLSANURSEISSUBSTICVOSA
Generalitat of CataloniaBarcelona City PoliceMunicipal Town Planning InstituteProvincial Traffic AuthorityCatalan Local PoliceMinistry of Transport and CommunicationsOlimpíada Cultural, S.A.Local Police ForcesEmergency Medical ServiceFire Extinction and Rescue ServiceSubsitesTransport and CommunicationsVila Olímpica, S.A.
309
operation (security, internal security andinternal and external emergency before,during and after the Games). 1,242territorial operations plans and 36functional operations plans were drafted.
The Olympic security operation began instages and in 1989 the surveillance andcountersurveillance services at theOlympic building sites and informationgathering tasks, among others, werealready under way.
In January 1991 reinforcements from theNational Police and the Guardia Civilarrived to provide support for the regularstaff. In June and July the same yearmembers of the state security forces in thepractical phase of their training were sentto Barcelona. They, with the privatesecurity companies hired by COOB'92,were deployed at the Competitions'91.
During the phase leading up to theGames, as COOB'92 took over therunning of the facilities (and by January
1992 50% of them were already under itscontrol), the private security companiesbegan to operate and access control wasintroduced.
In June and July 1992 all the electronicsecurity technological installations werecompleted. Then the land, sea and airOlympic security was deployed, with100% of the staff in place, and the routeof the Olympic torch was supervised. Thedifferent institutional operators began towork under the direction of the respectiveCEMAN.
The National Police Force (15,500officers) took charge of the protection ofall the competition venues andaccommodation, services and Olympicsupport centres, except for the ones whichwere covered by the Guardia Civil and theMossos d'Esquadra, as well as most of thefunctional plans (VIP protection,transport security, high risk delegations,public safety, special operations andTEDAX).
The Guardia Civil had5,000 staff and all thetechnical resources for theprotection of the sea andunderwater areas off thecoast of Barcelona.
The Barcelona City Policelooked after traffic andpublic safety and dealt withthe victims of crime.
The competition venues andresidences in Banyoles wereprotected by the GuardiaCivil.
1, 2 and 4
Most of the sites wereprotected by the NationalPolice Force.
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5
6
1 3 5
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The Mossos d'Esquadra(Catalan police) alsoworked on Olympic security.Among their other functions,they were in charge ofprotection of the INEFC.
The Navy used 17 boats forthe protection and control ofthe sea.
The Guardia Civil (with 5,000 officers)took charge of the protection of thecompetition venues and residences at LaSeu d'Urgell, Banyoles, El Montanyà,Sant Sadurní d'Anoia, the OlympicHarbour and the Port of Barcelona, andall the essential services on Olympicterritory (water, power supply andcommunications). Considerable resourceswere also provided for the protection ofthe airport, weapons control andsurveillance of roads and highways. TheGuardia Civil also took part in aircoverage and protection of the sea—on the surface and underwater—, coastsand frontiers, special operations, TEDAXand functional plans.
The Mossos d'Esquadra (with 385officers) protected the competition venuesat Mollet and the INEFC in Barcelona.They also took part in crime preventionand prosecution within their sphere ofcompetence, such as ticket touting andcommercial crime.
The Barcelona City Police (with 2,890officers) took charge of traffic, publicsafety and dealing with the victims ofcrime. They also acted in the case ofcommercial crime, ticket touting andillegal street vendors.
The police at the subsites used all theirstaff (about 1,700 officers) on their ownmunicipal territories.
The Army cooperated with the GuardiaCivil to protect essential services (with3,000 soldiers), provided human resourcesfor COOB'92 (3,000 soldiers who workedas volunteers) and logistical support forCOOB'92 and the National Police. TheirCEMAN 3 was located on the armypremises in the Passeig de Colom.
The Air Force protected and controlledthe air space and took part in air coveragewith 250 airmen.
The Navy took charge of the protectionand control of the sea and used
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8
9
7
8
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minesweepers to guarantee underwatersecurity in the competition areas. Theyalso took part in the air coverage of thesea with sea-borne helicopters.
For its part, COOB'92 was responsible forinternal security at all the competitionvenues and accommodation, services andsupport centres, access control andtechnological resources.
The public emergency services which wereincorporated into the monitoring room atCECOR 3 used all its resources. The RedCross, for example, was reinforced withteams from other parts of Catalonia andthe rest of Spain and the Merchant Navysent specialised rescue vessels.
The functions of the COOB'92 SecurityDivision were internal security, accidentprevention, protection of goods andproperty belonging to the organisation
and bringing volunteers and privatecompanies into the security operations.The division was divided into fourdepartments: Internal Security, OlympicOperations, Human Resources andCompany Security.
The Internal Security Departmentplanned and developed the internalsecurity system at all the units, accordingto the following subsystems: fire control,intrusion detection, technological systemmaintenance, central control,emergency and evacuation plans,roads and parking areas. It also closelymonitored the building works at thenew facilities.
The Olympic Operations Department wasresponsible for the introduction andmanagement of these subsystems:accreditations and tickets, access control,logistics, operations plans and manualsand all other matters related to security incoordination with the people in charge ofeach operation.
COOB'92 was in charge ofinternal security at all thevenues, residences andservice and supportcentres (1), as well as accesscontrol (4).
Security at COOB'92
1 and 4
The airport was alsoguarded by the GuardiaCivil.
2 and 5
1 2 4
3
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In addition to the 15,500policemen and women —whoalso helped with undergroundsurveillance in the city (3)—>the National Police Forcecontributed to the security ofBarcelona'92 with all itstechnical resources (6).
The Human Resources Departmentdrafted the general security staff plan andtook charge of training, publications andrelations with the private securitycompanies.
The Company Security Department wasresponsible for security for the people,goods and buildings, the information andactivities of COOB'92 as a companyduring the period 1987-1993.
Active and passive systems designed tominimize risk to the staff of COOB'92whilst on the organisation premises weremounted and a security culture, whichwould later be extended to the wholesphere of the Games, was fostered.
Control, protection and surveillanceprocedures for goods and buildings wereorganised to guarantee safety as discreetlyas possible.
In the field of information, attention wasfocussed on two areas: physical protection(by means of safety lockers) and dataprotection (for the software).
In many of the public activitiesorganised by COOB'92, such as the massattendance at some events, the journey ofthe mobile inflatable Stadium, thepresentations of stamps and coins and themeetings of members of the IOC, theAssociation of Summer OlympicInternational Olympic Federations(ASOIF) or the Association ofNational Olympic Committees (ACNO),deployment of security measures wasalso required.
Access to the Olympic units was one ofthe most important projects and called fora considerable number of human andtechnical resources.
3 and 6
COOB'92 internal security
Access control
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By means of observation at airports andsports events it was estimated that the rateof passing through controls was 600people per hour. With this hypothesis andstarting from an approximate figure forthe total number of people and data aboutthe number of gates and opening hoursplanned, the human resources for theoperation were calculated and differentproposals were made for times of entry tovenues, combined with the most suitableways of taking maximum advantage of theresources and providing the greatestpossible facilities of access for the public.
The jobs were spread around underdifferent areas of responsibility within theSecurity Division and were eventuallygrouped under the following headings:access control for people, access controland management for goods, moduledesign (ergonomic distribution,furnishings and style), human resources(selection and training) and accreditationsreaders (with access registers and blacklists).
The human resources required were 8,624volunteers and 145 staff on contracts. Thematerial used was 560 accreditationreading machines, 387 metal detectionarches, 1,850 manual metal detectors, 16explosives detectors, 44 sets of X-rayequipment and 2 portable sets of portableX-ray equipment. Moreover, there weremobile units coordinated by CEMAN 3,made up of a total of 1,500 volunteers, toprovide support for the resources of eachunit at crucial moments (such as the finalsof competitions), to cover the circuits andin case of possible emergencies.
Internal security in this project includedaccident prevention, emergency plans,intrusion detection, centralisation of controlsystems and physical and operationalsecurity in the surroundings of the units.
Accident prevention took account of thecharacteristics of the building and design
At all the venues —such as theTerrassa hockey stadium(1 and 3) or the Colom pelotafronton (2)— there was strictcontrol of everyone enteringthe competition area. Most ofthe staff were volunteers.
To avoid incidents of anykind, the vehicles accreditedfor access to the venues orservice centres weresystematically scrutinised.
1, 2 and 3
4
Security at the units and in the cities
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All the venues had metaldetectors at the spectatorentrances; some hadapparatus for bags (6).At the others —such as thePavelló L'EspanyaIndustrial (5)—, bags wereexamined one by one.
in terms of compartmentalisation andevacuation, fire prevention systems andemergency signs.
The emergency plans prepared theinterior of each unit with a view to itsreaction capacity in the face of accidentsor incidents which might endanger people,property or Olympic activity.
The enclosure and compartmentalisationsystems on the one hand and closed circuitTV systems and perimeter warningsystems on the other were the basicelements of intrusion detection.
There were also centralised control andoperation devices for all the securitysystems and physical and operationalsecurity measures in the surroundings ofthe units (restricted circulation areas,signs, roads, parking areas).
Human resources for security:internal security
The first estimates for the humanresources required for internal securityand circulation control —about 15,000people— made in 1989 provided an ideaof the scale and complexity of the processand suggested that this project should beentrusted to the Security Division.
At first the basic studies seemed toindicate that the resources should besupplied by COOB'92 and should formpart of its own infrastructure, whilst beingcoordinated with the other institutionalsecurity operators within a framework ofmutual respect and shared objectives, butnot of dependency.
Two broad groups were identified:direction and implementation. Thedirection group was formed of securityprofessionals with experience ofcommand, coordination and control andin some cases experts in intelligence and
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information services. The implementationgroup —the one which received the mostresources— had to carry out the long termjobs (which were covered by staff fromprivate security companies) and otherswhich were concentrated in short timeperiods (which were done by Olympicvolunteers).
The difficulty of finding about 300 peopleto take charge of the direction —and 50more who would have to perform supporttasks— made it necessary to turn todifferent sources: the Ministry of Defenceand the staff on the reserves of the statesecurity forces (who covered about 90%of the posts), in addition to privatesecurity and other companies.
To ensure the participation of the privatesecurity company sector in the bestpossible economic and operationalconditions, it was always borne in mindthat the fragmentation of the organisationin a large number of units made it possibleto divide up the tasks among different
companies, so that any extraordinaryincidents could be more easily resolved.
As for the economic aspects, betweenMarch and June 1991 frameworkagreements were signed with eachcompany (by which the companiesundertook to work a minimum number ofhours and prices were fixed) to preventthe market from being left withinsufficient numbers of staff owing to thehuge demand for this service.
In the chapter of human resources forsecurity, volunteers made up the largestgroup. The participation of Olympicvolunteers in the internal securityfunctions —auxiliary security tasks— wasthe result of a carefully pondereddecision; in the end, however, it wasconsidered that in advanced societies thecitizen is the prime active element ofgroup safety.
The first approximate calculationsindicated the need to have, continuously
The security staff in chargeof the protection of aparticular venue —theNational Police in the caseof the Olympic Stadium—worked both inside (1) andoutside (2) the precinct.
1 and 2
1 2316
The protection of most of theresidences, including theOlympic Village (3) and theOlympic venues in Terrassa,the subsite for the hockeyevents (4), was theresponsibility of theNational Police.
and simultaneously, substantial resourceswhich could not be covered either by themarket or private security or by thetemporary staff at the units themselves(the Olympic Stadium, the Palau SantJordi, the FC Barcelona Stadium) fornormal events, nor by the state securityforces alone.
The participation of volunteers in theCompetitions'91 was highly satisfactoryand meant that they could be trusted tothe maximum. In any case, certainsituations were detected which mightmake the assignment of tasks tovolunteers more difficult (such as nightwork and all the activity at the villages, orones which required a special level oftraining). For those, after negotiations3,000 soldiers took part as volunteers.
Staff training and publications
Training —in some cases retraining— waslaid on for the management teams, privatecompanies and volunteers. In the case of
the management teams and volunteers itwas done directly and in the case of theprivate companies under the supervisionof COOB'92 according to the contractssigned with each company.
Publications for the different groups werealso produced; in all, three manuals weredrafted. The organisation alsoparticipated in the production of variouspublications designed for other Olympicgroups and the state security forces.
The staff of the COOB'92 SecurityDivision also took part in the trainingcourses organised by other institutionaloperators —National Police, GuardiaCivil and the Barcelona City Police—,whether general or specific. For thetraining of volunteers a team of monitorswas formed by the National Police, theGuardia Civil, the Mossos d'Esquadra andthe Barcelona City Police. They werechosen, amongst other reasons, becausethey spoke Catalan and came from nearthe Olympic sites.
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1
The emblem (1) and mascot(2) were two of the mainidentifying elements of theimage of Barcelona'92.The signposting and look (1)also made a decisivecontribution.
Identity and design
The emblem
Until October 1986, when Barcelona wasappointed host city of the Games of theXXV Olympiad, the Candidature hadused an emblem (América Sánchez'popular toothpick) which incorporatedfive interlaced ellipses evoking theOlympic rings. Those rings are theOlympic emblem and the IOC, whichowns the copyright, merely concedes theuse of it to the National OlympicCommittees (NOCs) and the officialOlympic host cities.
The definitive emblem of Barcelona'92had to incorporate the five rings, but morethan that it had to be an adequate symbolof the image of the Games and the citywhich would be hosting them. COOB'92convened a closed competition among sixdesigners who had strong ties with thecity, all specialists in corporate identityand global image, and whose professionalexperience was a guarantee of the qualityof their projects: Cruz Novillo, CarlosRolando, América Sánchez, Enric Satué,Josep M. Trias and Yves Zimmermann.
Early in 1988, a jury made up of fourteenexperts and the COOB'92 StandingCommittee chose the symbol created byJosep M. Trias. It depicted a dynamichuman figure in an attitude that suggestedsomeone jumping an obstacle (whichconsisted of the five Olympic rings) andthe simple, gestual lines reduced thecharacterisation of the figure to the head(in the blue of the Mediterranean), thearms (the yellow of the sun and wide openin sign of hospitality) and the legs (a vividred). The emblem bore the legend"Barcelona'92" between the figure andthe rings, written in a classic Roman typeface: Times New Roman semi-bold.
The mascot
Like the emblem, the mascot identifies aparticular Olympic Games, but in a waymore guaranteed to inspire affection. Tochoose the mascot for Barcelona, anotherclosed competition was called, also withsix designers: Fernando Amat, AngelBeaumont, Francesc Capdevila, JavierMariscal, Francesc Petit and Pere Torrent"Peret". The same jury that had to choosethe Olympic emblem examined the
different proposals for the mascot, talkedto the designers before they began toimplement the projects and, on 29 January1988, chose the one by Javier Mariscal. Itconsisted of an image of a human-lookingdog, with open arms, sketched in a thick,uneven, black line and treated with a falseperspective that gave it a flattened effect.Although it was an anthropomorphicanimal, the quality of the drawing and thetreatment of colour (flat colours withneither gradations nor textures and atendency to shun the primaries) made itquite different from most earlier Olympicmascots, all of which had been clearlyinfluenced by the Walt Disney school ofcartoons.
In order to make the mascot moreacceptable to the general public, Josep M.Trias used computers to soften the shape.Once the definitive image of the firstofficial mascot had been achieved, it wasbaptised. The name chosen was "CoBi",which made an allusion to the initials ofCOOB'92 and was easy to remember andpronounce in most languages. Thearbitrary combination of upper and lowercase letters and the typography in whichthe name was presented (an alphabetcreated specially by Mariscal) helped tomake "CoBi" more than just a name: itwas a logotype.
The shape of the mascot was graduallymodified until it reached its definitiveappearance, by when it had already beenintroduced to the public as the secondOlympic symbol of Barcelona'92.
The slogans
In addition to the graphic symbols(emblem and mascot), a conceptual onewas required, a slogan which couldtransmit a special Barcelona'92 messagein just a few words and be direct andunderstandable at any time and in anyplace in the world.
Throughout the organisation process, twoslogans were used. The first, "We'regetting on with it", was conceived at theend of 1988 to tell people that, although itmay not have been apparent at the time,work was being done —hard work atthat— on the preparation of theBarcelona Olympic sites. The second was"Everyone's goal", which had been coinedduring the Candidature and was now usedto convey the idea that the OlympicGames organisation project involved thewhole country, and not just one city or
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The Barcelona'92 symbols
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Added to the graphic symbols,the slogan "Friends for life",expressed in any of the fourofficial languages, conveyedthe main message ofBarcelona'92.
Between the first CoBipresented in public (above andright, naked) and the definitiveversion (at the side with bluesuit), came a whole process ofevolution.
Another decisive moment inthe life of the mascot was whenit became solid.
The emblem was used as anidentifying element all over theplace on a wide range ofsupports, such as the backwalls of the interview rooms(in the photograph, the Palaud'Esports in Badalona).
The mascot and the the slogan"Friends for life" travelled allround the world.
CoBi adopted differentattitudes and numerouscostumes to help with theOlympic signposting.
autonomous community. "Everyone'sgoal" was brought back into circulation inDecember 1989, together with theBarcelona'92 travelling exhibition, whichvisited the different autonomouscommunities in Spain to report on theOlympic project.
Lastly, in January 1991 the phrase thatwas to be the definitive official slogan ofthe Games came into general use:"Friends for life". Unlike the other two,which were slogans for a particularmoment, this one summarised everythingin the spirit of Barcelona'92 which wouldlive on: a single project bringing togetherquite different people, who neverthelessshared a common feeling and identifiedwith the values of friendship. Even later,the message expressed in those words inthe four official languages ("Amics persempre", "Amigos para siempre", "Amispour la vie", "Friends for life") touchedeveryone in the city, in Catalonia, in Spainand all around the world who hadsomething to do with the Games andspoke of Barcelona'92 as a link which
would endure far beyond the event whichhad forged it: the Games of the XXVOlympiad.
Olympic signposting
The Olympic signposting project had atwofold objective: to mark out the routesthat the Olympic Family would follow atthe Games and to complement andunderline existing signs to adapt them toOlympic requirements. In turn, theserequirements were also twofold: first, thelanguage used had to be universally andimmediately understandable, which is whyvisual indications were preferred; second,that language had to be coherent with theculture and identity of the host city.
The Olympic signposting was installed at43 competition venues and about 25service units (reception, press and radioand television centres, villages, etc.); itwas inserted into their immediate
1
2 Signposting and the look
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AR Archery AT Athletics AT Athletics BA Baseball
BB Basketball BB Basketball BM Badminton BO Boxing
FE Fencing
HB Handball
EQ Equestrian
GY Gymnastics
CY Cycling
CA Canoeing
FB Football
HO Hockey
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JU Judo MP Modern pentathlon
SH Shooting SW Swimming SW Swimming
TE Tennis TT Table tennis
WL Weightlifting WR Wrestling YA Yachting
PE Basque pelota RH Roller hockey TK Taekwondo
RO Rowing
SW Swimming
VB Volleyball
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surroundings, the routes between themain arrival points (airport, Sants station)and the four Olympic areas and from theentrance to the subsite towns to thecompetition venues there. To differentiatethem from existing signs, they werepresented vertically, special colours wereused (two shades of blue and green foremergency signs and red for prohibitionpictograms) and supports were built whichcould be identified on sight just by thematerial, the structure and thedimensions.
The most typical elements ofBarcelona'92 Olympic signposting,however, were the pictograms. They werethe foundation stone of the universalcomprehension of the messages and theidentification of a graphic style extendedto all spheres of the organisation; the onlyelements of a linguistic nature whichaccompanied them were the names of theunits and the toponyms of the venues, theOlympic areas and the subsites.
For the toponyms (Vic, Terrassa,Valéncia, Zaragoza) and the names of thesports venues (identified by the pictogramof the sport and the name of the venuetreated as a toponym: Palau Sant Jordi,Piscines Bernat Picornell, Estadio LaRomareda) the proper local name wasused. As the understanding of themessages was expected to come primarilythrough the icons, the pictograms wereonly supplemented by a key in the fourofficial languages in a very few cases.
The pictograms
Pictograms had been widely used sinceMunich in 1972. The person in overallcharge of the visual style of those Gameswas the great designer Otl Aicher, underwhose direction a series of sports andservices pictograms were created from abasic geometric formula. They became sowidespread as to be practically universal.At the Montreal Games they were usedwithout any changes, in Los Angeles andSeoul only slight modifications were
The Organising Committeesignposting could beimmediately distinguishedfrom the regular kind inBarcelona and the subsitesby the supports, both thelarge external panels and thesmall interior boards. Alaminated base was used; forthe exteriorsignposting, triangularcolumns of different sizes orflat elements.
Double page overleaf:Adaptations of the mascot torepresent each of the sportsof Barcelona'92.
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Owing to the quantity ofinformation the planscontained, a wider range ofcolours was used than onother signs.
introduced. In Barcelona, though theMunich shapes were still used as a startingpoint, the break in style was moreaudacious, as the geometric formula wasabandoned in favour of the characteristicline of the emblem created by Josep. M.Trias and its representationalsimplification of the human body in threeparts (head, arms and legs) was alsoadopted.
In the sports pictograms, the fundamentalreference point is the human body in thepostures which are most characteristic ofthe practice of each sport. Thecompetition ground, however, alsoappears when necessary for the sign to beunderstood, as in the case of swimming,water polo and the nautical sports, inwhich the water line appears in variousguises. In the other sports, the humanbody is combined with the characteristicequipment of each one (net, racket, foil,ball, rifle). There were thirty-two sportspictograms for Barcelona'92: one for eachof the twenty-five official and the three
demonstration sports, plus four for themodes (synchronized swimming, divingand water polo —differentiated in thisway from swimming itself, the races,which were identified by the genericpictogram for swimming— and slalomcanoeing, which had to be distinguishedfrom the flat water variety).
The services pictograms were intended toguide the public in the surroundings andthe interior of the Olympic units, whethercompetition venues, training facilities orservice centres. In Barcelona eighty-twowere specially designed in the samegraphic style as the sports pictograms andfive more were invented incorporatingexisting symbols for public services andtransport.
The Barcelona look
The Barcelona look project wasconcerned with characterising all thespaces connected with the OlympicGames by endowing them with a unique
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Pictograms of the sports ofBarcelona'92 (from left toright by rows): archery,athletics, baseball,basketball, badminton,boxing, canoeing (generaland flat water) and cycling(1); equestrian, football,fencing, gymnastics,handball, hockey, judo andmodern pentathlon (2);rowing, shooting, swimming(general and races), tennis,table tennis, volleyball,weightlifting and wrestling(3); yachting, pelota, rollerhockey, taekwondo,synchronized swimming,diving, water polo andslalom (canoeing).
The service pictograms (fromleft to right by rows): accesson foot, referees, life,refreshments, bar-drinks,bar-sandwiches, drycleaners, letter box.
Cafeteria, currencyexchange, accreditationscentre, newspapers andmagazines, showers,entrance, luggage, stairs.
First aid, meeting point,gifts, restaurant, lounge,television room, silence, exit.
Airport, bus, funicular,heliport, port, taxi,computers, interview room.
identifying image. This included thearrival points, the places to used by thecommunications and transport networks,districts of the city of Barcelona and thesubsites, the competition venues andaccommodation and support centresthemselves and their immediatesurroundings.
The design of the project reflected theimage of the city of Barcelona and thecultural traditions of the country, butwithout concessions to picturesquefolklore and with an overall intention tosynthesize emblematic elements in orderto convert them into symbols. To achievethis purpose, the corporative image of theGames was used (the Olympic rings andthe IOC motto "Citius, altius, fortius", theemblem and logotype of Barcelona'92, thesports pictograms and the CoBi mascot),as well as two specially created graphicresources: the Modernist inspired mosaic(the "trencadis") and a characterising linewhich consisted of an irregular strokeseparating two masses of colour
(a "trencat"). All these elements weretreated with a restricted colour codewhich extended the range of the officialemblem with two other shades of blue,which often appeared as the only colouron a white background.
The elements integrating the look were aseries of decorative pieces repeatedsystematically, decorating each Olympicsite and identifying them all as a whole:pennants, damasks and differentdecorative strips. Other items of a moresingular nature were added, such as theberibboned columns which identified theentrances to the venues or the welcomearches.
Besides the purely decorative elements,however, the look also took account ofthe functional ones, such as the kiosks, themeeting points or the awnings providingshade. As they were elements whichwould be used for a very short period(from one to three months) the materialused most was laminated canvas
Munich'72 Los Angeles'84 Seoul'88 Barcelona'92
The sports pictograms from recent Olympic Games
The pictograms from Munich, designed under the supervision of Otl Aicher, were based on a geometric structure ofthe human figure formed by five elements which could be combined in different ways: the head, the trunk, the arms,the waist —indicated by a blank space— and the legs. In Los Angeles the team directed by Keith Bright andAssociates established a new way of articulating legs and body. The 30 sports and 78 services pictograms for theSeoul Games also modified the articulation of arms and legs and represented only the profile. In Barcelona thegeometric form was not used and the representation of the athlete's trunk was suppressed to make the pictogramsresemble the image of the official emblem.
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Escalator, sponges,pharmacy, information,women's toilets, men'stoilets, toilets, massage.
7
Disabled people, lostchildren, no smoking, noentry, lost and found,organisation, smoking,police.
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Telephone, ticket sales,changing rooms, referees andjudges Village, mediaVillage, Olympic Village,no animals, no photography.
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The exterior look of thevenues was based on thetrencadís (recallingModernist mosaics), to befound on the fences (1) andthe pennants (3) as anidentifying element of theOlympic sites.
Beside the entrance to thevenues, there was always alarge emblematic element: atriangular column with abunch of ribbons on top.
The Olympic rings, theemblem of the IOC, werealso used as an element ofthe look.
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The signs at the gates to thevenues were all on triangularcolumns.
In some service zones andoutside some Olympic sites,awnings were installed toprovide shade with anapplication of themulticoloured trencadís onthe triangular supportcolumns. These awningswere reminiscent of stalls inmarkets and brought a touchof the atmosphere of a localfair, heightened by otherelements of the look.
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The screens, which werenecessary at some venues,were decorated with anapplication of the pictogramfor the sport which wasbeing played there.
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Inside the venues, theapplication of the emblem,the logotype (Barcelona'92)and the mascot brought inthe elements with thestrongest visual impact, bothfor spectators on the spotand those who werewatching the events ontelevision.
The hanging strips used forthe facades of the venuesalso served in some cases, ashere at the Palau Sant Jordi,to decorate the interior.
At some venues, such as thePalau d'Esports inGranollers, theBarcelona'92 emblem wasapplied even to the surfaceof the court.
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The collection of officialOlympic posters consisted offour works: one by Josep M.Trias (1), one by JavierMariscal (2), one by EnricSatué (3) and one by AntoniTàpies (4).
supported by modular metal structures.The graphics were applied to the canvasusing silk-screen printing or vinyls.
Lastly, the application of the look wasincorporated into the sports material ofthe Games, the organisation vehicles andthe special furnishings, such as theDOCUMENT system terminals or thepress desks.
The posters
Ever since the first Games of the modernera in Athens in 1896, posters have playedan important part in the popularisation ofthe Olympics. They have also served, onceevery four years, to identify both the hostcity and a particular aesthetic linked tothe global image of the Games of thatyear. Bearing this history in mind,COOB'92 developed a highly ambitiousproject, which involved 58 different
posters grouped in four collections: theofficial Olympic posters, the painters'posters, the designers' posters and thephotographic sports posters.
For the four official sports posters (thework of Josep M. Trias, Javier Mariscal,Enric Satué and Antoni Tàpies) and theeight painters' posters (by ÊduardoArroyo, Antoni Clave, Eduardo Chillida,Jean-Michel Folon, Josep Guinovart,Robert Llimós, Guillermo Pérez Villaltaand Antonio Saura), in addition to thenormal print run there was a limitededition in silk-screen and lithographsigned by the authors, which COOB'92used as prestige gifts for the VIPs whovisited Barcelona.
For the collection of designers' posters,the leading Spanish design companies andinstitutions selected eighteen artists whowere representative of the different trendsin vogue in Barcelona, Catalonia and therest of Spain.
1,2, 3 and 4
Double page overleaf.
5, 6, 7, 8The poster collectionincluded works by eightSpanish and foreignpainters. When they werecommissioned, the artistswere asked to respect the 50x 70 cm format, but they hadtotal freedom in the choiceof subject. When they wereprinted, a different colourwas chosen for the surroundof each one with the emblemand official title of theGames in the four officiallanguages. The first fourwere the work of EduardoArroyo (5), Antoni Clavé(6), Eduardo Chillida (7)and Jean-Michel Folon (8).
Other projects
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The other four posters bypainters were the work ofJosep Guinovart (9), RobertLlimós (10), GuillermoPérez Villalta (11) andAntonio Saura (12).
The 18 designerscommissioned to produce aposter were also asked torespect the 50 x 70 cmformat and to include theemblem and official title ofthe Games in the fourofficial languages. These areby Josep Pla-Narbona,Ricard Giralt Miracle, PereTorrent "Peret" andAmérica Sànchez.
Lastly, the production of the photographicposters of the twenty-five Olympic andthree demonstration sports was entrustedto a design studio, which proposedintegrating archive photographs of thesports with images of the planet Earth toemphasise the universal nature of theevent. The Earth appeared as the onlyplaying ground and the competitor'sperformance occupied centre stage.
The whole run of the four collections(2,940,000 units) was produced under thesponsorship of Telefónica. The telephonecompany also sponsored the publicationof three booklets, including reproductionsof the posters and biographical notes onthe authors: one for the collections ofofficial and designers' posters, another forthe painters' collection and a third for thecollection of sports posters. Moreover, ade luxe book containing all fourcollections and a brief history of Olympicposter art was published; COOB'92 usedit as a gift for VIPs.
The posters were distributed by COOB'92free of charge. Three kinds of specialpackaging were prepared: plastic (for asingle poster), cardboard tube (forcomplete collections) and boxes (fordispatching large quantities). All threebore the Barcelona'92 emblem and theTelefónica logotype.
Aside from the official collections, otherposters were produced for occasionalpurposes, such as the thirty-three postersdesigned by Javier Mariscal that wentwith the "Barcelona'92, everyone's goal"travelling exhibition around the Olympicsubsites and all the Spanish autonomouscommunities or the three posterspublished on the occasion of the officialreception in Lausanne one year before theGames and the posters of flags anduniforms that were published for theGames, the work of the COOB'92 designteam.
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14For the sports poster project,28 photographs on asporting theme were selectedout of the 5,000 obtainedfrom the world's leadingarchives and NASA wasasked to provide images ofthe Earth. The two imageswere integrated oncomputers and the shadowsand retouches necessary toobtain maximum realismwere added.
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The stamps
The COOB'92 philatelic project consistedof eight pre-Olympic and three Olympicissues. Each pre-Olympic issue consistedof three or four stamps, which depictedthe sports on the official programme; thefirst issue also included a stamp with theOlympic emblem. The subjects of theOlympic issues, on the other hand, wereconcerned with the Olympic event ingeneral, but with no sport in particular.
The postal value of the stamps in thepre-Olympic issues was 18, 20 and 45pesetas, plus an extra 5 pesetas revenuefor COOB'92. The Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre (the Mint) made2,000,000 copies of each stamp. The postalvalue of all the stamps in the Olympicissues was 17 pesetas —except for thefirst, which was 27 — and, like thepre-Olympic issues, the price wasincreased by 5 pesetas for the benefit ofCOOB'92. 3,900,000 units of each weremade.
The torch
In August 1989, COOB'92 commissionedthe prestigious Barcelona industrialdesigner André Ricard (author of the"magic box" which contained theCandidature Dossier presented to theIOC in March 1986) to make the threeindispensable objects for the transport ofthe Olympic flame from Greece to thecauldron at the Olympic Stadium:the torch, the safety lamp and thetemporary cauldrons for the stages ofthe route.
The Barcelona'92 torch was deliberatelydifferent from the ones used at the Gamessince the ritual was established in Berlinin 1936. Designed without mannerismsand very Latin in character, it was abeautiful object in a sober style,unmistakably contemporary, and anattempt to reflect the best of Barcelonadesign. For the first time the typicalsymmetrical shape based on a roundedbody (the Barcelona torch had a flat front
1 Josep M. Trias i Peret
2 Rafael Bartolozzi
3 Robert Llimós
4 Arranz Bravo
5 Gerard Sala
6 Perico Pastor
7 Joan-Pere Viladecans
8 Xano Armenter
Emblem, athletics, badminton, basketball
Handball, boxing, cycling, equestrian
Fencing, football, gymnastics
Weightlifting, hockey, judo
Wrestling, swimming, baseball
Modern pentathlon, canoeing, rowing
Tennis, table tennis, shooting
Archery, yachting, volleyball
3.10.88
7.3.89
3.10.89
7.3.90
3.10.90
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3.10.91
7.3.92
Barcelona Olympic Games stampissues
Olympic issues
Preolympic issues
Author Subjects Date
1 Pilar Villuendas i Josep Ramon Gómez
2 Thomas, Puig, Mariscal
3 Javier Mariscal
Olympic ring
Victory, Olympic torch, Cobi
Olimphilex logotype, Philatelic Cobi
16.7.92
25.7.92
29.7.92
Author Subjects Date
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Three of the stamps from theOlympic issues: one by PilarVilluendas andJosepRamon Gómez (1), one byNorberto Thomas (2) andone by Javier Mariscal (3).
Each issue of stamps camein a folder containingenvelopes and postcards withthe stamps stuck on andfranked with a special sealfor each issue, artist's proofswith the real format of thestamps and largereproductions of the three orfour pictures of the issue.The cover of the folders wasan original by the artist whohad done the stamps; theback cover presented abiography of the author anda few sketches of stampswith explanatory texts.Inside were photographs anddescriptions of the sportsappearing on the stamps anda copy of each one frankedwith the date of issue.
bearing the emblem and the words"Games of the XXV Olympiad" and arounded back) was jettisoned, althoughthe result respected the of the symbologyof the torch within the OlympicMovement. Furthermore, Ricard's designmet all the technical requirements: thetorch weighed little enough not to tire thebearers, it was free of risk and very easyto light.
In case the torch went out by accidentduring a relay, the original flame litby the rays of the sun at Olympia had tobe preserved. For this purpose,Ricard designed a safety lamp, basedon the traditional ones used byminers.
To keep the flame burning overnight atthe end of each stage, he designed acauldron, consisting of a small granitepedestal and a bowl which was areproduction of the crown of the torch ona larger scale.
The cauldron at the Olympic Stadiumwhere the flame would burn during theGames was designed by the Barcelonacompany Associated Designers SA.According to the author, the shape wasinspired by the rudders of Mediterraneanboats. It was placed outside the Stadiumabove the ancient Marathon Gate, whereit could be seen perfectly from any part ofthe stands, but did not occupy spectatorspace. The flame was three metres highand had constant power and a traditionalappearance: the colour was a reddishorange, it burned steadily and did not giveoff smoke.
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The Barcelona'92 torch (1)was the work of the designerAndré Ricard, as was thesafety lamp (3), whichconserved the "original"flame lit at Olympiathroughout the route. Thedesign was inspired by thetraditional miners' lamps.
The cauldron at the OlympicStadium was the work of theAssociated Designers team,who also designed the shape,colour and dimensions of theflame.
In the design of theBarcelona'92 medals, thesculptor Xavier Corberócombined tradition andnotable innovations, such asthe asymmetrical overlay ofthe medallion and theribbon attachment.
5 and 6The obverse and reverse ofthe commemorative medalswhich COOB'92 presentedto the members of Team'92.
The medals
The Olympic Charter, 1987 edition,specifies that the competitors classified inthe first three positions in any of theOlympic sports events must receive amedal with the name of the sport inquestion engraved on it. The winner 'smedal must be made of silver gilt, therunner-up's of silver and the thirdcompetitor's of bronze. The Charter alsoestablishes that all the medals must be atleast 66 millimetres in diameter and 3millimetres thick and the sterling silver ofthe medals for first and second placesmust be at least 925/1000, with a layer ofat least 6 grams of fine gold on thewinner's.
Starting from these conditions and thetradition —uninterrupted sinceAmsterdam in 1928— of including animage of the goddess of victory on theobverse, COOB'92 commissioned thedesign of the Barcelona medals from the
sculptor Xavier Corberó. The medal hedesigned was 70 millimetres in diameterand the ribbon with the Olympic colourswas attached. The reverse was dividedhorizontally into two parts; the emblem ofBarcelona'92 appeared on the upper one.The obverse showed a medallion 56millimetres in diameter, superimposed onthe medal and slightly off-centre, onwhich the image of the goddess of victoryappeared, drawn in a Modernist style,together with the words "XXV OlimpíadaBarcelona 1992". All the medals weremanufactured by the Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre, which also met thecosts.
Corberó also designed the medals for thetop classified competitors in thedemonstration sports which, according tothe Olympic Charter, have to be differentfrom the ones for the official sports, andthe two commemorative medals to begiven to the Olympic Family and themembers of Team'92.
Medals for the official sports at theBarcelona Olympic Games
Medals for the demonstration sportsat the Barcelona Olympic Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Silver with gold coating
Silver
Copper
70 mm
70 mm
70 mm
246 g
242 g
219 g
Gilt
Silver
Burnished copper
Commemorative medals
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Gold
Silver
Bronze
Silver base with gold coating
Gold medallion
Silver
Copper
70 mm
70 mm
70 mm
231 g
13.5 g
269 g
228 g
Gilt
Silver
Burnished copper
Medal Material Diameter Average Surface finish
Medal Material Diameter Average Surface finish
Olympic Family
Team'92
Copper
Copper
70 mm
70 mm
254 g
232.18 g
Burnished copper
Burnished copper
Medal Material Diameter Average Surface finish
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The different groups takingpart in the Games haddistinguishing uniforms incolour codes which observedOlympic tradition. Thus,(left to right), the uniform ofthe directors, of the generalorganisation management,the RTO'92 managementand the referees and judges.
The uniform of the hosts, thegeneral organisationtechnicians, the sportsorganisation technicians andthe medical technicians.
The uniform of the RTO'92technicians,the generalorganisation auxiliaries, thesports organisationauxiliaries and the medicalauxiliaries.
The uniform of the RTO'92auxiliaries, victory ceremonyauxiliaries, competitors' andVIPs' guides and flagbearers (the last three groupswere for the victoryceremonies).
The uniforms
It has long been part of Olympic traditionthat during the Games the staff workingon the organisation should wear auniform, varying according to their job,which makes it possible to identify themon sight. In Barcelona almost 50,000people had to wear uniforms: all themembers of COOB'92, RTO'92 andTeam'92, as well as the judges andreferees at the competitions. Bearing inmind the climatic conditions of theMediterranean summer, natural fibressuch as cotton and cool wool, bright,warm colours and a design thatcombined elegance and functionalitywere chosen.
To distinguish the jobs which the peoplein uniform were doing, a colour code wasestablished according to Olympictradition. In the end, seven colours werechosen for the seven broad sectors: navyblue for the general organisationmanagement, red for the judges andreferees, mustard for the hosts, green forthe sports organisation staff, royal blue forthe organisation technicians andauxiliaries, sky blue for the medical staffand brick red for RTO'92.
Altogether the Olympic uniforms projectinvolved the tailoring of 600,000 garments.The most notable novelties introducedinto the design were the exclusive printson some of the women's blouses and, forthe uniforms of the auxiliaries, theinclusion of bermuda shorts, the distortedGames emblem on the shirt and thesubstitution of the classic tracksuit top bya parka.
The people in charge of the design of theOlympic uniforms were the SpanishInstitute of Fashion, El Corte Inglés,Induyco and the COOB'92 design team.The project was sponsored by El CorteInglés, joint partner for sports fashion,except for the footwear, which wassupplied by Asics.
Description of the uniforms
DirectorsWomen: jacket, skirt, navy blue handbagand shoes, with matching stockings. Men:navy blue suit and shoes, white shirt, navyblue and brown belt and blue and yellowstriped tie.
General organisation managementWomen: the same uniform as thedirectors. Men: navy blue jacket andshoes, beige shirt and trousers, navy blueand yellow striped tie.
RTO'92 managementWomen: brick red jacket and skirt, beigeblouse. Men: brick red jacket, beige shirtand trousers, brick red and yellow stripedtie.
Referees and judgesWomen: red jacket and skirt, beigeblouse. Men: red jacket, red stripedtrousers, red and yellow striped tie.
HostsWomen: mustard jacket and skirt, beigeblouse. Men: mustard jacket, mustardstriped trousers, beige shirt and mustardand yellow striped tie.
General organisation techniciansWomen: royal blue jacket and skirt, royalblue printed blouse. Men: royal bluejacket, royal blue striped trousers andwhite tennis shirt.
Sports organisation techniciansWomen: green jacket and skirt, greenprinted blouse. Men: green jacket, greenstriped trousers and white tennis shirt.
Medical techniciansWomen: sky blue jacket and skirt, skyblue printed blouse. Men: sky blue jacket,sky blue striped trousers and white tennisshirt.
RTO'92 techniciansWomen: brick red jacket and skirt, brickred printed blouse. Men: brick red jacket,brick red striped trousers and white tennisshirt.
General organisation, sports organisation,medical and RTO'92 auxiliaries. Bothwomen and men in all four groups worethe same uniform: parka, shirt with thedistorted, enlarged emblem, tracksuitbottoms and bermuda shorts, sports socks,training shoes and cap. They were onlydifferentiated by the colours: royal bluefor the general organisation, green for thesports organisation, sky blue for themedical and brick red for the RTO'92auxiliaries.
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Posters published for the"Barcelona'92, everyone'sgoal: the Olympic project inyour city" campaign. Thefocus of the campaign was amobile exhibition inside aninflatable replica of theOlympic Stadium. Ittravelled to all the capitalsof the autonomouscommunities and the Gamessubsites in 1990 and received475,000 visitors.
The permanent exhibition atthe Olympic Stadium,entitled "OlympicBarcelona", opened inMarch 1991, coinciding withthe celebration of the 500days left until the Games.
COOB'92 considered that certain aspectsof the organisation of the Games of theXXV Olympiad should be brought topublic attention and support given to anumber of events related to them and tothe particular identity of Barcelona'92,such as informative exhibitions, visits tothe facilities, the cartoon series with Cobias the leading character or the promotioncampaigns.
The campaign "Barcelona'92, everyone'sgoal: the Olympic project in your city",based on a travelling exhibition inside aninflatable replica of the Olympic Stadium,visited all the capitals of the autonomouscommunities in 1990, just as the OlympicBus had done during the Candidaturephase. The aims of the campaign werevarious: to report on the progress made bythe organisation, to encourage thepractice of sport, to interest andinvolve all the people of Spain in theGames project and to convey thegratitude of Barcelona to everyone whohad given their support during theCandidature.
The portable Olympic Stadium, whosetotal surface area was 435 m2, was apolyamide structure which could beinflated in two minutes. The maximumheight was the same as the tower of theStadium (10.5 m) and the total weight was800 kg.
There were items for information anddisplay in the exhibition. Films,audio-visuals and videos were shown andvisitors could access data bases about theOlympic Games and the Barcelonaprojects. There were also panels withphotographs and glass casesexhibiting three-dimensional figuresof Cobi and the licensed products ofBarcelona'92.
The exhibition was presented inBarcelona, Madrid, Sevilla, Merida,Toledo, Valencia, Murcia, Zaragoza,Palma de Mallorca, Logroño, Pamplona,San Sebastian, Vitoria, Santander,Oviedo, Valladolid, Santiago deCompostela, Las Palmas de Gran Canariaand Tenerife. The programme for thestopover in each city, up to a fortnightbefore the opening, included preparatoryevents, such as an advertising campaign in
the press and the installation of an eightmetre high Cobi on the site of theexhibition three days before.
During the week that the exhibitionremained in each city there were pressconferences and special day sessionsdedicated to the sport, business and artworlds and schools.
On the day of the opening, in thepresence of the leading authorities of thecity and the autonomous community,tribute was paid to the Olympicsportsmen and women of the locality,which made it possible to compile acomplete inventory of Spanish Olympiccompetitors.
In all the cities, the local volunteers tookpart in the exhibition, working oninformation and public relations.For their part, the governments of theautonomous communities and the citycouncils, among other institutions,cooperated on the organisation of theexhibition and the parallel activities thatwere prepared.
At the end of 1990, COOB'92 drafted aproject for a permanent exhibition at theOlympic Stadium. It was called "OlympicBarcelona" and was opened on 13 March1991 to coincide with the celebration ofthe 500 days left before the Games. Thehistory of the Olympics, the volunteers,the logotype and the mascot, theceremonies and the torch, the sports, thevenues and the calendar of the Games ofthe XXV Olympiad, the CulturalOlympiad and the Paralympic Gameswere some of the aspects which visitorsfound on display. With a surface area of1,000 m2, the exhibition could take5,400 visitors at a time and from theopening to the close in April 1992 overhalf a million people passed throughthe doors.
At the same time hostesses conductedvisitors around the Olympic areas andvenues, especially the Montjuïc Area: theOlympic Stadium, the Palau Sant Jordi,the INEFC and the Piscines BernatPicornell.
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The promotion of the Games
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The Cobi cartoons were made by a teamconsisting of Javier Mariscal, theinventor of the mascot, as artistic director,the theatre group El Tricicle asscriptwriters, and BRB Internacional,which did the animation. The musicwas composed by Jordi Civit andJuli Capella.
The series "The Cobi Troupe"consisted of twenty-six half hour episodes,divided into three sections of sevenminutes each, all totally independent.Each episode had an two and a halfminute opening title and a one and a halfminute end title.
The series showed the adventures of Cobiand his friends, who became theambassadors of Barcelona all around theworld. The aim of the series was not topublicise the sports, but to popularise themascot and bring the name of Barcelona
and the Olympic Games to internationalattention by means of a masspopularisation project which wouldconnect with children from five to twelveyears old and boost the sale of thelicensed products which used the image ofCobi.
The series was marketed by COOB'92 inthe countries which had acquiredbroadcasting rights for the Games and byBRB elsewhere. Twenty-four networksbought the rights to the series.
The Cobi animation guideand other characters fromthe cartoon series, The CobiTroupe. The adventure serieswas created to popularise themascot and bring the nameof Barcelona and the Gamesto international attention.
The Cobi cartoons 1 and 2.
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The inflatable Stadium ofthe itinerant exhibition, inLa Seu d'Urgell (3) andSantiago de Compostela (4).In all the cities theauthorities of theautonomous communitiesand city councils cooperatedwith the organisation. About850 Olympic volunteers alsoworked on information andpublic services.
COOB'92 did not mount what are knownas "image campaigns" in any shape orform (generic, corporate or product), asthe Olympic Games are already known allaround the world. A rise in the expectednumber of visitors was never an objectivefor COOB'92 and, anyway, most of theGames associate companies were highlyactive in the field of communication.
Nevertheless, from 1989 on COOB'92mounted information campaigns aboutthe project, support campaigns for thetravelling exhibition, joint campaigns withthe sponsor or licensee companies, andcampaigns to introduce the lotteries, toinvite people to the Games and tomonitor the route of the Olympic torchand the progress of the Barcelona'92project.
In 1989 two information campaigns aboutthe Olympic project were staged:
"Barcelona'92, three years before", whena information booklet about theorganisational aspects was given out as asupplement with various newspapers, and"We're getting on with it", which wasaimed at the people of Barcelona andCatalonia to justify the trouble caused bythe works.
To provide support for the sponsors andlicensees a campaign was mounted for thejoint partners, identifying the eightcompanies that supplied the resourceswithout which the Games could not be puton. In December 1991 the Catalan pressenclosed a supplement which was a list ofthe licensed products and the licenseecompanies under the slogan "GiveOlympic Games this Christmas".
In July 1991 two campaigns weremounted, one in Spain and the otherabroad, in which the message broadcastwas that, with a year still to go, everythingwas ready.
3 and 4 The promotion campaigns
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Among the sources of COOB'92 financewere the lotteries; the draws were heldannually from 1989. The promotioncampaigns for these lotteries were alsoused to send out a message of Olympicparticipation.
As set down by tradition, one year beforethe Games are held the IOC organises anevent in Lausanne to which the NOCs areinvited. To coincide with this occasion,COOB'92 made a 20 second televisionspot specially adapted for each countrywhich presented the slogan "Friends forlife". Altogether, 194 copies were made in15 broadcasting systems and 14 languages.The copies were distributed in over 100countries, which broadcast theadvertisement twice on the same day—25 July 1991- on average at peakviewing times. The estimated audiencewas 2,800 million viewers.
In the sponsorship contracts with theTime Group and the exclusive broadcastagreements with NBC, COOB'92negotiated certain advertisingconsiderations which took the form of theuse of promotional space for the Games,the city and the country.
To provide support for the Olympic torchroute, a campaign was mounted in thepress and on radio and television whichsupplied information about the variousstages and invited people to come along.
During the Games and on the daysimmediately before they began,campaigns were organised to inform thepublic about the sales of tickets andrecommendations for the use of publictransport.
One year before the OlympicGames, in the PuebloEspañol in Montjuïc,COOB'92 organised a partyfor all the organisation staff.In the photograph, (left toright), Javier GómezNavarro, Pasqual Maragall,Juan Antonio Samaranchand Josep Lluís Vilaseca, atthe moment when thepresident of COOB'92 wasaddressing a few words tothe guests.
Poster published byCOOB'92, with the names ofthe joint partners.
The last campaigns 1
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The promotional material used topublicise the corporate identity ofCOOB'92 (the logotype and mascot)consisted primarily of licensed products(ball point pens, T-shirts, stickers, pins,ties, handkerchiefs, balls, towels, watchesand jewellery, among others).
The criteria for distribution were adaptedat each stage and to the specific groups atwhom the promotion was directed. Forexample, on all visits to the competitionvenues and the exhibitions organised byCOOB'92, material was given away tojournalists, schoolchildren, universitystudents and companies.
During the Games, all the accreditedmembers of the Olympic Family receiveda promotional item as a memento of theirstay in Barcelona, in addition to thecommemorative medal and theparticipant's diploma. Moreover, the
members of Team'92 and the securityforces who took part in the Gamesreceived promotional material, a medaland a diploma.
The cover of the leafletpublished for the Christmasholidays in 1991 whichappeared in the Catalanpress and contained picturesof the products of thelicensed companies.
3 Promotional material
The material for promotingthe corporate identityconsisted basically oflicensed material.
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The most regular channel ofcommunication betweenCOOB'92 and the mediawas the press conference.There were two a month atthe end of the meetings of theCOOB'92 governing bodiesand occasional briefingswith the people in charge ofdifferent departments of theGames organisation wereconvened.
Every six months, COOB'92published a Press Dossierwith up-to-date informationabout the organisation of theGames. As part of thecelebrations of the 500 daysuntil the Games, a specialdossier was published withphotographs of the Olympicsites.
The managers of theCOOB'92 Press Departmentkept in permanent personaltouch with the press. Thecovers of various foreignmagazines referred to theBarcelona Games.
COOB'92 was always aware of theimportance of the media to the success ofthe Olympic Games. At the Candidaturestage, they had played a fundamental role,insofar as they were a vehicle for theenthusiasm of society for the choice ofBarcelona as host city. During that phasethe Press Department was set up andintegrated into the Image andCommunication Division. It wasresponsible for establishing COOB'92communications policy and applying it inrelations with the media.
The department took full account both ofthe characteristics of the OlympicMovement and the tradition of Barcelonain the field of the media. On 14 November1924 EAJ-1, the first Spanish radiostation, came on the air in Barcelona. On10 June 1948, in Palau 1 at the BarcelonaTrade Fair the first television experimentin Spain was made. Today eightnewspapers are published in the city,among them the doyen of the Europeanpress and two sports dailies.
The Press Department defined differentlevels of relations and activities, accordingto the location of the media (Barcelona-Catalonia, the rest of Spain and abroad).In all cases permanent, personalcommunication was provided,fundamentally by telephone. Moreover,there were a wide range of informationactivities produced regularly byCOOB'92 and addressed to the media:briefings (press conferences and worksessions), publications (a daily bulletin, aweekly newsletter and a press dossierwhich was updated every six months), PRevents (organised visits, tours ofinspection and presentations) and awelcome campaign (for receivingreporters and supplying them with theinformation they needed on the daysleading up to the Games).
The department was in daily touch withjournalists from every media organisation,especially in Barcelona. This newsdistribution activity, which alsocompared and confirmed items, was themost demanding job the departmenthad to do.
The most regular channel for relationswith the journalists was the pressconference. Generally two were held eachmonth, at the end of the meetings of theCOOB'92 governing bodies. These
encounters were supplemented withspecial work sessions with reporters andthe people in charge of different areas ofthe organisation. Moreover, presentationsof projects and visits by groups and VIPswere always an occasion for meetings withthe press and for responding to the greatpublic demand for information about theOlympic project.
Among the documents, a Press Dossierwas published. It contained a summary ofall the information about the project andwas brought up to date every six monthsand distributed regularly to journalists.Six editions came out in the four officiallanguages. Each one was complementedby a collection of slides and videos whichshowed the evolution of the Olympicproject. Press dossiers were also publishedon special occasions, such as theCOOB'92 presentations to the IOCsessions, the celebration of the 500 daysbefore the Games and many others, aswell as 247 monographic dossiers devotedto such aspects as the features of thevenues, the city infrastructure, technology,the Olympic Villages and the subsites.
The media also received a weeklynewsletter published in the four officiallanguages, with a print run of 2,000 copies.A press release was sent by fax every dayto 127 reporters all over the world. Until10 July, the eve of the opening of theMain Press Centre (MPC), 1,216 releaseswere sent out with 5,969 news items.
COOB'92 was well aware of the principlethat a good communications strategyconsists of striking a balance betweeninformation, relations with the press andpublic relations. To this end, the PressDepartment laid on a series ofprogrammed visits to the Olympic venuesand took measures to meet the occasionalneeds for information of the specialenvoys of the media. Over the period1987-1992 7,449 reporters were dealt with,a figure which speaks volumes for thededication of the department in thissphere.
In 1988 the programme "Come to 92" waslaunched. It was aimed primarily at thepress outside Catalonia. The newspapersin the other autonomous communities ofSpain had an opportunity to go toBarcelona and the subsites to visit theOlympic venues and interview COOB'92management. These Olympic fact-findingtrips were repeated in 1989,1990 and1991.
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This activity reached its climax with"Operation Welcome", which got underway immediately before the Games. Itwas designed for the thousands ofreporters from all over the world whowere to arrive in Barcelona in the weekleading up to the opening ceremony. In ajoint operation with the Barcelona CityCouncil press services, programmes ofvisits were prepared and a large numberof briefings held.
The Alcatel company, joint partner ofCOOB'92, sponsored the Alcatel projectfor Barcelona'92, which consisted of acomplete permanent information systemavailable to the different sectors of theOlympic Family. The aim of the projectwas to set up an information "hot line" tothe world's leading media, the institutionsand VIPs related with the world of theOlympics.
From 8 October 1990 to 24 July 1992,users in 50 countries could be inpermanent touch with the Barcelona'92data base through about 4,000 portableterminals which were distributed free ofcharge. The cost to the users was just theprice of a connection to a domestic orinternational access point; COOB'92covered the expenses from there toMadrid or Barcelona.
Contents
The information in the Alcatel projectwas structured in nine data bases devotedto different subjects, which are listedbelow.
History of the Olympic Games
In this field three types of informationwere available: a file for each summerOlympic Games with chronologies,medals and results tables, etc.; thebiographies of the 340 most important
A group of veteranjournalists —many of themaccredited at other OlympicGames— on one of the visitsorganised by COOB'92 tothe Olympic venues. In 1988the "Come to '92"programme was launched. Itwas aimed basically at thepress outside Catalonia.
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The Alcatel project for Barcelona'92
The Alcatel company, jointpartner of COOB'92,sponsored a complete,permanent informationproject aimed at the world'sleading media, institutionsand VIPs related with theOlympics.
competitors who had taken part since theAthens Games in 1896 and the presidentsof the IOC, and a list of all the Olympicand world records which still stood,ordered by sports and events.
Barcelona'92
The users could obtain informationabout all aspects of the organisation,whether COOB'92 or the programmeswhich were being carried out by thebranches of the administration. This database, which contained over 200 entries,was the one most frequently consulted byjournalists.
Stars for 92
This was a set of files with 2,700biographies of participants in the Games.Most of them were compiled by thecompetitors themselves, afterquestionnaires were sent out to the NOCsand the International Federations.
Olympic Movement
This data base was a directory of the IOC,the NOCs, the International Federationsfor summer sports, the OrganisingCommittees (OCOG) and theorganisations recognised by the IOC.There were also biographies of all themembers of the IOC.
Barcelona today
This section contained general recent andhistorical information about the host city,complemented with information about theamenities and services available inBarcelona.
Catalonia today
Here the users could find basicinformation about the history and thepresent situation of Catalonia (political,cultural, etc.), including useful addressesand telephone numbers.
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Spain today
This data base contained informationabout the history and the presentsituation of Spain, organised undersubject headings, and an extensivedescription of the other sixteenautonomous communities, the events tocommemorate the Quincentenary of thediscovery of America, Expo'92 in Sevillaand the year of Madrid as culturalcapital of Europe.
News bulletin
This was structured in two sections:in the first there was general information—with the daily exchange rates for thepeseta and the ECU and the weatherforecast for Barcelona, Sevilla andMadrid—; and in the second news aboutthe latest developments in the Olympicproject. Two editions were publishedevery day.
Electronic mail
With this service, users could sendmessages to the project editors andreceive replies. 2,125 journalists from 38countries were able to make direct contactwith the organisation to extend and checktheir information.
It should be said that the number ofreferences made to the Alcatel projectsystem was lower than expected. Thatmay be explained by the novelty of thesystem and by the fact that many users ofthe service had other informationchannels and were in direct daily contactwith COOB'92.
On the days immediatelybefore the Games, COOB'92organised a welcomecampaign for the journaliststo provide them withinformation about theOlympic event.
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From 25 July to 12 Augustthe Official GamesNewspaper was publishedand distributed free ofcharge to all members of theOlympic Family. There weretwo bilingual editions ofeach number, one in Catalanand English and another inSpanish and French.
COOB'92 edited the official newspaper ofthe Games. Production was in the handsof the GS/MB company in associationwith the Autonomous University ofBarcelona and the University of Navarra.IBM, joint partner of COOB'92, providedthe most advanced technology inpublishing processes, image treatment,infographics and typesetting.
The newspaper was conceived as achannel of information for the OlympicFamily on the days of the Games. Theaims were: to report on the Games; tostress the ethical values of sport (fair playand respect for the opponent) andOlympism (conviviality between peoplesand cultures, above and beyondcompetition) and to present Barcelona,Catalonia and Spain, their tradition ofhospitality and adhesion to the OlympicMovement.
The print run for this publication, whichappeared from 20 July to 12 August, was50,000 copies a day, distributed free ofcharge to the members of the OlympicFamily at the different units, officialhotels and institutions. There were twodifferent editions of each number, one inCatalan and English and the other inSpanish and French, each containing a fullcolour centrefold with advertising by themain sponsors of COOB'92.
The team of the official Games newspaperconsisted of 47 people. The editorial staffand management were installed on thepremises of the MPC, where they hadinstant access to the information servicesof the Multiple Access to Information andCommunication system (AMIC), theOlympic Agency, the international pressagencies, among others.
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The increase in the numberof publications in Barcelonaover earlier Games wasconsiderable. COOB'92produced prestigepublications as gifts for theVIPs who visited the cityand, for the first time, madethe Official Reportavailable to the public.
The Olympic Games these days are notonly a sporting event; they are acommunications occasion, in whichtelevision and publications play afundamental role.
From one Games to the next, the amountof printed matter generated has increasedin a geometrical progression: in Montrealin 1976, 20 titles were published; inMoscow in 1980, 172; in Los Angeles in1984, about 300. We should bear in mindthat from one candidature to another theincrease in the number of Olympic sports—and therefore in the number ofcompetitors, events and venues— anddelegations, journalists and others hascreated a greater need for information forthe Olympic Family, which is also morenumerous at each Games. In Barcelonathere was the additional elementof four official languages (Catalan,Spanish, French and English), whichswelled the volume of productionenormously.
After studying previous Games in depth,COOB'92 saw the need to have adepartment to centralize and standardisethe publications, as the study revealedthat preceding Organising Committeeshad suffered from the inability of theirsuppliers (publishing companies, printers,binders, etc.) to react to the demand. As aresult, the possibility of sponsorship oroutside association was only consideredfor certain occasional demands ofpublication.
Originally the Publications Departmentdepended on the Image andCommunication Division, as theunderlying aim was to unify criteria forinformation and image within COOB'92as far as possible. The studio of designerYves Zimmermann was commissioned toproduce an original, homogeneous designfor all COOB'92 publications, whether forinternal or external consumption. ThePublications Department also had supportfrom the Language Services Department,which supplied the translation andcorrection of the texts.
Later, early in 1991, the PublicationsDepartment became dependent on thePlanning and Control Division. Thischange of orientation was a response to
the need to give priority, once the imagehad been decided, to the unification andcoherence of the publications.
The functions of the department were todraft, revise and approve the general textsfor the departments and divisions ofCOOB'92, applying the standardsestablished for content and image. Afterthe Language Services Department hadcompleted its work, the PublicationsDepartment took charge of thepublication of the texts in a suitableformat (booklets, forms, triptychs,leaflets, books).
To produce the periodical publications—such as the weekly press newsletters,the general summaries and internalreports for the Olympic Family— andensure fast reaction and independentproduction, an agreement was signed withRank-Xerox as joint partner in publishingsystems, by which the company set up theCOOB'92 publications centre. This wasequipped with state-of-the-art machinery,such as the Docutech, which covered thewhole production process fromphotocopies to binding by means ofcomputerized handling of thepublications.
For external production, Plaza & Janes, apublishing house belonging to theBertelsmann group, was official supplierof COOB'92 publications. The companyprovided an integral publishing service,from photocomposition to printing, whenrequired by the work to be produced.
Another aspect which was taken intoaccount was the logistics of distributingthe publications to the Olympic Family, asthere were a large number of documentsto be sent out in a very limited time tousers who were scattered around theglobe.
The planning of distribution provided forthe use of the organisation logistics centreand the printing presses that did the workfor the Publications Department.Previously it had been agreed with theperson in charge of each sector of theOlympic Family which publications it hadto receive, how many copies and wherethey were to be delivered.
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We should remember that the OrganisingCommittee of the Olympic Games(OCOG) undertakes a series ofobligations regulated by the OlympicCharter; in the case of publications, thesetake the form of a number of obligatorytitles. In the 1987 edition of that basicdocument of the Olympic Movement,Rule 60 obliges the OCOG to send to theIOC, the IFs and the NOCs anexplanatory booklet for each sport at leastone year before the Games and a medicalbooklet to the IOC before theWinter Games and to publish an officialreport on the Games over the twoyears following the close. In addition tothese required publications, the OCOGcontacts a long list of periodicinformation commitments with the IFsand the different sectors of the OlympicFamily.
To meet these requirements and monitorthem at all times, COOB'92 drafted a
publications plan in late 1989, which was alist of all the printed material that wouldhave to be produced until the Games. Theplan included everything from the guidesfor the Olympic Family to the forms, theaccreditations, the posters and the stickersand calculated about 30 million printunits, a third of which would beconcentrated in the first six months of1992. The plan was reviewed every sixmonths.
The different elements were classified bysetting the needs of each COOB'92service or division one by one and thendeciding on the budget, the languages, theprint run and the users. This planresponded to a functional criterion. In1991 it was reviewed from the point ofview of the users. To do this a globalanalysis was made of what informationhad to be supplied to each sector and onwhat supports.
The plan was reorganised in four blocks—two for sectors of users and two for
The magazine Voluntaris'92,of which fourteen numberswere published, was one ofthe publications for Team'92.
Before the definitive OlympicFamily Guide (foreground),which was presented onarrival in Barcelona with theOfficial Olympic Map, threedifferent editions of theBarcelona'92 Guide werepublished.
The explanatory booklets—one of the obligatorypublications according to theOlympic Charter— weredrafted with the respectiveInternational Federationsand appeared a year beforethe Games.
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The programmes for theCompetitions'91 (4) and theOlympic posters —like theone by Claret Serrahima(5)— were also theresponsibility of thePublications Department.
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One of the main groups ofCOOB'92 publications, bothbefore and during theGames, consisted of thetechnical stationery, such asstickers, passes, envelopes,invitations, programmes,cards and menus for all theofficial events. Among themwere the 570 differentmodels of forms for thesports competitions usedduring the Games.
A sample of the image andcommunication publicationsin the four official languagesof the Games.
technical characteristics of thepublication—, which helped to rationalizethe remaining publications and avoidpossible repetitions of information. Thefour blocks were: publications for theorganisation; publications for theOlympic Family and the public; technicalstationery; and promotion and image.In the second appendix to thisvolume there is a list of all the titlespublished.
Publications for the organisation
The organisation block brought togetherall the publications for the volunteers—for the training and operationalphases—, the staff of COOB'92 and theassociate companies.
Publications for the Olympic Family
The Olympic Family and public block wasthe largest, as it included all thepublications containing information aboutthe 28 sports (25 official and 3
demonstration) at Barcelona'92, theguides for the different sectors of theOlympic Family and all the informationbefore and after their arrival in Barcelonarelated to customs formalities,accreditation, accommodation, transportand so on.
Technical stationery
In the technical stationery block came allthe forms which the OrganisingCommittee needed (entry, sportsdocuments, medical, requests forservices), the passes, the accreditationsand the internal reports, the invitationsand the triptychs, among others.
Promotion and image
Lastly the promotion and image blockcovered all the publications about thedesign, the look and the signpostingproduced by the organisation; theapplication of the mascot and thelogotype and the creation of the
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pictograms; the books of reproductions ofthe three official Barcelona'92 postercollections and the programmes for theopening of the 99th Session of the IOC,which was held in Barcelona a few daysbefore the Games.
As expected —from the experience offormer Organising Committees— the finalstage of the project was characterised by ahuge amount of work concentrated in thelast month, to which were added theunforeseen and last-minute tasks. For thisreason, some months beforehand a fewexternal suppliers were assigned packagesof publications; with that commitment,COOB'92 was sure of the support itneeded to guarantee the ultimate successof the operation.
To give an idea of the size of theoperation, we might record that duringthe Games operation alone(June and July 1992), COOB'92 printed148 publications, all in the four officiallanguages of the Games, in addition to
over 1000 items of stationery andcompetition forms. This meant aconsumption of 124,320 kilograms ofpaper (an amount equivalent to about41,000 volumes of the Official Reportsuch as this one).
A good example of the final phase of theoperation was the preparation andprinting of the 28 results books for thedifferent sports, which were distributed tothe delegations and the press just 24 hoursafter the end of each competition, with anaverage number of 3,000 copies per sport.This required the formation of a team ofpeople devoted exclusively to producingthe results books; their job includedselecting and ordering the material to bereproduced and filming the books at thepublications centre. Immediatelyafterwards the films were sent to anoutside printing and binding service,which in twelve hours returned theprinted material ready for distribution tothe competition venues.
After the Games, theeditorial team (1) and theproduction team (6) of theCOOB'92 PublicationsDepartment devoted theirattention almost exclusivelyto the production of theOfficial Report.
During the organisationphase, the colours of thespines of the publicationsidentified the divisions ofCOOB'92 which wereresponsible for the content.Blue was the colour of thepublications in theoperations phase.
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Some of the publications forthe Olympic Family werealso given free of charge to awider public, thanks to thecooperation of other entities.In the photograph, the leafletThe Barcelona OlympicGames, sponsored by TMB.
The guides for the differentsectors of the OlympicFamily, which the membersreceived on arrival inBarcelona, presented aunified image.
The Official Book of theGames of the XXVOlympiad —marketed by theofficial supplier ofpublications, Plaza &Janes— was published jointlyby COOB'92 and the IOC.
During the Games, moreover, thePublications Department worked on thepreparation of a licensed product, theOfficial Book of the Games of the XXVOlympiad, the only joint publication byCOOB'92 and the IOC, which had a totalprint run of 70,000 copies in the fourofficial languages. A team of professionals—journalists, designers and COOB'92 andPlaza & Janés staff— in the fields ofwriting, page layout, photography,translation and correction was devotedexclusively to this task over the days ofthe Games. The pages dealing with themost important events of the day had to
be closed each night, with their texts andphotographs, so that the book could be onsale two weeks after the end of theGames.
After the Games, the publications centrecontinued its activity with the publicationof the final reports that COOB'92 had topresent to the IOC (Executive Board,Medical Commission and Press) and theradio and television reports and with thepreparation of the remaining volumes ofthis Official Report, as we shall beexplaining later in this chapter.
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COOB'92 set up theDepartment of PublicInformation in response torequests from the people ofthe city about aspects relatedto the Olympic organisationand the activities and publicservices for the Games.Information was sent to therecipients by post, telephoneand fax and throughpublications and personalattention. In the photograph,one of the informationkiosks at the venues duringthe Games.
In view of the public interest aroused bythe Olympic Games all around the worldand the avalanche of requests for generaland particular information which had tobe answered without disturbing the workof the divisions in charge of each subject,the Public Information Department wasset up in the Image and CommunicationDivision.
Its objective was to inform the generalpublic and spectators about all mattersdirectly connected with the Olympicorganisation (sales of tickets,accommodation, commercial rights, visitsto the venues, calendar, volunteers,competitors and so on) and about thepublic activities and services related to theGames.
The channels used to send theinformation were the telephone, the post,the fax, personal attention andpublications for mass distribution.
The profile of this department called for ahigh level of ability in speaking and writingthe four official languages of the Gamesand special training in communication andpublic relations techniques.
In the stage leading up to the Games,eight people worked in the department;in addition, eight hostesses manned theinformation desks in the COOB'92buildings.
During the Games, 250 volunteers in thepublic areas of all the competition venuesin Barcelona and the subsites were onduty to provide information. They wereselected from students on courses at theschools of tourism.
The tasks of the Public InformationDepartment were highly varied. First we
General information scheme for the1992 Olympic Games
1 Specific information according the sector: IOC, international, Spanish and Catalan federations, competitors, NOCs, judges and referees,
press and photographers, radio and television, International Youth Camp, observers, associate companies, guests, VIPs, Team'92,
security staff.
1 Public information The human resources
Range of information
Public information Spectator information Olympic Family information
General information about the 1992 Olympic Games
Sports programme
Cultural programme
Tickets
Barcelona city information
Subsite city information
Accommodation
Progress of the Games
Information services
Security regulations
Competition venues
Opening and closing ceremonies
General information about the 1992 Olympic Games (uniforms)
Sports programme (start lists)
Cultural programme (detail)
Use of the AMIC and list of contents
List of NOCs and competitors
Competition results
Official COOB'92 releases
Security regulations (OF)
Changes to events
Useful advice
Information finding services
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The public informationservice staff were well versedin speaking and writing thefour official languages. Theyalso attended trainingcourses in public relationsand communication.
One of the plans located atdifferent points of theOlympic areas; in this case,Montjuïc.
During the Games, 250volunteers —selected mostlyfrom among students atschools of tourism—,manned the informationpoints at all the venues inBarcelona and the subsites.
should mention the personal attentionthey provided by phone, post and fax. Theusers of this service were people of allkinds and the volume of questions grew asthe Games approached. Any informationwhich appeared in the media arousedpublic curiosity, but there were someareas, such as accommodation, the rightsto reproduce the trade marks and images,visits to the facilities or promotionalmaterial which seemed to be ofconstant interest. The subjects on whichthe demand for information was greatestalso served as a barometer of publicopinion.
Other matters, such as the route of thetorch, the number of competitors andticket sales, for instance, occupied firstplace among questions from the public atparticular times.
There were also many inquiries aboutchanges to the competition calendar andthe general organisation budget and evenabout matters which were not the
responsibility of COOB'92, such as thesale of apartments at the Olympic Village.
The Public Information Department wasalso responsible for the mass distributionof promotional material (posters, stickers,ball point pens, information leaflets) andmanaged the promotion campaignthrough video shows at educational,cultural and recreational centres all overSpain.
Another important aspect was sendinginformation to institutions (Generalitat,city councils, chambers of commerce) andcompanies (travel agencies, tourist offices,airlines, transporters, businesses). Alongwith 5,000 people connected with theorganisation, they received variouspublications, such as the monthlymagazine Barcelona Olímpica, at regularintervals.
The Public Information Department alsoworked on the conference on tourism inCatalonia organised by the Generalitat
Phone calls taken by subject(from July 1991 to August 1992)Total: 56,300
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Volunteers and Olympic torch (13,400)
Tickets (12,900)
Accommodation (9,400)
Commercial and Image (8,500)
Visits (6,550)
COOB'92 (5,550)
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During the preparatoryphase of the Games, a teamof eight hostesses was inpermanent attendance at theinformation desks in theCOOB'92 buildings.
One of the informationkiosks that the BarcelonaMunicipal Tourist Authoritylocated at strategic pointsaround the city.
The hosts (3) and volunteers(4) were at the informationpoints at the venues to dealwith any questions from thepublic or accredited staffabout the organisation of thecompetitions.
and the reporters' training coursesorganised by the Barcelona City CouncilTourist Board. It also worked closely onthe daily dispatch of information to touristoffices in Catalonia and various publictelephone information services.
The Department was in charge of draftingthe project for the requirements, location,operation and resources of theinformation booths at the venues; in theend there were 61 information points inBarcelona and the subsites. During theGames, it was responsible for dealing withcomplaints by spectators about thecompetitions or other aspects of theorganisation. It was also in charge of lostproperty at the venues.
Olympic Spectator's Guide and theBarcelona Olympic Games.
It also did the cartography for twolicensed products (the OfficialProgramme by Time/Sports Illustratedand the Official Tourist Guide to theOlympic Games by Plaza & Janés); forthe Olympic information which appearedin the Barcelona'92 Olympic TransportGuide and the Ortoimatge on a scale of1:50,000 published jointly by theGeneralitat of Catalonia and COOB'92and on the publications for the OlympicFamily which contained generalinformation about the city.
The Public Information Departmentworked closely with the PublicationsDepartment on the information andcartography in the Official Map, The
Evolution of phone calls taken
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The making of the officialfilm of the Barcelona'92Games— like thepublication of the OfficialReport, prescribed by theOlympic Charter— was acommitment undertaken byCOOB'92 in its contractwith the IOC.
The four volumes of theOfficial Report —which isbeing marketed for the firsttime— were designed byYves Zimmermann, and thecovers by the painter AntoniClavé.
The presentation of thesecond volume of theOfficial Report took placeat the BarcelonaInternational Press Centreon 17 December 1992.
The Official Report and Film
The Official Report is the completeaccount of the Olympic Games which,according to the Olympic Charter, mustbe presented by the OrganisingCommittee to the IOC —in French,English and optionally the language of thehost country— within two years of theclosing ceremony. Each member andhonorary member, of the IOC, eachInternational Federation which hasfigured on the Olympic programme andeach National Olympic Committee whichhas taken part in the Games of thatOlympiad must receive a copy.
COOB'92, however, opted well inadvance for changing this approach to theReport, previously restricted to theOlympic Family, and decided that itshould be published in the four officiallanguages and be put on sale. To
guarantee the viability of the project, itwas also decided to cut the productiontime by half, so that it would be ready atmost one year after the close. And so, ayear and a half before the Games began,the nucleus of the team which wouldproduce the four volumes of the Reportwas set up inside the COOB'92Publications Department. Moreover, thestaff of the Language ServicesDepartment were available to correct theCatalan original and translate it into theother three languages. The contents of thework were approved in January 1991 andbefore the summer of that year the designhad been selected.
The fact that the Official Report would bemarketed among the public naturally hadan influence on its conception. It had tobe more than a mere list of statistics andhad to be designed, written and illustratedwith the idea that, even though it was stillintended for sectors of the OlympicMovement, it would be able to arouse theinterest of lay readers. On 12 March 1991,
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COOB'92 signed a distribution contractfor the Official Report with EnciclopèdiaCatalana S.A., which had an excellentcommercial network and long experiencein distributing and selling large works onthe Catalan book market.
Volume I, which dealt with the OlympicCandidature, appeared in May 1992, twomonths before the start of the Games.Volume IV —which concentrated on ananalysis of the sporting and culturalevents which took place between 25 Julyand 9 August 1992 and on the residencesand services provided for the OlympicFamily over that period— was the first ofthe three remaining ones to be published.Owing to its special characteristics,Volume I was compiled from the reportsand publications of the Olympic Officeand personal interviews. The other three,however, were written from the reports ofthe technicians in charge of eachprogramme on the Master Plan, whichwere given to the coordinating team of theOfficial Report two months after the
Games ended. The editorial team madethe style and presentation of the reportshomogeneous and selected the graphicand statistical material in association withthe people in charge of the photographicarchive. Other people took care of thepage layout and the printing process.Altogether, about fifteen people haveworked on the team.
The same team took charge of thepublication of a volume of Games results,which provides the most detailedinformation possible about the differentphases of the sports competition. Thisvolume, which has been distributedamong the members of the OlympicFamily, is accompanied by a diskette withthe sporting biographies of theBarcelona'92 Olympic medallists.
Two moments of theproduction process ofvolumes of the OfficialReport: printing (1) andmounting the photoliths (2).
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Shooting of the official film(Marathon) began inBarcelona on 19 July andcontinued withoutinterruption until 9 August.At the opening ceremony (4),12 cameras were used.
The tradition of recording the events ofthe Olympic Games in an Official Filmbegan with the consolidation of theOlympic Movement in modern times asan important phenomenon in the historyof the twentieth century. But the firstOfficial Film which went beyond being amere documentary and was conceived andmade with artistic ambition was the filmof the Berlin Games in 1936. LeniRiefenstahl, who was a member of theExpressionist school, directed thatmasterpiece, which was at the same timean apologia for Nazi Germany. Theappearance of television in Rome in 1960marked another change in the concept ofOfficial Films: in fact, the new mediumgradually took over many of theinformation and documentaryrequirements that had been previouslysatisfied by the cinema. However, as theIOC maintained the obligation to makean Official Film, the OrganisingCommittees chose to follow the example
of Berlin and often commissioned theirfilms from famous directors (such as KonIchikawa, Milos Forman, Claude Lelouch,Mai Zetterling, John Schlesinger orArthur Penn) and alternated dramatic anddocumentary approaches (sometimesincluding a famous actor as narrator orcommentator, others in a moreexperimental vein).
In the contract signed with the IOC inLausanne on 17 October 1987, theBarcelona organisation undertook tomake the Official Film for the 1992Games. The copyright would belong tothe IOC, which would cede the rights tocommercial exploitation to COOB'92 orthe producers of the film for a period offour years. COOB'92 decided later toentrust the project to a producer whowould assume all expenses involved infinancing, production and distribution. In1990 four proposals were received (twofrom the USA, one Spanish-British andone Spanish with an English director); allfour offered to finance 100% of the cost
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of the film and to negotiate the cessionperiod for the rights to commercialexploitation with COOB'92 andthe IOC.
After studying the proposals, COOB'92chose the one presented jointly by threeSpanish production companies: GroupFilms, Iberoamericana FilmsInternacional and Lola Films. Theirproject was a documentary calledMarathon, which also included elementsof historical reconstruction and drama andwas to be directed by High Hudson, whohad made Chariots of Fire.
To simplify the production, the threecompanies involved formed a newcompany, Ibergroup SA, with itsheadquarters in Barcelona. In the summerof 1991, a contract was signed betweenIbergroup SA, COOB'92 and the IOC;the company undertook to make a full-length feature about the BarcelonaOlympic Games and in exchange obtainedthe rights to commercial exploitation for a
period of seven years renewable.Moreover, the contract provided for thepossibility of making a longer film whichcould be divided into episodes fortelevision broadcast.
The pre-production phase got under wayat once. In agreement with Hugh Hudson,to ensure a more attractive product fromthe commercial point of view, theprestigious British scriptwriter MelvinBragg was hired. Bragg and Hudsonvisited Barcelona on several occasions tofamiliarise themselves with theatmosphere and history of the city and toagree on the plan for the film. The scriptfocussed on the Marathon and includeddirect narration by famous actors andimages —fictional, of course— ofPhilippides' race after the battle betweenGreeks and Persians (490 BC) andSpiridion Louis' race at the first Games ofthe modern era. The men's and women'sMarathons in Barcelona would providethe backbone of the plot and images ofdifferent sports, the city and subjects of
In 22 days over 200,000 mof film were shot (six orseven times the usualamount for a conventionalfeature).
Carlos Saura was brought inas director of Marathon afew weeks before filmingstarted.
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The Marathon productionteam consisted of 49 people.They used 8 vans as mobileunits (4).
Pablo G. del Amo (editor)and Carlos Saura (director)editing Marathon.
interest related to the Olympics (drugabuse, commercialisation and others)would be inserted.
Just a few weeks before shooting was dueto start, Hugh Hudson abandoned theproject over differences with Ibergroupand for personal reasons. Carlos Saurawas then hired to direct the film.
The hiring of Saura brought changes tothe plan for Marathon. The script wasmodified: the narrators were removed andattention was centred mostly on theuniverse of the competitor. Moreover,after attending the opening ceremony,Saura decided to do the reconstruction ofthe Battle of Marathon with La Fura delsBaus, who joined the production team.Furthermore, Ovideo TV became part ofthe company and Televisión Españolaacquired the broadcasting rights for thefilm in Spain.
Shooting began in Barcelona a weekbefore the Games. Images of twenty-twosports were filmed (all the official ones,except for football, shooting, badminton,canoeing and baseball and thedemonstration sports except taekwondo),shots of training sessions and the OlympicVillage, interviews with competitors. Inthe twenty-two days between 19 July and9 August over 200,000 metres of film wereshot (six or seven times the amount of anormal full-length feature film).
In October 1992 the editing began.Recordings made by RTO'92 were alsoavailable and some sequences which werestill necessary to complete the material(such as the battle between Greeks andPersians) were shot. The post-productionphase closed with the definitive editingand soundtracking of the film in January1993.
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Associate Companies of the Games of the XXV Olympiad Barcelona 1992
Apple ComputerCàlcul i GestióSema Group T&GEritelEricssonTelettraMondo-EnimontBalsamSony
PirelliPesaFernando RoquéAra ServicesAdicGas NaturalPlaza & Janes EditoresMotormasó(Evinrude-OMC Cobra)
OlympexJerroldJeanneauFábrica Nacionalde Moneda y Timbre
MapasaBrunswick Co.EnherFecsa
Official suppliers
376
The commercial plan,prepared in 1987,established that for eachproduct category andcountry there would be asingle sponsor. A restrictivepolicy was also adopted forthe total number ofcompanies which could havethe rights to use theCOOB'92 marks in themedia. There were foursponsorship categories forBarcelona'92: joint partner,official sponsor, officialsupplier and supplier ofsports material.
The precedents total of 84, for the exploitation of theCOOB'92 marks abroad.
The poor economic results of the Games inMontreal in 1976 were one of the reasonsfor the reduction in the number of citiesbidding to organise the next ones. In 1978,only Los Angeles presented its candidaturefor the 1984 Summer Games and in 1981only Seoul and Nagoya competed for thoseof 1988.
Until 1984, the financing of the Gameswas based primarily on contributions frompublic institutions and the sale of ticketsand collections of medals and stamps. TheOrganising Committee of the Los AngelesGames, however, demonstrated that itwas possible to organise the Gameswithout a deficit by applying the markettechniques customarily used at bigsporting events in the United States. Theeconomic success of the Games in 1984explains why the nomination for 1986 hadto be decided among six candidate cities,from which Barcelona emerged thewinner.
In the Barcelona Candidature Dossier, aswe explained in the first volume of thisReport, revenue from commercial ventureswas given considerable prominence. Thefinal results, however, surpassed the highestexpectations.
The COOB'92 commercial programmeincluded income from the cession of theuse of the Organising Committee trademarks (logotype, mascot and officialdesignation): sponsorship, licences,collections and lotteries.
Rule 53 of the Olympic Charter (1987edition) stated that to exploit its marks ina particular territory, the OrganisingCommittee had to negotiate and obtainthe authorisation of the local NationalOlympic Committee (NOC). Moreover,the contract awarding the Games, signedwith the IOC in Lausanne immediatelyafter the nomination, established theadditional requirement that the IOC hadto approve all the commercial contractsand receive 3% of the revenue from thesale of the symbols.
The commercial agreement for Spanishterritory was signed on 11 March 1987with the Spanish Olympic Committee(COE); later more marketing contractswere signed with other NOCs, up to a
In many companies there is a growinginterest in diversifying businessinvestments through the sponsorship ofsporting events and cultural activities.Because of their worldwide promotion,the Olympic Games provide suchcompanies with an excellent opportunityto be associated with the values of youth,sport and internationalism. The objectiveof the COOB'92 sponsorship programmewas to maximise income from companiesinterested in being associated with theBarcelona Olympic Games.
Here were should recall, however, thatthe Olympic Charter prohibits advertisinginside the sports venues. For this reason,as opposed to what usually happens withsports sponsorship, the companies do notacquire an advertising medium by takingpart in the Olympic sponsorship, only theright to use the COOB'92 marks in theircommunications strategy.
The commercial plan, drafted in 1987, laiddown as one of the principles of Olympicsponsorship the criterion of exclusivity forthe product category. This meant that foreach product category and country therewould be a single sponsor; in that way, theacquisition of sponsorship rightsautomatically involved the exclusion ofcompetitors from the Olympic sphere.This criterion undoubtedly contributed toan increased interest in the programme bythe companies. We should mention thattobacco and alcohol — except for cavaand beer— were outside the programme.
Applying this principle, COOB'92- together with the IOC, the NOCs and
the Organising Committee of theAlbertville Games— negotiatedsponsorship rights for a set of productcategories worldwide. This programme,dubbed "The Olympic Programme"(TOP-2), had a precedent in Seoul in 1988(TOP-1) and was oriented towardsmultinational consumer goods companiesinterested in providing themselves with anworldwide communication strategy basedon an exclusive link with the Olympics. Tothis end, the NOCs left these categoriesfree on their respective territories.
After previous experiences had beenanalysed, another criterion applied was a
1
Sponsorship
The commercial programme
377
restriction on the number of companiesholding the rights to use the COOB'92marks in the mass media. Experienceshowed how right this guideline was.There were four Barcelona'92 sponsorshipcategories: joint partner, official sponsor,official supplier and supplier of officialsports material.
Categories
Joint partner
This category was designed for largecompanies which had to cooperate closelywith COOB'92 and take part in theadministration of vital areas of the Gamesorganisation. They had to be companieswhich spent a large amount of money oncommunication. The maximum number ofcompanies in this category was set at nine.The minimum contribution — which in thiscase mostly took the form of products andservices — was 2,500 million pesetas. Thejoint partner category was only establishedfor companies in the Spanish market.
Official sponsor
This category was designed for bigproducers of consumer products whichmade substantial regular investments inpromotion and advertising and wished toassociate their image with the Olympicsand Barcelona'92. It was established thatthe maximum number of companieswould be forty —including the ones inTOP-2— and that they would have anexclusive in their product categories. Theyhad the right to use the COOB'92 symbolsin the mass media. The minimumcontribution set in the Spanish market,mostly in cash, was 600 million pesetas.
Official supplier
This category was reserved fortechnical-professional product or servicecompanies which based theircommunication on direct marketing andspecialised media. They could not use theCOOB'92 symbols in the mass media.Their contribution was mostly in kind
TOP-2 (The OlympicProgramme) offered theworldwide sponsorshiprights for a set of productcategories. The contract wassigned in Lausanne on 27July 1988 by Josep MiquelAbad on behalf ofCOOB'92, Jean-ClaudeKilly on behalf of theOrganising Committee of theWinter Olympic Games inAlbertville and RichardPound, on behalf of theIOC.
The maximum number ofjoint partners was set atnine. In this group, IBMprovided the computertechnology for the Games.
1
2
Among the official sponsorswere Coca-Cola, worldsponsor for soft drinks (4),and Campofrío,national sponsor for meatproducts (3).
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The official sponsors had theright to use the COOB'92symbols in the mass media.That was the case with ColaCao, which obtained anexclusive for soluble cocoaproducts (5), and Pegaso,national sponsor forindustrial vehicles (6).
The Barcelona 1992 Alcatelproject was the name of aninformation service providedby the company, a jointpartner, for the media in50 countries, from 8 October1990 to the eve of theopening ceremony of theGames.
The Results InformationSystem (SIR) was sponsoredby the EDS company, asnational sponsor for resultsmanagement software. In thephotograph, the cover of theSIR information leaflet.
and was set at a minimum of 150 millionpesetas.
Supplier of official sports material
This category was similar to the precedingone, but there was no minimumcontribution. It was designed to obtain thematerial necessary for the sports events,approved by the correspondingInternational Federation. The use of theCOOB'92 marks in communication had tobe limited to specialised media.
Finding the sponsors
Segmentation of the market in productcategories and the initial application ofthe commercial plan began in the autumnof 1987. Thanks to the good results of theTOP-1 programme, TOP-2 was mostlynegotiated in 1988. This speed inestablishing the bases of the commercialplan and negotiating the main agreementswas most useful, because the nominationwas still fresh in people's minds and its
impetus created a highly favourableatmosphere for sales. In addition, theeconomic optimism which reigned at thatmoment was also propitious for business.
An initial order of priority for negotiationof the different product categories wasdecided according to the potential valueof the sponsorship and the urgency offinding out which company would be thesponsor. The joint partners wereconsidered top priority, given the need toknow the technological factors whichwould affect the drafting of the projects inthe fundamental fields, such aselectronics, telecommunications,computers and automobiles.
All the joint partners were large Spanishor foreign companies well established inBarcelona, which would be integrated intothe Games organisation. They enjoyed themaximum considerations and advantagesgranted by COOB'92. The companies inthis category were selected on the basis ofthe quality of the product or service and
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3380
Damm, national sponsor,provided non-alcoholic beerfor accreditation holders atthe Games venues.
SEAT supplied the Olympicorganisation with the fleet ofcars and vans.
El Corte Inglés, jointpartner, produced anddistributed the uniforms forTeam'92. The Frigocompany, national sponsor,supplied ice-cream for theorganisation staff during theGames.
Twelve product categorieswere included in TOP'92.Among them were the faxmachines, supplied byRicoh.
Cobi and the eagle of LaUnion y El Fénix, jointpartner in the category ofinsurance companies.
the guarantee that came with thecompany's experience of taking part inprojects similar to the Games.
With the TOP-2 programme, COOB'92was assured of a substantial source ofrevenue and international promotion forthe Barcelona'92 Games. The productcategories on the programme were: softdrinks, photographic products, couriers,snacks, English language magazines,methods of payment, portable typewriters,magnetic supports, fax machines, televisionand audio equipment and optical, hearingand dental products.
The remaining categories were soldcountry by country. In theSpanish market, over 400 companies wereinformed about the possibilities ofsponsorship with the Barcelona Games;15 joined the category. In the sphere ofinternational marketing, most of thecession agreements were made one by onefor a category and a particular country. Inthe case of the United States and Japan
— the most important markets—,agreements were signed to commercialisethe official COOB'92 symbols jointly withthe NOCs of the country in question.
In the case of Europe — bearing in mindthe large number of NOCs, thecommitments of each one and the factthat the Winter Olympics were being heldin France —, it was impossible to reach aglobal agreement and negotiations werecarried out country by country.
The most important considerationsgranted to the partners and officialsponsors, all with an exclusive for theproduct category, were connected withthe opportunity to use the COOB'92marks in the mass media, in advertisingand promotion.
The companies in the other two categoriescould only use their rights to associatethemselves with the COOB'92 symbols intechnical-professional publications anddirect marketing. In addition to this right
1
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5
4 5 381
to association with the symbols of theBarcelona Games, the sponsorcompanies also had other advantages,such as packages of tickets,accommodation reservations for theirguests in official hotels, VIP services,reception and priority in obtainingconcessions.
Moreover, all the associate companies,irrespective of the sponsorship category,could take advantage of the Tax BenefitLaw (Law 12/1988), of 25 May 1988.Among other concessions, we shouldmention that 15% of the contribution toCOOB'92, 15% of the cost of theadvertising and promotion campaignslinked to the Barcelona Games and 15%of the investments made to carry out theCOOB'92 plans and programmes weredeductible from corporation tax.
COOB'92 always sold directly on theSpanish market. The exclusive dedicationof the commercial team and their totalintegration into the Games project gave
the business activity an air ofenthusiasm that was breathed throughoutthe organisation. The system alsobrought good results as many sales— all the ones involving contributions inkind, which represented the largestnumber — were made together with thepeople in charge of the various COOB'92projects. In all cases the importantcompanies within each product categorywere given the opportunity to obtainthe rights.
In the foreign market, where the expectedvolume of sales did not justify the creationof a special network, business was donethrough agents. TOP-2 had usedInternational Sports Leisure (ISL), theIOC marketing agent, which had alreadycommercialised TOP-1; taking advantageof the involvement of this agent with theOlympic Movement, the OrganisingCommittee also entrusted it withcommercial activity abroad for thecategories which did not come underTOP-2.
Material supplied by 3M,world sponsor of magneticsupports.
The joint partners andofficial sponsors wereentitled to use the COOB'92marks in the mass media,advertising and promotion.The branches of Banesto, thejoint partner which workedon ticket sales for theGames, displayed the Gamesemblem.
Advertising hoarding forRank Xerox, joint partner inpublishing systems.
Promotional poster byPanasonic, world sponsor inthe category of videoequipment.
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3
4
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382
The sponsor companiesenjoyed advantages such aspackages of tickets,accommodation bookingsfor their guests and receptionservices. In the photograph,a group visiting Montjuïcwith Brother T-shirts, worldsponsor for typewriters.
Negotiations with companiesmaking contributions inkind were carried out withthe joint participation of thecommercial team and thepeople in charge of thedifferent COOB'92 projects.Such was the case, forexample, with Seiko, whichsupplied the trackinstruments and screens.
Only in the United States and Japan— the NOCs which already had their ownagent (Lifestyle Marketing+Epic for theAmericans and Dentsu for theJapanese)— and in France, which was theorganising country of the Winter OlympicGames, were the sales in the hands ofother agents.
Alongside sales, the commercial team washighly active in providing services for thecustomers, beginning with the preparationof the contracts, which were of necessityminutely detailed to avoid conflict on acomplex terrain where there were fewprecedents. There were alsocomplementary monitoring activities andadvice and support for the campaigns ofthe associate companies. The OrganisingCommittee was firm in the exercise of itsrole as defender of the rights of thesponsors, and had recourse whenevernecessary to legal protection and thecourts. This preventive action created anatmosphere which was crucial inminimising the number of incidents.
A total of 102 companies took part in thesponsorship programme in Spain: 9 jointpartners, 12 worldwide sponsors (TOP-2),15 official sponsors, 25 official suppliers and41 suppliers of official sports material.
This system was applied to companiesinterested in manufacturing anddistributing anonymous products (withouta visible trade mark or brand name)incorporating the COOB'92 marks. Itcovered four broad product lines: massconsumption, top of the market, designand promotional. Among the promotionalitems, licences were conceded forproducts ranging from textiles, toys andstationery to jewellery: T-shirts, ties, caps,ball-point pens, sunglasses, lighters, bedlinen, handkerchiefs, towels, teddy bears,books, stickers and earrings.
In choosing the licensees, special attentionwas paid to the design and quality of the
5
6The licences
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1
The licences programme wasapplied to the companiesinterested in manufacturingand distributing consumerproducts with the COOB'92marks.
product and the company's distributioncapacity. The pre-selection was made bytwo companies: Promovip, for Spain, andBRB Internacional, for abroad.
The outcome of the programme was anapproximate revenue of 1,800 millionpesetas, 61 licensed companies (most ofthem Spanish) and the marketing of about600 different products, not countingvariations in colour and size.
The total revenue from the sponsorshipand licences programmes was 56,000million pesetas, a huge leap from previousSummer Games: 280 million dollars inLos Angeles and 275 in Seoul (the figuresare in 1992 dollars, equivalent to 105pesetas).
35% was in cash and the remaining 65%in kind (goods or services).
Lastly we should point out that, settingaside the income from the COOB'92commercial programme, there were other
benefits. The first was the internationalpromotion of the Barcelona Gamesthrough the advertising of the associatecompanies as a result of their connectionwith the Games (the estimated investmentunder this heading is about 40,000 millionpesetas, and the people they invited to theGames were equivalent to about 30,000extra spectators). The second was thepainstaking reinforcement of the prestigeof COOB'92 through its association withcompanies of standing.
In addition to the economic results, thepresence of licensed products in the shopsmade an effective contribution to thepromotion of the image of Barcelona overa period of four years.
1
2 and 3The commercial programmefavoured the internationalpromotion of Barcelona'92,through advertising by thecompanies connected withthe Games. As an example ofthis, the advertising Cobisproduced by Flex, nationalsponsor for bedding (2), andone of the sales points for theOfficial Souvenir Programpublished by Time SportsIllustrated (3).
The United States PostalService (USPS), worldsponsor, installed dispatchand reception points for mailand packages for theOlympic Family during theGames (4). Mizuno suppliedthe muscle-buildingequipment and sportsmaterial for certaincompetitions, such asgymnastics and baseball (5).
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In the photographs, a fewpromotion campaigns:Telefónica (1), joint partnerof the Games; the nationalsponsor for cava,Freixenet (2); andDanone (3), sponsor foryoghurt, desserts and freshcheese.
For the promotion of theGames there were 8 pre-Olympic issues with 26different stamps.
The lotteries for the Gamesraised 9,950 million pesetas.
There were 16commemorative medals inthe Barcelona Gamescollection.
Philately
For Barcelona'92, stamps were issuedover the four years of the Olympiad: eightpre-Olympic issues with 26 differentstamps dedicated to the Olympiccompetition sports and theBarcelona'92 logotype. In July 1992 therewere three Olympic issues, a total of 7stamps.
The stamps were designed and producedby COOB'92, as explained in Chapter 10of this Report, and were marketed byAnfil SA. The revenue was 240 millionpesetas.
The medals
COOB'92 commissioned Argentfí SA tomanufacture the collection ofcommemorative medals for the Games ofthe XXV Olympiad. It consisted of 16
medals in 3 qualities: 32 mm gold, 26 mmgold and silver.
The revenue from this programme was135 million pesetas.
The coins
The coins programme, designed andproduced by the Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre (the Mint), consisted of4 series of 7 coins. Each series had one 8ecu coin, depicting great Spanish artists;one 2 ecu coin, with reproductions ofmonuments in the city of Barcelona and a1 ecu coin with the Barcelona'92pictograms. The collection was completedwith four 8 silver real coins with imagesrelated to the history of the Olympics.COOB'92 collected about 900 millionpesetas through this programme.
1,2 and 3 The collections
4
5
Visa, world sponsor,advertised on the TMBbuses (6). ASICS, wasnational sponsor for sportsfootwear (8).
6 and 8
7
4 6 8
75
387
In Spain, the State Lottery and BettingOrganisation has the exclusive right to holdand organise lotteries. The organisationused the lottery administration network tosell tickets for the special draws and handedthe profits over to COOB'92.
The Tax Benefit Law provided for annualdraws for the benefit of COOB'92,Expo'92 and the Quincentenary.Five Olympic draws were held, on24 June 1989, 23 June and 22 September1990, 22 June 1991 and 27June 1992.
COOB'92 was in charge of the advertisingcampaign for each draw in the media.
The total revenue under this heading was9,950 million pesetas.
The aim of this project was to set up salespoints for basic goods and services for thespectators at the venues and accreditationholders at the Villages, the MPC and thereception centres (port and airport).There were about 60 sites whereconcessions were granted, 43 of themcompetition venues.
In granting the concessions, the decisiveelements were the quality of the serviceand a limited sales price. COOB'92 gavepriority in the award of concessions to theassociate companies and, in fact, almostall the concessionaires were among them,as in that way they underlined theirpresence in the market and theirconnection with the Games.
COOB'92 leased the spaces andundertook to make them ready(with 3 X 3 m kiosks, lighting and powerpoints, water, telephone and cleaning
The sales points for basicgoods and services at thevenues, the Villages and theMPC were mostly concededto associate companies. Thetotal turnover was nearly3,500 million pesetas.
Item Concessionnaire Concessions at the units
The lotteries The concessions 1
Catering and drinks
Licensed material (souvenirs)
Photographic material
Ice-cream
Press and publications
Post
Bank services
Other specific concessions
Coca-Cola
Promovip
Kodak
Frigo
Comercial Atheneum
Correos y Telégrafos / USPS
Banesto
Mars, Nutrexpa, Campofrío, Visa, Bausch & Lomb, El Corte Inglés
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The sunglasses in thephotograph were theBarcelona'92 model, whichwas marketed specially forthe Games by Bausch &Lomb, sponsor for optical,auditory and dental material.
There were sales points nearthe accesses to the MontjuïcArea. In the photograph, akiosk for Mars, worldsponsor for snacks.
On the RTO'92 stands, thecommentators' monitors weresupplied by Philips, one ofthe world sponsors of theGames.
service). The companies paid the cost ofthe installation plus a sum calculatedaccording to the potential profit margin.
The table on page 388 sets out the mainconcessions. At the Villages there werealso laundry, massage, hairdressing andother services. Altogether, about 700kiosks were installed and manned byabout 5,000 staff from the concessionairecompanies. The total turnover, excludingbank services, was around 3,500 millionpesetas.
For the first time at an Olympic Games,the associate companies had a place toentertain their guests.
The centre, located in the Camp de laFoixarda near the Olympic Ring, hadpavilions for the companies equipped withair-conditioning, furniture, television,
telephone and catering services. Commonservices were also available (security,medical centre, transport, publictelephone, restaurant, shopping centre,toilets, accreditation service, work rooms).
The pavilions, which had a surface area of75 m2 and capacity for 50 guests, wereleased to the company on request withelectricity, carpet and 25 m2 of terracewith flower boxes. Two miniature trainscarried the guests of the associatecompanies to and from the Olympic Ring,sixty at a time.
Among the aspects requiring mostpreparation and resources was security,given the large concentration of VIPs. Ahighly regarded catering companyprovided its services at the pavilions and atthe restaurant next to the SponsorsReception Centre, which laid on a set pricebuffet for the companies which had notrented a pavilion or which had to organisea reception for more than 50 people.
2
3 and 5In the photographs, a salespoint for souvenirs managedby Promovip, at theViladecans BaseballStadium (3), and a kiosk forKodak, world sponsor forphotographic products at thePiscines Bernat Picornell (5).
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6
The Sponsors Reception Centre
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The Reception Centre opened on 25 Julyat ten in the morning, placing its facilitiesat the disposal of the 20 COOB'92associate companies which had rented theservice. The number of people using theCentre was lower than expected. The mainreason for this was the attraction for thevisitors of the gastronomic and recreationalamenities on tap in the city of Barcelona,which competed on advantageous termswith the facilities at the Centre, which wereof excellent quality, but of necessitysomewhat standardised.
The television rights, together withsponsorship, are the main source offinancing for the Organising Committeesand the Olympic Movement in general. Inthe nomination contract signed inLausanne, COOB'92 undertook toproduce the international signal, whichwould be distributed to the networksbuying the rights, and to supply the press,
radio and television with the basicresources and work infrastructure theyrequired to cover the Games.
The same contract specified how theincome from the sale of the rights would beshared. The first 20% of the cash revenueand the contributions in services wereearmarked to cover the expenses of theentity producing the international signal,RTO'92 in the case of Barcelona'92. Theremainder had to be shared out in the ratioof two thirds for the Organising Committeeand one third for the IOC. In the case ofthe United States, the NOC (USOC) took10% of the income and the remaining 90%was shared in the same proportions.
The negotiations were carried out firstbetween the IOC and COOB'92 andsecond with the networks andassociations. The final figure, which wewill explain in more detail in a moment,was 635 million dollars. Bearing in mindthat the Games in Seoul had obtained 407million, this sum is confirmation both of
The associate companies hadspecially prepared areas toreceive their guests. Twoviews of the SponsorsReception Centre at theCamp de la Foixarda, nearthe Olympic Ring.
1 and 2
The television rights
1 2390
the interest of the Barcelona Games forthe television and the viability ofCOOB'92's financial planning.
The final results also confirmed the decisiveweight of the US market, from where 63%of the income under this heading wasobtained: the percentage had been 74% inSeoul and 78% in Los Angeles '84. Thecrucial importance for the financial resultsof competition between television networksin the different international spheres wasalso made plain.
Negotiations with the US networks—which, as we have said, provided thegreatest volume of income from televisionrights— were the first to be closed, whichmade them even more important, as theywere the first objective indicator of theinterest of the world media in theBarcelona Games and constituted areference point for subsequent bargaining.
The presidents of the three US networks(NBC, ABC and CBS) had been in
Barcelona and their executives had beenfrequent visitors to the city. The meetingsbetween them and the representatives ofthe IOC and COOB'92 were person toperson, without intermediaries. The awardwas very fast: two rounds in 48 hours. In thefirst round, none of the offers satisfied theexpectations of the IOC and COOB'92. Inthe second, the rights were sold to theNBC, which offered 401 million dollars,plus 15 million in free advertising space.The NBC was preferred because it offeredthis sum as a guaranteed minimum, whichgave it the edge over another substantialoffer which took the form of a share in theprofits. Neither the IOC nor COOB'92wanted to assume an additional risk,difficult to control, and the NBC's offer washighly satisfactory.
The agreement with the EuropeanBroadcasting Union (EBU) came after afar longer negotiation process. Thestarting point was the price paid for therights to the Seoul Games, which hadbeen very low, and for COOB'92 it was
Income from television rights at thelast three Olympic Games (in millionsof US dollars) USA
Europe
Japan
Australia
Canada
Korea
South Africa
New Zealand
Eastern Europe
South America
Asia
Hong Kong
Taiwan
Arab countries
Philippines
Puerto Rico
Africa
Caribbean
Australia
Others
Total
225,000
19,800
18,500
10,600
3,000
3,500
—
—
2,500
2,150
975
325
300
350
400
—
110
99
—
734
288,343
302,110
28,000
52,000
7,000
3,600
3,450
—
—
3,000
2,920
1,500
900
875
420
550
380
170
130
—
128
407,133
401,000 1
90,000 2
62,500
33,750
16,500
7,500
6,000 3
5,900
4,000
3,550
2,200
— 4
1,100
500
300
300
200
140
120
—
635,560
NBC
UER / EBU
BOJP
Channel 7
CTV
BOKP
SABC
TVNZ
OIRT
OTI
ABU
—
BOTP
ASBU
ABS-CBN
Telemundo
URTNA
CBU
ABC Aust. Radio
1 The NBC paid a further 10 million dollars in free advertising spots for COOB'92 and 5 million for the IOC.
2 Of the 90 million agreed, 66 were paid in kind and the remaining 24 in services.
3 As this was the first time that the South Africans had competed in an international event since they were excluded because of apartheid, the
first 2 million dollars were set aside for the South African Olympic Committee for the promotion of sport and training for high level competition
among the population, without distinction of race.
4 Hong Kong, which until the Seoul Games had negotiated the rights for its own territory, joined the ABU, which negotiated the rights for Asia, for
Barcelona.
Area Los Angeles'84 Seoul'88 Barcelona'92 Network 391
important for Europe —which had nothosted the Olympic Games since 1972—to show genuine interest in Barcelona'92.There was another restriction in order toguarantee maximum audiences; the ideawas to reach an agreement with the EBU,setting aside possible offers from theprivate networks which, although theymight well have provided more money,were limited in terms of potentialaudience. The cooperative attitude ofTelevisión Española (TVE) was of greathelp in reaching the agreement, which waseventually closed at 90 million dollars, 66in cash and 24 in services. The sum wasthree times the rights paid in Europe forthe Games of 1988.
The negotiation of the rights in Japan, thethird in order of importance, ran a similarcourse to the European episode. The statenetwork, NHK, had created a pool withvarious private networks to broadcast theSeoul Games (BOJP). They had found theexperience a positive one and wanted to
repeat it for Barcelona. In spite of the snagsof having a single buyer for the rights, theOrganising Committee managed toincrease the price paid by the Japanesenetwork for Seoul by 20%. Bearing in mindthat apparently the Japanese networks hadpaid a "political" price for Seoul and thatthe time difference with Barcelona wasrather unfavourable (about 12 hours), thefinal offer was considered acceptable at62.5 million dollars.
Canada and Australia were similar to theUSA: the competition in each country isthe basic factor in explaining thespectacular results achieved. A pleasantsurprise for COOB'92 came from NewZealand, which split from the ABU(covering all the Asian networks) andmade an offer that was considered quitesubstantial.
Both the OTI (the networks from Centraland South America) and the OIRT (whichcovers Eastern Europe) made offers which
20% of the revenue from thesale of television rights forthe Barcelona Games wentto RTO'92 (1 and 2), whichwas in charge of theproduction of theinternational televisionsignal; the rest was sharedbetween COOB'92, twothirds, and the IOC, onethird.
In the nomination contractsigned in Lausanne,COOB'92 undertook toproduce the internationalsignal and supply the press,radio and television with thenecessary resources to reporton the Games.
The agreement with theEuropean BroadcastingUnion (EBU) involved along negotiation processwhich closed at 90 milliondollars, 66 in cash and 24 inservices, a figure which wasthree times the amount paidfor the 1988 Games inEurope.
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3
4
1 3
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392
A Television Espanyola(TVE) camera on the trackof the Olympic Stadium.
The IOC and COOB'92negotiated the televisionrights jointly with variousnetworks and associations.The NBC paid 401 milliondollars (63% of the total),plus 15 million in freeadvertising space.
were thought reasonable according to theeconomic possibilities of their televisionmarkets. A few months after the contractwith the OIRT was signed, its rights weresubrogated to the EBU, so that during theoperational phase of the Games, the EBUwas joined by staff from the OIRT.
Korea was another very favourable case,as it paid double the price it had paid forits own Games. The result may beexplained by the great sporting success ofthe Koreans in Seoul, which did a greatdeal to increase interest in sportscompetitions in the country.
The case of South Africa is also worth amention, as the move towards racialintegration which had got under way therejust a year or two earlier meant that its
sportsmen and women could take part inthe Olympic Games, which would bebroadcast by the television networks there.Bearing in mind the difficult situation ofsport in the country, in agreement with theIOC, 2 of the 6 million dollars obtained forthe television rights were made over to theSouth African Olympic Committee.The remaining negotiations, for moremodest sums, were often long andcomplex. One such case was Puerto Rico,where negotiations were complicated bythe financial problems of the networkproposed by the National OlympicCommittee, and the bargaining with theArab countries, which came up against thestumbling block of the Gulf War and thecomplications introduced into assessingthe rights by the fact that they could notbroadcast the women's events.
5
6
5 6 393
1
The spectator entrance to theOlympic Stadium. For mostof the competitions, over90% of the tickets were sold.
Distributing the tickets is one of the mostdelicate aspects of the Games and onwhich has undergone the largest numberof changes over the history of the event.In the case of Barcelona, it was madeclear from the outset which objectiveswere to be pursued and what their orderof importance was to be. The first aim wasto provide a good image of the OlympicGames, of the city and of COOB'92; thesecond was to use a fair system for sellingand allocating the tickets; the third was toensure maximum occupation of thevenues; and the last was to secure anoptimum revenue from sales.
The tickets were individual and were validfor a place for one person at a venue.There were no group tickets, i.e., ticketswhich allowed more than one person intoa venue with a single document. Sale bylot, which had been used at other Games,was also discarded, as experience hadshown that not all the tickets sold wereused.
There were, however, tickets for one ormore sports, but they were individualisedand not in the form of a season ticket toavoid under-use. The prices included aminimum discount of 10% on ticketsbought separately, which meant that theysold in large numbers.
Earlier experiences had also shown thatlinking tickets with accommodation led toexorbitant prices for tourist packages,which meant low sales and therefore, onceagain, under-use of the tickets. For thatreason, COOB'92 adopted as a basiccriterion the complete separation ofaccommodation and tickets for thevenues.
The production of the tickets wasentrusted to the Fábrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre. They were printed onhigh security paper, very similar to thepaper used for banknotes, on which werestamped all the non-variable data, thecolour background, the logotypes and ahologram, which made them extremelydifficult to forge, especially given theshort time available to do so.
A positive image —which was the primaryobjective to be pursued— and thecommitments undertaken made itadvisable to apply accessible prices, whichwould allow the greatest possible numberof spectators to attend the competitions.For this reason, in spite of the greatdemand for certain events and venues, theprices were not as high as the marketwould have stood.
We should emphasise that two thirds ofthe tickets for the Barcelona Games cost2,000 pesetas or less and that only 5.1%were over 5,000 pesetas. Naturally, theprices of the tickets for the openingand closing ceremonies were moreclosely adjusted to demand (9,000,18,000 and 46,000 pesetas, according tothe zone); nevertheless, they sold outquickly.
The first thing to be said here is that thebeneficiaries of Rule 60 of the OlympicCharter (1987 edition) —VIPs, membersof the IOC, the NOCs and the IFs, as wellas journalists and competitors— wereentitled to free seats at the venues: theyonly had to show their accreditation. Theonly exceptions were the opening andclosing ceremonies and the eventsconsidered high demand, where a specialticket had to be presented with theaccreditation.
Tickets for the public were distributedtaking account of three kinds ofspectator. The first included people,companies and institutions which hadacquired the preferential right to buytickets through contracts signed withCOOB'92. These were the sponsors, thetelevision networks, institutions,federations and diplomatic delegations.603,377 tickets were distributed throughthis system.
Sales abroad
The second group of spectators consistedof the public resident abroad. In this case,following the tradition of earlier OlympicGames, tickets were distributed throughthe exclusive agents that each NOCdesignated to sell tickets on its territory.The aim, as far as possible, was to keepthe price of a ticket the same all round theworld. COOB'92 did not oblige any agent
1 The tickets Prices
The main characteristics of thetickets
Distribution
395
AR-
AT-
BA-
BB-
BB-
BM-
BO-
CA-
CA-
CY-
EQ-
EQ-
EQ-
FB-
FE-
GY-
GY-
HB-
HB-
HO-
HO-
JU-
MP-
RO-
RO-
SH-
SW-
SW-
SW-
SW-
TE-
TT-
VB-
WL-
WR-
PE-
RH-
TK-
Archery
Athletics
Baseball
Basketball (M)
Basketball (W)
Badminton
Boxing
Canoeing (seat)
Canoeing (access)
Cycling
Equestrian sports (dressage)
Equestrian sports (jumping)
Equestrian sports(3-day-event jumping)
Football
Fencing
Artistic gymnastics
Rhythmic gymnastics
Handball (M)
Handball (W)
Hockey (morning)
Hockey (afternoon)
Judo
Modern pentathlon
Rowing (seat)
Rowing (access)
Shooting
Swimming
Diving
Synchronized swimming
Water polo
Tennis
Table tennis
Volleyball
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Pelota
Roller hockey
Taekwondo
750
3,500
1,250
3,500
2,000
1,750
3,000
900
750
1,400
1,000
1,750
2,800
750
4,000
3,000
1,750
1,000
900
1,500
750
900
750
1,000
4,500
3,900
2,250
1,500
3,000
750
1,750
1,800
750
1,250
1,250
2,200
750
1,750
1,300
1,000
1,200
900
750
900
1,800
2,500
2,000
1,000
750
750
900
3,000
2,500
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
900
1,200
1,000
1,000
900
1,000
750
1,500
1,500
1,000
6,500
1,750
7,500
5,000
2,500
4,000
1,250
900
2,500
5,000
4,000
4,500
2,500
1,750
1,100
1,750
1,250
900
1,000
2,000
4,500
1,250
3,500
1,000
1,500
4,500
900
4,500
3,000
1,500
1,800
1,400
2,000
2,800
2,800
1,750
1,000
750
1,000
1,500
3,500
750
2,500
1,250
2,500
2,500
1,750
1,400
1,000
750
1,000
8,000
2,250
9,000
7,500
3,000
6,000
1,500
900
3,800
1,750
7,000
5,000
6,000
2,400
7,000
5,500
3,500
2,800
2,800
3,000
1,500
900
2,000
7,000
7,000
3,500
3,000
7,000
2,000
6,000
1,000
2,700
1,500
2,000
1,800
5,500
1,250
6,500
4,500
2,000
3,000
1,900
900
5,500
2,500
4,500
1,000
4,500
3,500
2,500
1,750
1,400
1,500
5,500
4,500
2,250
2,000
4,500
1,000
3,500
1,800
1,400
1,250
3,000
3,500
2,500
2,500
1,500
1,500
1,000
2,800
2,500
Distribution of ticket prices by sport
Distribution of seats according toprice (accumulated)
Preliminary Intermediate Final
< 1.000 ptas.
< 1.500 ptas.
< 2.000 ptas.
< 3.000 ptas.
< 4.000 ptas.
< 5.000 ptas.
< 6.000 ptas.
< 9.000 ptas.
270
555
723
850
971
1,005
1,034
1,072
25.19
51.77
67.44
79.29
90.58
93.75
96.45
100
1
1.7
2.2
3
3.5
3.7
3.8
3.9
25.6
43.6
56.4
76.9
89.7
94.9
97.4
100
Price range Number of prices % Places (in milions) %
A B C A B C A B C
396
Banesto, the official bank ofthe Games, was in charge oforders and payments and thedistribution of tickets inSpain.
February to June 1991 wasthe first phase of receivingorders. The motorcyclist SitoPons and players from theJoventut de Badalonabasketball team visited themain branch of Banesto onthe first day of sales oftickets to the public.
The Spanish public receiveddetailed information aboutbuying tickets in a leaflet, ofwhich two million copieswere published. It containeda description of the systemand the reservation process,the calendar and a price listfor tickets and seasontickets.
to buy tickets which it did not want sothat there would be no tickets sold andleft unused. Through this channel661,565 tickets were sold. The mainpurchasing country was the United States,with almost a third of the globalquota, followed by various Europeancountries.
Sales in Spain
The last and largest group was the Spanishpublic, which included everyone buyingtickets from anywhere in the country ordirect from the Ticket Distribution Centreor the ticket offices at the venues duringthe Games. Banesto, the official bank ofthe Olympic Games, was in charge ofdistributing tickets among the publicresident in Spain up to the start ofthe Games, after which the few ticketsremaining were sold direct at thevenues.
The Spanish public received fullinformation about the purchase of tickets
in an informative leaflet, of which twomillion copies were printed. They wereavailable at all Banesto branches andcontained a description of the system andthe booking process, a calendar, a list ofprices and the codes for each type ofticket or set of tickets to make theordering process easier. The ticketswere sold to the Spanish public in fourconsecutive phases: 1,756,798altogether.
February to June 1991 was the first phaseof the distribution process, when orderswere received. The order of receipt didnot imply any priority in assignation. Thisavoided queues and gave everyone anequal opportunity, as the problems posedby the excess of demand over supply weresolved by a lottery system.
Throughout this phase an externalpublic telephone service was in operationto provide information about allaspects of ticket sales. The service waseventually suppressed, as the public
1
2
21
3
3
397
preferred to receive information directfrom the banks.
The buyer had to hand in orders fortickets at a branch of Banesto and to paythe whole amount in advance; the aim ofthis was to discourage speculation. Theprocedure and the fact that there was stillover a year to go to the start of theGames provoked some criticism for thepublic.
If an event was expected to be in highdemand, a limit of four tickets per sessionand order was set, regardless of the typeof person ordering, individual orcompany. On the same principle, in thefirst phase each person could only placeone order.
The draw for tickets in high demandwas made in July 1991. It was not forcomplete orders, but for events, so thateach person had the best chance ofobtaining part of his or her order.After the draw, the lucky people were
informed and the unlucky ones had theirmoney back.
It is interesting to note that, in spite of thefive months that this phase lasted, twothirds of the total number of orders wereplaced in the last week, with theconsequent queues at the Banestobranches. At the end of the phase,305,695 tickets had been sold.
After the draw, 52,778 orders had to bereturned. Everyone affected by thesereturns —due to excessive demand for theopening and closing ceremonies, rhythmicgymnastics and the finals in athletics,basketball, gymnastics and swimming,among others— was offered thechance of priority to buy any ticketsstill remaining at the beginning of thenext phase.
The second phase of the operation, firmbookings, lasted from September 1991 toApril 1992; orders were placed andconfirmed immediately, as the system
The Ticket DistributionCentre was in operationfrom May to July 1992, Thetickets were issued at thecentre or sent by post,according to the preferencesof the customer.
The tickets were printed bythe Fâbrica Nacional deMoneda y Timbre on highsecurity paper, similar to thepaper used for banknotes,with a coloured background,the Barcelona'92 logotypeand a hologram of Cobi.
The draw for tickets for thesessions in high demand washeld in July 1991. 52,778orders had to be returned.
1 and 2
3
4
1 2 4
3
398
One of entrances to thestands at the Real Club dePolo, where the equestrianevents were held.
provided immediate information aboutthe tickets available. Tickets were issuedon payment at the Banesto branches.
In this phase 213,709 tickets were sold.The length of this period meant that therewere no queues or last-minute rushes tobuy. Sales continued selectively for themore interesting events. The tickets soldin the first and second phases could becollected by the purchasers at the Banestobranches.
The process of assigning a seat number toeach ticket was undoubtedly the mostdifficult problem to solve. To decidepriority in the allocation of the best seats,the results of the draw among the Spanishpublic who had ordered tickets in the firstphase of distribution were respected andthe chronological order of sales of ticketsin later phases was strictly observed.
Between May and July 1992 the thirdphase of direct ticket sales came intooperation. This phase was different from
earlier ones because the tickets could becollected at the Ticket DistributionCentre or sent by post, as the customerpreferred.
447,218 tickets were sold in this phase,most of them on the last days, when theGames were about to begin. There werefactors which influenced the pace of sales,such as the victory of FC Barcelona in theEuropean Football Cup on 20 May and.most of all, the arrival of the Olympictorch on 13 June.
5
During the Games there were94 ticket offices at thevenues which sold 443,528tickets. Ticket offices andpublic entrances in theOlympic Ring.
6
5 6 399
Summary of the calendar and phasesof the sales of tickets
• December 1990: end of negotiations withthe television networks, the sponsors,other contract commitments and agentsabroad
• February 1991: first orders placed withBanesto by the Spanish public and startof sales abroad.
• July 1991: draw and award of orders bythe Spanish public.
• September 1991: start of the secondphase of sales to the Spanish public atBanesto branches.
• April 1992: printing and delivery oftickets allocated.
• May 1992: start of the sale of tickets atthe Ticket Distribution Centre.
• July 1992: start of the sale of tickets atthe venues.
In the fourth and final phase of sales,tickets were sold direct at thevenues and the Ticket DistributionCentre.
94 ticket offices were in operation andsold 443,528 tickets. Before the Games, inthe case of some sports (swimming,diving, gymnastics, tennis, judo, fencing,cycling, wrestling, canoeing, rowing,pelota and men's basketball), there wereno tickets left. The only competitionswhich had still had a significant number oftickets left were football and the morningathletics sessions.
346,648 tickets were sold at the TicketDistribution Centre. The strong last-minute sales took the organisation bysurprise and there were long queues,especially on the first days. The mainproblem was the lack of information forthe buyers, who took a long time todecide what they wanted to buy.
AR
AT
BA
BB
BM
BO
CA
CY
EQ
FB
FE
GY
HB
HO
JU
MP
RO
Archery
Athletics
Baseball
Basketball
Badminton
Boxing
Canoeing
Cycling
Equestrian sports
Football
Fencing
Gymnastics
Handball
Hockey
Judo
Modern pentathlon
Rowing
92
94
55
87
69
93
97
91
79
56
85
92
78
79
99
55
97
SH
SW
SW
SW
SW
TE
TT
VB
WL
WR
PE
RH
TK
Shooting
Swimming
Diving
Synchronized swimming
Water polo
Tennis
Table tennis
Volleyball
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Pelota
Roller hockey
Taekwondo
Opening ceremony
Closing ceremony
Total
93
100
99
99
97
94
84
89
95
93
98
67
77
100
100
80
Coefficient of ticket sales
Sales of tickets during the Games
% %
400
Tickets for the openingceremony were drawn, as itwas predictably in highdemand. Entrances to theOlympic Stadium on25 July.
To solve last-minute problems, all thevenues kept some seats in reserve. Theywere used to avoid incidents arisingfrom the elimination of seats becauseof new TV camera positions, poorvisibility, changes to the layout, or otherfactors.
At some sessions there were errors in theidentification of blocks and different seatshad the same number, which made it verydifficult to accommodate the public. Thecontingency seats helped to solve theseproblems too. Other incidents includedcomplaints lodged at venues where thesimplification of price zones meant thatsome people had paid the same money forworse seats.
1 and 2
3 and 4The success of the ticketsales meant full venues andqueues for most events.Entrances to the Palaud'Esports in Badalona (3),where the basketballcompetitions were held, andthe Baseball Stadium inL'Hospitalet (4).
21
3 4
401
12.1. The associate companies
Joint Partners IBM
SEAT
BANESTO
LA UNIÓN Y EL FÉNIX
ALCATEL
TELEFÓNICA
RANK XEROX
PHILIPS
EL CORTE INGLÉS
Information technology
Motor vehiclesSponsor of the volunteer training programmeSponsor of the torch route
Financial entities
Insurance
Information systems for the communications media
TelecommunicationsSponsor of the poster collection
Publishing systems
Electronics
Sportswear and department storesSponsor of the torch route
World sponsors
Sponsors
COCA-COLA
KODAK
3M
RICOH
MATSUSHITA PANASONIC
SPORTS ILLUSTRATED/TIME
MARS
USPS (UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE)
PHILIPS
BROTHER
VISA
BAUSCH & LOMB
Soft drinksSponsor of the torch route
Photographic products
Magnetic supports
Fax equipment
Video equipment
International publications
Snacks
International courier
Television and audio equipment
Typewriters
Methods of payment
Optical, auditory and dental products
COLA CAO
DAMM
CAMPOFRÍO
DANONE
EDS
FLEX
ASICS
MIZUNO
SEIKO
IVECO-PEGASO
FRIGO
Soluble cocoa
Beer
Meat products
Yoghurt, desserts and fresh cheese
Results management software
Bedding
Sports footwear
Sports training equipment
Time-keeping
Industrial vehicles
Ice-cream
406
Sponsors RENFE
FREIXENET
IBERIA
TMB
Rail transport
Cava
Air transport
Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona
Suppliers APPLE COMPUTER
CÀLCUL I GESTIÓ
SEMA GROUP T&G
ERITEL
ERICSSON
TELETTRA
MONDO-ENIMONT
BALSAM
SONY
PIRELLI
PESA
FERNANDO ROQUÉ ESPECIALIDADES
ARA SERVICES
ADIC
GAS NATURAL
PLAZA & JANÉS EDITORES
MOTORMASÓ (EVINRUDE - OMC COBRA)
OLYMPEX
JERROLD
JEANNEAU
FÁBRICA NACIONAL DE MONEDA Y TIMBRE
MAP ASA
BRUNSWICK CORPORATION
ENHER
FECSA
Office automation
Company management software
Operational management software
Olympic Family communication and information systems software
Telephone exchanges
Radio-link equipment and television signal digital encoding
Athletics tracks
Artificial turf surfaces
Giant screens
Power cables and signals
RTO'92 broadcasting equipment
International goods transport and customs agent
Catering services consultancy
Language-learning grants COOB'92
Natural gas
Publications
Outboard and stern drive motors
Furnishings for sports venues
Coaxial cable teledistribution head end equipment
Motor launches
Security documents and competition medals
Signposting
Bowls and bowling alleys for the Olympic Village
Energy technical services
Electric power
Suppliers ofofficial sportsmaterial
SENOH CORPORATION
JUDOGI
DAYFER
JANSSEN/FRITSEN EXPORT
SCHELDE
UCS, MOYPE SPORT
MIKASA
Volleyball court material
Judo tatamis
Folding semi-rigid pneumatic boats
Gymnastics apparatus and mattresses
Basketball rings
Athletics track material
Volleyball and water polo balls
407
Suppliers ofofficial sportsmaterial
MOLTEN CORPORATION
TOLEDO ESPAÑOLA
MALMSTEN
GAIL/ARCHITECKTUR-KERAMIC
VANGUARD
NIPPON TAKKYU CO. STD.
O'JUMP
TECNOLOGÍ A DEPORTIVA
PLASTERAL
DAE DO
TOP TEN
UESAKA
INDUSTRIAL VELERA MARSAL
GOSEN
TARAFLEX
ADIDAS
YAMAHA-HAZEN
MITUFA
CORSIVIA
GPS-NAV
ENRAF NONIUS
HARKEN-TRIMER
FRANCE LAMES
YONEX
ZALDI
PERRY SPORTS
WILSON
YAMAHA MOTOR
SMITH & NEPHEW
SAN-EL CORPORATION
ALLSTAR-ULHMANN
NICHIMEN CORPORATION
BAYROL PRODUCTOS QUÍMICOS
OTERO
Basketball balls
Scales and weighing systems
Swimming material
Ceramics for swimming pools
Finn yachts
Table tennis nets and balls
Wrestling mats
Sports nets
Filter equipment for swimming pools
Taekwondo material
Boxing gloves and guards
Weightlifting material
Rigging and navigation material
Tennis rackets and strings
Volleyball and handball court surfaces
Football and handball balls
Pianos
Rhythmic gymnastics mats
Clay pigeons
Maritime platform monitoring and control equipment
Sports physical rehabilitation and electrotherapy equipment
Metal fittings for light sailing boats
Fencing pistes
Badminton material
Saddles
Boxing rings
Tennis balls
Scooters and motor cycles
Sports bandages
Table tennis tables and fences
Fencing apparatus
Table tennis mats
Products for chemical treatment of swimming pools
Mountain bikes
408
AYLLON
IYRU
JOOLA
FRERE GROUP INTERNATIONAL
MA VIC
Graphics
Lechner A-390 yachts
Table tennis tables
Boats
Cycling and technical services
AISCONDEL
ANTONIO PUIG
ARQUER
AMERICAN SPORTSWEAR
BERMEJO
CARJO
CEBAL CELOGRAF
COMANSI
COMERCIAL AURÓ
COMERCIAL DE FORMES TEXTILES
COMERCIAL TRES
CHUPA CHUPS
DAEA SELONA
DEVIQ
DISTRIBUCIÓN A ALMACENES
DISET
DUNKE
DYNAMIC TRADE SERVICES
EDICIONES LEONESAS
ENRI/TORRAS PAPEL
ENRIQUE LOEWE KNAPPE
ESTUCHERÍ A VIPO
FLAMAGAS
FLEX METAL
FOTOS JULIAN
GUT
HALLMARK REPLICAS
PVC sheet and Airon-Fix self-adhesive
Perfumery
Wristbands and hairbands
Caps and eyeshades
Swords and paper knives
Zippo lighters
Gift wrapping paper and book covers
PVC figures, PVC key-rings and pencil cases withPVC figures
Bouncing balls
Dolls, figures and canvas shoes
Photograph frames
Sweets
Key-rings, pins and metal spoons made of non-precious metals
Cardboard sun screens for cars
Wastepaper baskets, pencil cases, money boxes,coasters, pen holders, brass trays and cases
Board games, puzzles and Trivial Pursuit
Disposable plastic articles: cups, plates, dishes, trays
Liquid container with straw
Albums with photos
Diaries, notepaper, notebooks and folders
Wallets, purses, belts and travelling bags made of leatheror leather combined with other materials
Pencil cases
Velleda blackboards and Pastidecor pencilsThrowaway lighters
Metallic balloons
Postcards
Sweets and chocolate
Replicas of postage stamps struck in silver with goldcoating
Licensees
Suppliers of officialsports material
409
HERACLIO FOURNIER
HILATURAS DE FABRA Y COATS
HOFMANN
HOME ENGLISH INTERNATIONAL
HUMET TEXTIL
IMPEL MARKETING
INDUSTRIAL BOLSERA
INDUSTRIAS BURÉS
INDUSTRIAS D.N.J.
INDUSTRIAS PLÁSTICAS PAÑELLA
INORSA
INOXCROM
JOIERIA ORIOL
LÍNEA ESPUMA
MANUFACTURAS ANTONIO GASSOL
MANUFACTURES GRE
MERCEDES SASTRE DESCALS
MICROTECNICA
MIZUNO CORPORATION
MUNDI PAPER
NENÚFAR
PELUCHES VIR
PILMA
PLASTIC SCREEN ESPAÑOLA
PLAZA & JANÉS
PRODUCCIONES DISCOGRÁFICASINDEPENDIENTES
R-TEK MUSIC
RED LABEL
REIMASA
RICHEL
ROISE
TEXTIL B.C.H.
TEXTIL MASSANA
TRAMA DE GASLLAR
Playing cards
Burlap and hair accessories
Photo albums
English courses
Towels and bathrobes
Collectable cigarette cards
Paper and polyethylene bags
Bed linen and eiderdowns
Airwicks
Plastic hanging bags
Olympic carnation
Plastic ball-point pens
Cobi figures, pins, key-rings, trinkets, needles,earrings, etc., made of fine metals and precious stones
Scatter cushions
Socks and stockings
Inflatable items for the beach (dinghies, baths, lilos,rings, wristlets, cushions and balls)
Metacrylic earrings
Watches, clocks and alarm clocks
Sports bags
Greetings cards
Posters (paper and plastic)
Furry toys
Cobi figures made of aluminium, other non-preciousmetals and resin
Stickers
Publishing products
Records, cassettes and compact discs
Adhesive bat and ball game
Pennants
Ceramic mugs
Silk and polyester ties. Silk scarfs
Rucksacks, bags and wallets made of fabric and nylon
Towels, bread bags, aprons and oven gloves
T-shirts, tracksuits, shellsuits, sweatbands, tennis shirtsand pyjamas
Continuous paper for computers
Licenses
410
Licenses UNICE
UNIÓN DE ARTE
VELAMP
VIDRE ESTELLER
Leather and PVC balls
Tie pins, cuff-links, earrings, bracelets and note-clipsin non-precious metals. Decorative plates(ceramic or porcelain)
Torches
Glass tumblers, glasses, ashtrays, flask and tumbler setsand sweet dishes
GROUPE VANDALE
REPSOL
DENTSU
FRIGO
IBM
COCA-COLA
CAIXA DE CATALUNYA
IBERIA
INSTITUT NACIONALD'INDÚSTRIA (INI)
PIRELLI
RANK XEROX
FOMENTO DE CONSTRUCCIONESY CONTRATAS
MARS
APPLE COMPUTER
CAMBRA OFICIAL DE COMERÇ, INDÚSTRIAINAVEGACIÓ DE BARCELONA
LA VANGUARDIA
TELEVISIÓ ESPANYOLA (TVE)
Olimpíada Cultural,S.A. AssociateCompanies
411
12.2. The COOB’92 publications
Books
Competition calendar
Athletes Guide
Referees and Judges Guide
Explanatory Booklets (28 Sports)
Explanatory Booklets (28 Sports)
Equestrian sports. Preliminary information
Regatta and measuing instructions
Press Guide
Media Guide
Media Transport Guide
Press Reception Guide
VIP Guide
HQ Hotels Guide
Second IOC Medical Congress
Second IOC Medical Congress (papers)
Medical Controls Guide
Pharmacological Guide
Radiocommunications Guide
International Youth Camp Guide
Opening Ceremony Programme
Closing Ceremony Programme
Manuals
Manual for Entry by Number
Manual for Entry by Name
Chef de Mission Manual
Team Manuals (28 sports)
Athletics Judges Manual
Rowing Judges Manual
Accreditation Manual
Media Accreditation Manual
Booklets / Dossiers
Olympic Village Guide
Olympic Village Services
Shooting Team Leader's Agenda
Daily Tennis Information Bulletin
Press Operations Progress Report
Montigalà Village
Parc de Mar Village
Barcelona'92 Olympic Games Opening Ceremony. Press Book
Barcelona'92 Olympic Games Closing Ceremony. Press Book
Multiple Access to Information and Communication
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
A4
A5
A5
A5
10,5X21
A5
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
A5
24X17
10,5X21
10,5X21
A5
10,5X21
58,5 X 32,5
58,5 X 32,5
A4
A4
A4
10,5X21
A5
A5
A4
A5
A4
10,5X21
A4
A4
43,5 X 29,7
10,5X21
10,5X21
A4
A4
A4
48
300
48
160
120
120
X28
X28
122
120
64
120
120
112
48
120
80
320
120
120
84
120
48
48
36
48
64
X28
48
48
24
48
24
24
64
4
64
24
24
84
84
8
C+E+F+A
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CEFA
CE+FA
CE+FA
C+E+F+A
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
EFA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CEFA
CEFA
C+E+FA
C+E+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
C+E+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CEFA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
C+E+F+A
C+E+F+A
CEFA
50,500
29,100
5,070
1,500
2,000
680
2,691
5,000
20,000
20,000
5,350
4,600
3,400
4,850
1,500
4,195
2,580
6,660
2,700
70,000
70,000
1,200
5,675
1,400
3,500
600
600
4,200
4,500
1,500
40,000
530
150,000
650
8,120
2,500
4,920
4,920
15,000
91/92
92
92
91
92
92
92
91
92
92
92
92
92
91
91
92
92
91
92
92
92
91
92
92
92
92
92
91
91
90
92
92
92
90/91
92
92
92
92
91
Publications for the Olympic Familyand the public
* Print run for each edition
A: EnglishAL: GermanC: CatalanE: SpanishEU: BasqueF: FrenchGA: GalicianIT: Italian
CE: Bilingual versionC+E: Two editions
Guide Format Pages Languages Print run* Date
414
Publications for the organisation
Guide
Programme for the 99th Session of the IOC
Last formalities before travelling to the Olympic Games
Medical Progress Report (IOC Medical Commission)
Second IOC Medical Congress (1st version)
Second IOC Medical Congress
Welcome to the Games Computer Systems
Results Information System
"Discovering Catalonia" 12 itineraries IYC
Information about ticket sales
Public information. Montanyà equestrian centre
Spectator Guide
Triptychs
The 15 Olympic subsites
The 28 Olympic sports
The International Youth Camp
Periodical publications
Camp News. IYC newspaper
Barcelona Olympic News (occasional)
Newsletter (weekly)
Official newspaper
Format
A4
A4
A4
A5
A5
10,5X21
A4
29,7X10,5
A4
A4
9,5 X 22
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
A4
A4
A4
A3
Pages
32
44
64
16
48
8
12
16
32
6
24
6X15
6X28
6
8
16
12
16
Languages
CEFA
CE+FA
FA
CE
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
CE+FA
C+E
CEFA
CEFA
CE+FA
C+E+F+A
F+A
CEFA
CE+FA
C+E+F+A
CE+FA
Print run*
1,000
25,000
350
4,000
12,500
48,000
6,750
1,675
1,500,000
10,000
240,000
75,000
10,000
3,000
1,500
3,000
2,000
5,000
Date
92
92
90
90
90/91
91
92
92
91
92
92
89/90/91
90
91
92
88/89/90/91
89/92
92
Books
Master Plan (6 editions)
Master Plan Summary (5 editions)
Olympic Charter
Broadcasters Handbook (RTO)
Security Forces Guide
COOB'92 Book of Records
A4
A4
A4
A4
9,5X15,5
A4
720
200
110
120
48
1500
CE
CEA
C
A
C+E
E
700
1,000
707
15,000
32,000
4,515
88(2)/89(2)/90(2)
88 (2)/89(1)/90(2)
90
92
92
92
Manuals
Olympic Volunteers Manual
Volunteers'92 training courses
Volunteers Training Manual
Olympic Torch Bearers Manual
Ceremonies Volunteers Manual
Volunteer Drivers Training Manual
Volunteer Drivers Manual
Bus Pool Training Manual
Bus Drivers Training Manual
A5/A4
A4
A4
A5
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
32
256
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
C+E+CE
C+E
E
CE
C
C
E
CE
CE
33,000
30,000
1,778
15,376
323
3,643
3,618
1,130
1,073
89/91/92
90
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
Guide Format Pages Languages Print run* Date
415
Guide
Olympic Village Volunteers Manual
Parc de Mar Village Volunteers Manual
Montigalà Village Volunteers Manual
Banyoles Village Volunteers Manual
Accommodation Volunteers Manual
Hosts Training Manual
Security Volunteers Manual
Circulation Control and Seating Volunteers Manual
Accreditation Operations Manual
Access Control Operations Manual
Rescue and First-aid Manual
Territorial Unit Volunteers Manual (50)
Format
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A5
A4
Pages
48
48
48
48
48
160
48
48
26
48
48
20 X 50
Languages
C
C
C
C
C
CE
C+E
C
C
CE
CE
C
Print run*
4,030
280
850
1,147
1,700
3,600
15,300
1,680
860
3,017
246
700
Date
92
92
92
92
92
92
91
92
92
92
92
92
Booklets / Dossiers
Information bulletin
Welcome to COOB'92
Organigrama i activitats del COOB'92
Men and women with resources
COOB'92 professionals
COOB'92 staff directory
Volunteers questionnaire
PASO'92 (Olympic Health Care Plan)
OBAC meeting 1 (RTO)
OBAC meeting 2 (RTO)
OBAC meeting 3 (RTO)
Olympic Broadcasting RTO
Graphic Standards Manual (28 sports)
Production Plan (28 sports)
Graphic Standards Manual RTO
Unilateral Productions Manual RTO
Competition calendar RTO
A4
A4
A4
31 X 22
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A3
32
60
32
48
48
1500
32
32
400
400
450
400
32 X 28
32 X 28
400
400
36
CE+FA
CE
C
CE
CE
E
C+E
FA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
2,000
540
500
1,844
7,000
4,500
70,000
250
154
123
306
205
2,000
2,000
200
214
231
90
89
89
92
92
92
89
89
90
90
91
91
92
92
92
92
92
Triptychs
Getting around 92
Welcome to the new COOB'92 HQ
List of publications
Language study grants
Have an Olympic friend in your home
Protocol seminars
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
10,5X21
4
6
8
6
6
6
C
CE+FA
CE
C
CE
CE
20,000
18,800
1,000
70,000
75,000
1,500
89
90
90
90
91
92
Periodical publications
Volunteers'92 (14 numbers)
COOBendins (8 numbers)
Glosso-làlia (6 numbers)
Olympic subsites (8 numbers)
A4
A3
A3
A3
32
4
2
4
CE
C
CEFA
CE
110,000
1,000
1,000
40,000
88/89/90/91/92
89/90/91
89/90/91
90/91
416
Promotion and image
Books
Commercial sponsorship criteria
Guide to Barcelona'92
The Cities of Barcelona'92
From Barcino to Barcelona'92
The Olympic Stadium, symbol of Barcelona'92
The Palau Sant Jordi
The Olympic posters
The Olympic posters
Collection of sports posters
The Barcelona'92 pictograms
A4
10,5X21
10,5X21
30 X 30
A4
30 X 30
27 X 31
A4
24,5 X 32
A4
64
164
160
64
46
160
198
120
72
120
EA
C+E+F+A
C+E+F+A
C+E+F+A
C+E+F+A
C+E+F+A
CE+FA
CE+FA
CEFA
CEFA
600
52,500
10,325
42,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
1000
89/90
89/90/91/92
91
90
89
90
92
92
91
92
Manuals
Graphic Standards Manual
Variations on the mascot
Corporate identity: Publications
Corporate identity: Hospitals
Corporate identity: Subsites
The Barcelona'92 pictograms
The Games pictograms
Olympic Style Manual
Signposting Manual
The Animated Cobi Guide
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
A4
42 X 30
100
100
18
6
40
76
112
150
150
24
CEFA
CEFA
CE
CE
C
CEFA
CEFA
CE
CE
EF
2,000
2,000
1,000
300
500
10,000
1,000
500
500
800
89
89
89
90
90
90
92
91
91
90
Booklets / Dossiers
Barcelona'92
The Barcelona'92 Olympic Games
The Barcelona'92 Olympic Games
The Inauguration of the Olympic Stadium
Press Dossier (twice yearly)
"500 Days to Go." Press Dossier
Standards for the use of the slogan "Friends for Life"
Licensed Products Catalogue
Designers Poster Collection
Artists Poster Collection
10,5 X 21
A4
A4
19,5 X 30
A4
A4
A4
A4
15 X 30
15 X 30
12
24
24
24
64
250
8
48
24
12
CE+FA+IT-AL+GA-EU 275,000
CE
CE
CE
C+E+F+A/FA
EA
CEFA
CE
C+E+F+A
C
30,000
6,250
230,000
10,000
1,220
300
10,000
4,400
6,350
89/90/91
92
92
89
90/91/92
91
91
89/90
91
91
Calendars
COOB'92 Calendar (1989) 60 X 80 13 CE 2,500 89
Posters
Official Poster Collection (4)
The Olympic Project in the Communities Posters (16)
Barcelona'92 with the Subsites Poster Collection (15)
Designers Poster Collection (18)
50 X 70
30 X 62
30 X 62
50 X 70
CEFA
E
C
CEFA
800,000
4,000x18
3,000x15
900,000
90
90
91
90
Format Pages Languages Print run* DateGuide
417
Guide
The Sports Poster Collection (26)
The Artists Poster Collection (8)
Flags Poster
Signposting and Olympic Style Poster
Cobi display
Prints
Prints of the Designers Poster Collection
Prints and lithographs of the Artists Poster Collection
Prints of the Press Cobis
Prints of the Ramblas Cobis
Prints of the Medical Cobis
Prints of the Subsite Cobis
Prints of the Olympic project in Madrid
Prints of the Olympic project in Sevilla
Maps
Official Olympic Map
Plan for the Barcelona'92 Guide
Format
50 X 70
50 X 70
70 X 100
70 X 100
21 X 21
56 X 76
56 X 76
33 X 41
A3
33 X 42
A3
70 X 50
70 X 50
87,3 X 64
62 X 75
Pages Languages
CEFA
CEFA
CE
CE
-
-
-
CEFA
C
C
C
E
-
CEFA
C+E+F+A
Print run*
1,000,000
160,000
3,275
3,000
1,370
1,600
770
1,000
1,175
70
150
150
125
125,000
50,000
Date
92
91
92
92
89
91
91
89
90
90
91
90
90
92
89/90/91/92
Forms
Stickers
Passes
Cards
Invitations
Accreditations
Envelopes
Letters
Folders
Diplomas
Miscellaneous
570
40
16
25
90
16
22
50
45
1
94
1,066,560
676,821
347,528
212,725
200,415
177,930
134,124
105,000
103,142
11,000
1,447,673
Technical stationeryTechnical papers Models Print run
418
Competitions'91 Competitions'91 Models Tiratge
Forms
Triptych
Posters
Letters
Stickers
Programmes
Envelopes
Folders
Accreditations
Invitations
Diplomas
Cards
Miscellaneous
30
6
26
38
39
24
28
28
16
37
24
4
10
181,370
114,821
113,810
102,784
100,890
88,208
40,330
33,204
28,225
22,386
15,510
3,500
201,600
419
12.3. Tables, maps and photo credits
Initials used in the text
ACNO:AMIC:ASOIF:
BDI:BIT'92:
CAR'92:CATV:CCTV:CCRTV:CECAJO:CECOR:CEMAN:CIE:CIOT:CIS:CMC:CMC:COE:COOB'92:COT:CPDO:CPO:CSA:CSC:CSC:CSD:CSSO:
DGPL:
DGT:
DOCUMENT:
EMO'92:EMT:ENG:EUTI:
FGC:FI:
GHB:
HDTV:
IBC:IF:IOC:IMIM:INEFC:IYC:
MDO:MPC:
NISA:NOA:NOC:
OBAC:
Association of National Olympic CommitteesMultiple Access to Information and CommunicationAssociation of Summer Olympic International Federations
Integrated Data BaseBarcelona Information and Telecommunications 1992
Barcelona'92 Radio Communications Advisory CommitteeCable televisionClosed circuit televisionCatalan Radio and Television CorporationOlympic Games Air Control CentreCoordination Centre (Olympic security)Command Centre (Olympic security)Sports Information CentreTechnology Information and Operations CentreCommentator Information SystemCommunications Media CentreCoordinating Medical CentreSpanish Olympic CommitteeBarcelona'92 Olympic Organising CommitteeTransport Operations CentreOlympic Data Processing CentreMain Operations CentreOlympic Calculation CentreCommon Services (at the Communications Media Centre)NOC Services CentreHigher Sports CouncilHigher Commission for Olympic Security
Language Policy Department.Generalitat of CataloniaTelecommunications Department.Ministry of Industry and EnergyPrinted results distribution system
Olympic Mobility'92 CompanyMetropolitan Transport AuthorityElectronic News GatheringUniversity School of Translators and Interpreters
Generalitat of Catalonia RailwaysFederació International
Barcelona Hotels Association
High Definition Television
International Broadcast CentreInternational FederationInternational Olympic CommitteeMunicipal Medical Research InstituteNational Institute of Physical Education of CataloniaInternational Youth Camp
Declarable DiseasesMain Press Centre
Nova Icària, S.A.Automatic Olympic NomenclatorNational Olympic Committee
Olympic Broadcasters Advisory Committee
422
Initials used in the text
OCSA:OF:OMSA:ORTB'92:ORTJO:
PAMOB:PASO:PNO:PTO:
RENFE:RTCA:RTGC:RTO'92:RTVE:
SAI:SICO:SIGE:SIGO:SIR:
TMA:TMB:TOP:TS:TVE:
UAB:UPC:
VOSA:
Olimpíada Cultural, S.A.Olympic FamilyOlympic Moll, S.A.Barcelona'92 Radio and Television OrganisationOlympic Games Radio and Television Organisation
Meteorological Services PlanOlympic Health Care PlanStandard Operations PlanTerritorial Operations Plan
Spanish RailwaysShort range radio telephonesClosed group radio telephonesOlympic Radio and TelevisionSpanish Radio and Television
Continuous Feed SystemCommentator Information SystemCompany Management Computer SystemOperations Management Information SystemResults Information System
Automatic Mobile TelephoneTransports Metropolitans de BarcelonaThe Olympic ProgrammeTelefónica ServicesSpanish Television
Autonomous University of BarcelonaPolytechnic University of Catalonia
Vila Olímpica, S.A.
423
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Sports organisation staff during the GamesCompetition control staff
Sponsors of the opening and closing ceremonies
Media accreditationsStaff and capacity of the press centres by sportsMobile units at the venues by sportsStaff of the RTO'92 mobile unitsCommentators' positions at the venues
Distribution of human resources for materials management
Assignment of projects and servicesThe organisation processSystem typologyTechnology quantitiesMain stages in the training of technology staffHuman resources for the technology projects in the preparation and operation stagesResults systems during the Games. Resources used
Human resources at the Olympic VillageSurface areas and other data for the Olympic Village adaptationRooms available for the Olympic FamilyShips moored in the Port of BarcelonaInternational Youth Camps and participantsParticipants in the International Youth Camp
People accredited by categoriesRegistration period for the Olympic Family: documents and datesAccreditation centres calendarAccreditations by dates and centresOlympic Family arrivals by date and categoryDistribution of vehicles ceded by SEAT by type and servicePassengers per day on public transport (25 July - 9 August)Human resources for health careMedical treatment during the GamesCompetitors' lunch menusCatering services provided for Team'92
Olympic security project
2328
43
5561666870
96
108110114118122124147
186189204211215216
222228231232240261265270279291297
308
424
List of tables
List of diagrams
10.
11.
Barcelona Olympic Games stamp issuesMedals for the official sports of the Barcelona Olympic GamesMedals for the demonstration sports of the Barcelona Olympic GamesCommemorative medalsGeneral information scheme for the 1992 Olympic Games
Concessions at the unitsIncome from television rights at the last three Olympic GamesDistribution of ticket prices by sportDistribution of seats according to priceCoefficient of ticket sales
338341341341363
388391396396400
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Organisation chart of the Sports Directorate General (1991)Calendar and number of victory ceremonies
Diagram of the transmission of the television signals
The stages of Olympic adaptation
Orders processed by the divisionsQuarterly evolution of space requirements at the central warehousesEquipment used for handling material at the sites
General planning of the technological projectsTypical organisation chart for technology in a territorial unitNumber of incidents at the CIOTData-processing and Systems projectsMain data relationships between computing projectsData for the use of the AMIC. Distribution of terminalsData for the use of the AMIC. References by subjectData for the use of the AMIC. References by languageStructure of the computing systemThe results management systemThe SIGE (Company Management Information System)Types of general-purpose software in COOB'92The Olympic telephone networkEvolution of traffic on the closed group radiotelephony system(RTGC). Calls madeThe television signal transmission systems
1524
73
86
929394
111116125128130134136136142146150151160
165174
425
List of diagrams
List of plans and maps
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Occupation of the Olympic Village
Design of the accreditation cardAccredited Olympic FamilyOlympic Family arrivals at Barcelona airportOlympic Games opening ceremony. Distribution of the grandstandMedia transport servicesFinal organisation chart of the Transport DivisionBuses in service during the GamesConsumption of food in the Olympic Village competitors canteen
Sample structure CECOR-CEMAN at the Olympic Harbour
The sports pictograms from recent Olympic GamesCalls takenCalls taken by subject
Associate companies of the Games of the XXV Olympiad Barcelona 1992
200
224229242250256260262292
307
329365367
376
3.
7.
8.
Communications Media Centre
Olympic VillageResidents CentreResidential areaMain centreReception centreMain restaurantNOC HQPort of Barcelona
Barcelona airportLocation of the transport territorial units
76
188188190190191191195210
238258
426
Photo credits
385
Initials used:COOB'92:
EMT:
IOPP:
OTI:
RTO'92:
Barcelona '92 OlympicOrganising CommitteeMetropolitan TransportAuthorityInternational OlympicPhoto PoolTechnical Image Office,Barcelona City CouncilOlympic Radio and Television
The numbers show the page and, in brackets, thephotograph number.
Argelich, Agusté (COOB'92)16 (2), 20 (2), 25 (1), 26 (2), 27 (5), 31 (6), 44 (2),45 (8), 50 (2), 56 (1,2), 60 (1,4), 67 (3), 69 (1),70 (1), 72 (2, 3), 74 (1), 75 (4, 6), 80 (1), 83 (4),84 (1, 2, 5), 85 (7,10), 98 (1), 109 (1), 119 (2),132 (5) ,161 (1, 3), 164 (1, 3), 166 (1), 171 (4),178 (2) ,179 (4), 185 (4), 192 (1,2), 196 (1, 2),197 (3) ,198 (1, 2), 205 (1), 223 (2,3,4,5), 230 (1),235 (4) , 243 (1), 254 (1), 257 (1,4), 259 (2, 3),266 (2, 4), 271 (1,2), 275 (4,5), 277 (5,7),280 (1, 2), 282 (1), 283 (3), 285 (4), 289 (3),290 (1), 293 (1), 294 (2), 296 (2,3), 304 (1,2),310 (2, 5), 311 (9), 312 (4), 314 (1,2,4), 315 (5),317 (3), 323 (4, 5), 340 (2), 355 (3), 364 (1,2),366 (2), 368 (1), 371 (3,4), 372 (2), 373 (4),385 (3,4), 386 (1), 387 (6), 388 (1), 389 (2, 4, 6),392 (2), 393 (5), 394 (1), 397 (1), 399 (6), 401 (3)
Archive COOB'9229 (3), 42 (1,2,3,4,5,6), 44 (3), 45 (6), 87 (2),100 (1), 131 (4), 137 (1), 226 (1,2,3,4), 239 (1),246 (1,2), 264 (3), 274 (3), 278 (3,4), 300 (1),322 (1,2), 326 (1), 328 (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11),334 (1,2,3,4), 335 (5,6,7,8), 336 (9,10,11,12),337 (13,14), 339 (1,2,3), 341 (5,6), 344 (1,2,3),346 (1,2), 348 (2), 349 (3), 358 (5), 360 (4),361 (5), 378 (1,3), 379 (5,8), 380 (2), 387 (4,5),398 (3)
Archive Erìtel135 (2), 137 (2)
Archive RTO'92175 (1), 392 (4), 393 (6)
Archive Telefónica156 (1, 2), 158 (2)
Bofill, Eugeni (FRIS)22 (3), 54 (1), 144 (1), 184 (1, 2), 193 (4, 6),197 (4), 201 (1), 266 (1), 267 (6), 289 (6), 296 (1),300 (2), 327 (4), 333 (4), 380 (1), 386 (2)
Bruty, Simon (All Sport - Firo Foto)332 (1)
Calafell, Jordi215 (2), 217 (1, 3)
Canet, Màrius (EMT)264 (1, 2), 265 (5), 266 (3), 267 (5)
Carbó, Joaquim99(3)
Carbó, Rafa14 (3), 25 (2), 37 (3), 51 (6), 57 (3), 58 (1), 98 (2),99 (5), 117 (2), 206 (2), 207 (4), 208 (1),217 (2, 4), 223 (1), 252 (5), 259 (1), 311 (7),316 (2), 331 (5), 366 (4), 383 (6)
Cardiel, Pilar84 (3)
Coronilla, Josep29 (1), 30 (1), 36 (2), 37 (4, 5, 6), 38 (1,2, 3,4),39 (5, 6), 44 (5), 45 (7), 51 (5), 57 (4), 60 (3),85 (9), 87 (1), 123 (1, 3), 132 (4), 140 (1), 147 (2),148 (2), 168 (1), 169 (5), 170 (2), 171 (3, 6, 7),172 (2), 175 (3), 187 (1, 3), 225 (2), 235 (2, 3),248-249, 263 (3), 268 (1), 282 (2), 285 (6), 322 (3),332 (2), 349 (4, 5, 6, 7), 372 (1), 378 (2), 381 (5),383 (5), 384 (1), 387 (8)
Dalda Fotografia - Video247 (3)
Danzas95 (3)
Agenda EFE347 (4)
Enciclopèdia Catalana, S.A.369 (2)
FCP s.a. (Aeroport de Barcelona)236 (1)
Gallés, Bernadet (Aeroport de Barcelona)251 (3, 4)
Gomà, Walter (RTO'92)69 (2), 100 (2)
Gené, Lluís339 (4)
González, Miquel (COOB'92)14 (2, 4), 16 (1), 18 (1, 2), 20 (1,3), 21 (4, 5),26 (1), 27 (4), 29 (2), 34 (1), 44 (4), 48 (1), 51 (3),58 (2), 62 (2), 64 (1), 71 (3), 77 (1, 3, 4), 82 (1,2),83 (3), 84 (4), 85 (6, 8), 87 (3), 90 (1), 95 (1, 2,4),97 (1, 2), 102 (3), 112 (1), 115 (1, 2), 117 (1),119 (1), 120 (1,2), 121 (3), 129 (1), 131 (1, 2,3),132 (1,2), 148 (1), 152 (1, 2, 3), 153 (4, 5),154 (1),158 (1), 159 (3, 4), 161 (4), 164 (2,4),166 (2),169 (3,4), 170 (1), 176 (1, 2), 177 (3,4),187 (4),198 (3), 220 (2), 225 (1), 239 (2), 240 (1),241 (3), 252 (2, 3), 253 (6), 263 (2), 273 (3, 5, 6),284 (1,2), 285 (5), 294 (1), 301 (5, 6, 7),306 (2), 310 (1, 3, 4, 6), 311 (8), 312 (1,2,3),313 (5, 6), 333 (5), 340 (3, 4), 342 (1,2,3,4),344 (4), 347 (3), 348 (1), 350 (1,2), 352 (1),353 (2), 355 (4), 356 (1), 358 (1,2, 3,4),359 (6,7), 360 (1,2,3), 361 (6,7,8), 366 (1),369 (3), 370 (1, 2), 373 (6), 379 (7), 382 (1,2,3,4),385 (2, 5), 386 (3), 390 (1), 392 (1), 397 (2, 3),398 (1,2,4), 401 (2)
Herrera, Rafael99 (4, 6)
Herrero, Pep12 (1), 22 (1, 5), 27 (6), 30 (3), 60 (2), 67 (2),102 (1,2, 4), 109 (2), 123 (2), 126 (1, 2), 132 (3),141 (2), 143 (1), 147 (1), 155 (3), 168 (2), 172 (1),175 (2), 178 (1), 205 (3), 206 (1), 208 (2), 209 (3,4, 5, 6), 227 (5), 230 (2), 252 (4), 257 (3), 264 (4),265 (6), 276 (2), 277 (6, 8), 278 (2), 314 (3),327 (5), 364 (3), 378 (4), 379 (6), 389 (5), 392 (3),401 (4)
Institute Nacional de Meteorología300 (3), 301 (4)
IOPP251 (1,2), 317 (4)
Kodak227 (6)
Leah, David (All Sport - Firo Foto)14 (1)
Llobet, Jordi (Nika 7)46-47, 74 (3), 220 (1)
Lola Films373 (5)
López Dot, Jordi (COOB'92)22 (2, 4), 27 (3), 30 (2), 31 (5), 63 (4), 71 (2),72 (1), 75 (5), 103 (5), 117 (3), 129 (2), 135 (1),143 (2, 3), 155 (2), 161 (2) , 171 (5), 178 (3),261 (2),272 (1,2), 273 (4) ,274 (1,2), 276 (4),285 (3), 286 (1), 288 (1,2), 289 (4, 5), 290 (2),330 (2) , 331 (6, 7), 354 (2), 366 (3), 381 (4),399 (5),401(1)
Madueño, Pedro (La Vanguardia)36 (1)
Malé, Jaume340 (1)
Mallafrè, Helena (FRIS)40 (1), 44 (1), 50 (1), 182 (1), 185 (3), 201 (2),276 (1), 320 (1), 321 (2), 326 (2), 327 (3),330 (1, 3, 4), 362 (1), 389 (3)
Marlí, Albert (Argentfï)387 (7)
Martin, Alberto (IOPP)253 (7)
Morera, Francesc (FRIS)51 (4), 106 (1), 138 (1), 162 (1), 187 (2), 202 (1),
214 (1), 233 (2), 234 (1), 241 (2), 243 (2), 257 (2),298 (1), 332 (3)
OH350 (3,4)
Peña, Francesc (El Corte Inglés)103 (6)
Photo Kishimoto30 (4), 45 (9), 315 (6)
Puigdefàbregas, Roser (FRIS)62 (1), 74 (2), 138 (2), 141 (3), 194 (1,2),199 (4, 5), 205 (2,4), 207 (3), 212 (1,2,3),213 (4, 5), 236 (2), 244 (1), 252 (1), 261 (1),323 (6), 354 (1), 380 (3), 390 (2)
Sánchez, Augusto (COOB'92)17 (3), 19 (3, 4, 5), 306 (3)
Sainz de Baranda, Inma193 (5), 194 (4), 233 (1), 263 (1), 278 (1), 306 (1)
Seguí, Rafa192 (3), 194 (3)
Sitjà, Alfons (RTO'92)63 (3, 5, 6), 67 (1), 72 (4), 77 (2), 276 (3), 372 (3)
Sobrepera, Toni316 (1)
427
This third volume of the Official Reporthas been printed in Barcelona at theCayfosa workshops, on 17 May 1993.
Copyright, © 2003, Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles
Notes on the digitized version of the Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad,Barcelona, 1992 (Volume III)
The digital version of the Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad was created withthe intention of producing the closest possible replica of the original printed document. Thesetechnical notes describe the differences between the digital and printed documents and thetechnical details of the digital document.
The original document
The original paper version of the 1992 Official Report (Vo l u m e I I I) has dimensions of9 ¼ x 11 ¾” (24cm x 30cm).
The volume’s spine is of green cloth. The title, “Official Report of the Games of the XXVOlympiad, III: The organisation”, appears in white lettering. The title also appears in three other
The book has 427 numbered pages.
The fonts used in the digital version book for text, photograph captions and chapter headings areTimes New Roman and such system fonts as best approximate the original fonts.
Special features of the digital version:
• The spine is not included in the digital version.
• Blank pages have been retained in the digital version to maintain correct pagination.
• The icons have been converted from color to b/w.
• The digital version includes a bookmark list that functions as a hyper linked table of contents.Selecting a topic heading will take you to the corresponding section in the document.
Profile of the digital version:
File name: 1992s3.pdfFile size: 82,653 KBFormat: Portable Document Format (PDF) 1.3 (Adobe Acrobat 4.0)Source document: Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, III: The organisationPublished by COOB’92, S.A. (Barcelona’92 Olympic Organising Committee) Ed. Romà CuyàsCreation Platform: Windows XPCreation Date: April 2003Conversion Software: Adobe Acrobat, FineReader, VistaScan, FahrenEXImage Resolution: 200 dpi for color and grayscale imagesDigital Fonts: Times New Roman, HelveticaConversion Service: Fahrenheit 452, Thane (W), MH, INDIAwww.fahrenheit452.com
languages: French, Spanish and Catalan.
with the permission of the Fundació Barcelona Olímpica (Barcelona Olympic Foundation).The Fundació Barcelona Olímpica is the copyright owner of the report.
The 1992 Barcelona Games Official Repor t was digitized by the Amateur Athletic Foundation
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