OECD Schooling for Tomorrow OECD/CERI "Schooling for Tomorrow" Understanding the Demand for...

OECD/CERI "Schooling for Tomorrow"OECD/CERI "Schooling for Tomorrow"OECD Schooling for Tomorrow

Understanding the Demand for Understanding the Demand for Schooling: the CERI study Schooling: the CERI study

David Istance and Anne Sliwka David Istance and Anne Sliwka

May 2006May 2006


Project on Understanding Demand within ‘Schooling for Project on Understanding Demand within ‘Schooling for Tomorrow’ ProgrammeTomorrow’ Programme

““Demand” is now a current aspect of reform – the view that Demand” is now a current aspect of reform – the view that a key shift is from traditional models (supply-dominated) to a key shift is from traditional models (supply-dominated) to dynamic ones of the future (much more oriented to dynamic ones of the future (much more oriented to demands). So, clearly within purview of CERI’s ‘Schooling demands). So, clearly within purview of CERI’s ‘Schooling for Tomorrow’ programme.for Tomorrow’ programme.

But what does ‘demand-driven’ mean as a concept and in But what does ‘demand-driven’ mean as a concept and in practice? Relevant evidence? Need for clarification and practice? Relevant evidence? Need for clarification and review. To understand ‘demand’ in compulsory schooling review. To understand ‘demand’ in compulsory schooling the empirical focus for this study is two-fold:the empirical focus for this study is two-fold:

• What are different ‘demands’ key stakeholders have, What are different ‘demands’ key stakeholders have, especially parents and students (wishes, expectations, especially parents and students (wishes, expectations, attitudes) – their demandsattitudes) – their demands

• Ways schools and systems recognise the expression of Ways schools and systems recognise the expression of such demands and actual wishes (the room for choice, such demands and actual wishes (the room for choice, participation, consultation) – demand orientationsparticipation, consultation) – demand orientations


Background Reports and TimetableBackground Reports and Timetable

Invitation to all countries to join with expert synthesis of Invitation to all countries to join with expert synthesis of country evidence on:country evidence on:• Demand and Views about Schooling in SocietyDemand and Views about Schooling in Society• The Attitudes and Expectations of ParentsThe Attitudes and Expectations of Parents • Participation in Decision-making in the Schooling Process Participation in Decision-making in the Schooling Process • Pupil Choices and ValuesPupil Choices and Values • Diversity in the Structure of School SystemsDiversity in the Structure of School Systems and and Influence over Influence over

the Curriculumthe Curriculum

Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, England, Finland, Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, England, Finland, Hungary, Japan, Poland, Slovak Republic, and Spain Hungary, Japan, Poland, Slovak Republic, and Spain prepared reports, plus a US expert analysis (D. Plank) prepared reports, plus a US expert analysis (D. Plank)

National reports finished mid-2004 to early 2005, first National reports finished mid-2004 to early 2005, first syntheses mid-2005, presented and discussed November syntheses mid-2005, presented and discussed November CERI Governing Board. Also, March 2006 CERI Governing Board. Also, March 2006 European Journal European Journal of Education of Education special issue on this project.special issue on this project.

Final re-drafting now, Brussels Seminar and finalisation for Final re-drafting now, Brussels Seminar and finalisation for next book in ‘next book in ‘Schooling for TomorrowSchooling for Tomorrow’ series.’ series.


Structure of the AnalysisStructure of the Analysis Structure of analysis:Structure of analysis:

• Clarifying concepts and related analysesClarifying concepts and related analyses• Public and parental perceptions of schooling – Public and parental perceptions of schooling –

satisfaction and expectationssatisfaction and expectations• Parental choice and diversity of provision Parental choice and diversity of provision • Parental and community “voice” in schoolsParental and community “voice” in schools• What do the students say?What do the students say?• ConclusionsConclusions

Purpose now: Purpose now: • i) final sharpening of issues and formulations i) final sharpening of issues and formulations

• ii) dissemination and discussion of CERI reportii) dissemination and discussion of CERI report • iii) relate CERI findings/conclusions to new OECD iii) relate CERI findings/conclusions to new OECD

Education Policy workEducation Policy work


Public Perceptions of Schooling Public Perceptions of Schooling Increasing awareness that educational investments Increasing awareness that educational investments

lead to significant returns in terms of economic lead to significant returns in terms of economic growth and social and cultural capital growth and social and cultural capital

Debate on what society gets in return for financial Debate on what society gets in return for financial investments in education has intensified and has investments in education has intensified and has led to a greater call for school and school system led to a greater call for school and school system accountabilityaccountability

Public opinion of the quality of the school system Public opinion of the quality of the school system as a whole is considerably lower than public as a whole is considerably lower than public opinion of the quality of local schools and parents’ opinion of the quality of local schools and parents’ opinions of their children’s school opinions of their children’s school


Media Coverage of SchoolingMedia Coverage of Schooling Negative incidences tend to get most media Negative incidences tend to get most media

coverage, followed by differences in learning coverage, followed by differences in learning outcomes between schools. outcomes between schools.

Media play an increasing role in providing parents Media play an increasing role in providing parents and other stakeholders with information about the and other stakeholders with information about the quality of schooling.quality of schooling.

Attainment and survey data are increasingly Attainment and survey data are increasingly published in national or local newspapers. published in national or local newspapers.

Surveys and international assessment data have Surveys and international assessment data have triggered public debates about the quality of triggered public debates about the quality of schooling and in some countries are said to “set the schooling and in some countries are said to “set the political agenda”. political agenda”.


Societal Developments Driving Societal Developments Driving DiversificationDiversification

The demographic trend seems to have led to The demographic trend seems to have led to enhanced competition among schools. Schools enhanced competition among schools. Schools interested in attracting students because they interested in attracting students because they receive per capita financing often find receive per capita financing often find themselves in a highly competitive situation. themselves in a highly competitive situation.

““The demand toward school education has The demand toward school education has become diversified and advanced, in become diversified and advanced, in accordance with the diversification of the accordance with the diversification of the sense of values between people and the rapid sense of values between people and the rapid change of social structure” (Japanese Report). change of social structure” (Japanese Report).


Demand: A Multi-dimensional ConceptDemand: A Multi-dimensional Concept

IndividualIndividual

CollectiveCollective

ExitExit VoiceVoice

Market mechanism, Market mechanism, individually choosing a individually choosing a school that maximises school that maximises utilityutility

Interest group Interest group establishing private establishing private schoolsschools

Personalisation of learningPersonalisation of learning

Parents/students Parents/students participating in curriculum participating in curriculum development and other development and other school decision-makingschool decision-making

Interest group influence Interest group influence on schooling issues , e.g. on schooling issues , e.g. curriculum, integration of curriculum, integration of disabled students. disabled students.


WhoWho Articulates Demands? Articulates Demands? The The more educatedmore educated are less satisfied with education. are less satisfied with education.

They articulate demands with regard to the curriculum, They articulate demands with regard to the curriculum, e.g. for ICT, languages, problem-solving skills. e.g. for ICT, languages, problem-solving skills.

Urban populationUrban population expresses greater dissatisfaction expresses greater dissatisfaction with current state of education than inhabitants of rural with current state of education than inhabitants of rural areas, a trend evident in all countries. areas, a trend evident in all countries.

In the UK, Finland, Poland, Slovak Republic In the UK, Finland, Poland, Slovak Republic entrepreneursentrepreneurs are most critical about the quality of are most critical about the quality of the education. the education.


Who Articulates Demand Who Articulates Demand CollectivelyCollectively??

Demand is frequently expressed by Demand is frequently expressed by vocal and vocal and well organised pressure groupswell organised pressure groups. Specific . Specific educational reforms tend to be shaped by expert educational reforms tend to be shaped by expert committees. committees.

Demand is expressed most strongly by Demand is expressed most strongly by parents parents with special interestswith special interests, e.g. parents asking for , e.g. parents asking for faith-based instruction (UK) and parents of faith-based instruction (UK) and parents of disabled children (Austria, Czech Republic). disabled children (Austria, Czech Republic).


Who Articulates Demand Who Articulates Demand IndividuallyIndividually??

Parents with a higher socio-economic statusParents with a higher socio-economic status

and/or cultural capitaland/or cultural capital are more likely to: are more likely to:

get their children into selective schools.get their children into selective schools. send their children to private schools.send their children to private schools. become involved in school decision-making.become involved in school decision-making. become involved in the founding of new schools.become involved in the founding of new schools.


Difference between Difference between Cities and Rural AreasCities and Rural Areas

Traditionally, most school systems required that parents sendTraditionally, most school systems required that parents sendtheir children to a school within the school district where thetheir children to a school within the school district where thefamily lived. Most school systems have eased this family lived. Most school systems have eased this

requirement. requirement.

Example: Example: In England, parents have the right to say which school theyIn England, parents have the right to say which school theywould prefer their child to attend, regardless of location.would prefer their child to attend, regardless of location.Parents in metropolitan areas are able to choose from aParents in metropolitan areas are able to choose from arange of schools. Nationally, nearly three quarters ofrange of schools. Nationally, nearly three quarters ofparents applied for a place in their nearest state school. Inparents applied for a place in their nearest state school. InLondon some 60,000 children attend schools outside theirLondon some 60,000 children attend schools outside theirhome Local Educational Authority’s (LEA) area. home Local Educational Authority’s (LEA) area.


Selective School SystemsSelective School Systems In selective school systems In selective school systems socio-economic statussocio-economic status

and cultural capital are very and cultural capital are very strong predictors for strong predictors for access to higher-level schoolsaccess to higher-level schools. Not surprisingly, . Not surprisingly, the same social groups publicly defend tracking the same social groups publicly defend tracking against criticisms of social inequality. against criticisms of social inequality.

Example: Example: In the Czech Republic, only 24% of parents with In the Czech Republic, only 24% of parents with university qualifications agreed that “all children university qualifications agreed that “all children regardless of their talent, aptitudes or social regardless of their talent, aptitudes or social background should be educated together as long background should be educated together as long as possible”, while this view is held by 63% of as possible”, while this view is held by 63% of parents without a full upper secondary parents without a full upper secondary qualification.qualification.


Publicly Funded Private Schools: Publicly Funded Private Schools: Centros ConcertadosCentros Concertados in Spain in Spain

State-funded private schools in Spain, have to acceptState-funded private schools in Spain, have to acceptchildren from any family, free of charge. children from any family, free of charge. In reality they are quite selective:In reality they are quite selective:-> greater range of options to expel students who do -> greater range of options to expel students who do

not meet certain standards. not meet certain standards. -> no fees, but parents have to cover a range of extra -> no fees, but parents have to cover a range of extra

expenses for academic or extracurricular activities. expenses for academic or extracurricular activities. Centros concertadosCentros concertados represent more than 25% of all represent more than 25% of allSpanish schools. Demand by far exceeds supply. InSpanish schools. Demand by far exceeds supply. Inurban areas up to 50% of school are private. Onlyurban areas up to 50% of school are private. Onlyone of five immigrant students attends a one of five immigrant students attends a centrocentroconcertadoconcertado. .


What Kinds of Demand What Kinds of Demand are Voiced?are Voiced?

Demands for “Something New”:Demands for “Something New”:

e.g., new services like pre-school e.g., new services like pre-school education education

Demands for “Something Better”:Demands for “Something Better”:

e.g., better ICT or foreign language e.g., better ICT or foreign language instruction instruction

Demand for Demand for “Something Different”“Something Different”::

e.g., faith-based instruction, instruction in e.g., faith-based instruction, instruction in minority languagesminority languages


Different Types of Different Types of Motivation for „Exit“Motivation for „Exit“

Data reveal that there are two different kinds ofData reveal that there are two different kinds ofmotivation for sending children to (private)motivation for sending children to (private)religious schools. religious schools.

Horizontal exitHorizontal exit (“something different”):(“something different”): a non-secular education based on a particulara non-secular education based on a particularreligious belief system. religious belief system.

Vertical exitVertical exit (“something better”): (“something better”): better quality education - stronger ethos, morebetter quality education - stronger ethos, morediscipline, less violence. discipline, less violence.


Parents‘ Voices and ParticipationParents‘ Voices and Participation Schools in many countries are now allowed to Schools in many countries are now allowed to

draw up parts of their curriculum themselves draw up parts of their curriculum themselves and involve parents in this. Many parents, and involve parents in this. Many parents, however, have however, have notnot heard of opportunities to heard of opportunities to become involved. become involved.

Structures for parent decision-making are still Structures for parent decision-making are still rather formalised and refer parents to elected rather formalised and refer parents to elected bodies, often seen as service organisations. bodies, often seen as service organisations.

School councils are a recent development. School councils are a recent development. Some parents still feel that their agenda is Some parents still feel that their agenda is largely set and dominated by teachers who largely set and dominated by teachers who perceive parents as “outsiders”. perceive parents as “outsiders”.


Parents‘ Voices and ParticipationParents‘ Voices and Participation Only a fraction of parents makes use of the decision-Only a fraction of parents makes use of the decision-

making structures available to them. More educated making structures available to them. More educated parents articulate their needs better. parents articulate their needs better.

Parent bodies do not fully represent the communities Parent bodies do not fully represent the communities they serve. They tend to be well-educated, white, they serve. They tend to be well-educated, white, middle-aged and middle-income. middle-aged and middle-income.

Marked difference in access to information, participation Marked difference in access to information, participation and decision-making between parents’ representatives and decision-making between parents’ representatives and parents themselves. and parents themselves.

In some countries, parents still fear that their children In some countries, parents still fear that their children will suffer if they criticise the school openly. will suffer if they criticise the school openly.

Turnout in elections as well as willingness to stand for Turnout in elections as well as willingness to stand for office are continuously decreasing. office are continuously decreasing.


Finally, ...Finally, ... Countries which have not institutionalised Countries which have not institutionalised

regular parent/student surveys have no regular parent/student surveys have no proper ways of learning about parents’ proper ways of learning about parents’ demand except through their market demand except through their market reactions. reactions.

It seems that only by tapping this It seems that only by tapping this information state school systems can information state school systems can remain attractive for well-educated and remain attractive for well-educated and well-informed parents who will go where well-informed parents who will go where ever they get what they demand. In ever they get what they demand. In decentralised systems the alternatives are decentralised systems the alternatives are just too attractive. just too attractive.


Policy Issues faced with the Complexity of DemandsPolicy Issues faced with the Complexity of Demands

The report confirms the complexity of the ‘good’ The report confirms the complexity of the ‘good’ that education delivers and the complexity of that education delivers and the complexity of demand for it. The aim to make schooling more demand for it. The aim to make schooling more ‘demand-led’ begs the questions of whose ‘demand-led’ begs the questions of whose demands and for what aspects of education:demands and for what aspects of education:

• Distinguishing between demands for particular Distinguishing between demands for particular

content - knowledge, skills, and values - content - knowledge, skills, and values - compared with the social demand for comparative compared with the social demand for comparative advantage - can it be done?advantage - can it be done?

• How far can individual and the collective demands How far can individual and the collective demands

of articulate groups be met without jeopardising of articulate groups be met without jeopardising the social, system-wide nature of school the social, system-wide nature of school education? education?


Listening to Which Demands?Listening to Which Demands?

Listening to demand is complex because of such Listening to demand is complex because of such mixed messages. Those who are most demanding mixed messages. Those who are most demanding often express themselves as the least satisfied, e.g. often express themselves as the least satisfied, e.g. urban, educated parents.urban, educated parents.

• How to be demand-sensitive without clear messages? How to be demand-sensitive without clear messages? How to ensure that this is not just a matter of How to ensure that this is not just a matter of responding to those with most articulate voice who responding to those with most articulate voice who already benefit most from education?already benefit most from education?

• Are the lower levels of satisfaction among the articulate Are the lower levels of satisfaction among the articulate and educated a sign of high standards – being and educated a sign of high standards – being demanding – and a positive motor for reform? Or is it a demanding – and a positive motor for reform? Or is it a worrying sign of loss of confidence in the public worrying sign of loss of confidence in the public system?system?


Mechanisms for Feeding Demand into ProvisionMechanisms for Feeding Demand into Provision

There is a variety of mechanisms in the countries studied There is a variety of mechanisms in the countries studied for demands to help shape schooling – possibilities to for demands to help shape schooling – possibilities to choose among schools in some countries and some choose among schools in some countries and some localities, participation in the decision-making process, localities, participation in the decision-making process, corporate role of stakeholder groups at the system level – corporate role of stakeholder groups at the system level – but these are not systematic or universal. Is ‘subjective’ but these are not systematic or universal. Is ‘subjective’ evidence used and should it be?evidence used and should it be?

• What are the mechanisms for giving expression to What are the mechanisms for giving expression to different demands about schooling? Where there are different demands about schooling? Where there are surveys of expectations for, and satisfaction with, surveys of expectations for, and satisfaction with, schooling how are these actually taken on board in schooling how are these actually taken on board in school systems? school systems?

• How listen to demands while avoiding the superficiality How listen to demands while avoiding the superficiality of making policy on the basis of the latest opinion poll of making policy on the basis of the latest opinion poll results? results?


Demand, Choice and ExitDemand, Choice and Exit

Opportunities to exercise choice between different schools, Opportunities to exercise choice between different schools, within the public system and between public and private within the public system and between public and private provision, are increasingly the rule in OECD countries. provision, are increasingly the rule in OECD countries. Choice is also promoted by creating greater diversity of Choice is also promoted by creating greater diversity of contents and types of school. This has recognised, even contents and types of school. This has recognised, even encouraged, the use of “exit” strategies – whether for encouraged, the use of “exit” strategies – whether for private gain or for system change. private gain or for system change.

• How far can and should choice be extended before it How far can and should choice be extended before it results in the major problems of excessive consumerism results in the major problems of excessive consumerism or inequity? Or both?or inequity? Or both?

• Is it possible to enjoy both widespread choice and a Is it possible to enjoy both widespread choice and a strong shared social agenda for school education?strong shared social agenda for school education?


Expressing Demands through Exercising VoiceExpressing Demands through Exercising Voice

There have been a number of moves to strengthen parental There have been a number of moves to strengthen parental and community engagement including through formal and community engagement including through formal governance arrangements. There are differences between governance arrangements. There are differences between countries in opportunities for them to participate in school countries in opportunities for them to participate in school life. But actual engagement by parents tends to be low and life. But actual engagement by parents tends to be low and more often regarding practical rather than fundamental more often regarding practical rather than fundamental issues.issues.

• Despite moves to open up schools, how far are these Despite moves to open up schools, how far are these still cosmetic, with the ‘external’ partners still kept still cosmetic, with the ‘external’ partners still kept largely at arms’ length? largely at arms’ length?

• Despite increasing numbers of more educated and Despite increasing numbers of more educated and

‘demanding’ parents, do contemporary working and ‘demanding’ parents, do contemporary working and living patterns militate against parental participation in living patterns militate against parental participation in everyday school life? With what consequences?everyday school life? With what consequences?


The Transparency of What Goes on in Schools?The Transparency of What Goes on in Schools?

There seems a general rule about ‘distance’ from the There seems a general rule about ‘distance’ from the activities of schooling and levels of satisfaction – the closer activities of schooling and levels of satisfaction – the closer the direct experience, the more positive the assessment. the direct experience, the more positive the assessment. One aspect of enhancing accountability, over and above its One aspect of enhancing accountability, over and above its role as quality control, is to render schools more role as quality control, is to render schools more transparent to the public.transparent to the public.

• Should the public understanding and support for Should the public understanding and support for education be bolstered as a policy priority in the face of education be bolstered as a policy priority in the face of a generalised lack of knowledge about what goes on in a generalised lack of knowledge about what goes on in schools (and associated negative attitudes)? Who schools (and associated negative attitudes)? Who should do it? should do it?

• What would be the impact of significantly opening up What would be the impact of significantly opening up the interior world of schools to the public eye? What the interior world of schools to the public eye? What impact might this have on the nature of schools as impact might this have on the nature of schools as institutions?institutions?


Knowledge and Research about DemandKnowledge and Research about Demand

The OECD request to countries for this study The OECD request to countries for this study exposed large gaps in the knowledge base on exposed large gaps in the knowledge base on what might seem basic aspects of education; what might seem basic aspects of education; whether this is knowledge generated by whether this is knowledge generated by academic research or by policy agencies.academic research or by policy agencies.

• Is it fair to say that we have increasingly detailed Is it fair to say that we have increasingly detailed knowledge about the ‘supply’ side of schooling knowledge about the ‘supply’ side of schooling and only very sketchy evidence regarding the and only very sketchy evidence regarding the ‘demand’ side, despite the aim of making ‘demand’ side, despite the aim of making schooling more demand-led? schooling more demand-led?

• If there is to be more systematic knowledge of the If there is to be more systematic knowledge of the different dimensions of demand, how should it different dimensions of demand, how should it best be generated, institutionalised and used?best be generated, institutionalised and used?


The ‘Schooling for Tomorrow’ SeriesThe ‘Schooling for Tomorrow’ Series

OECD/CERI publications:OECD/CERI publications:• (forthcoming Demand publication, 2006)(forthcoming Demand publication, 2006)• Think Scenarios, Rethink Education, 2006Think Scenarios, Rethink Education, 2006• Personalising Education, 2006Personalising Education, 2006• Networks of Innovation: towards new Networks of Innovation: towards new

models for managing schools and systemsmodels for managing schools and systems, , 2003; 2003;

• What Schools for the Future?, What Schools for the Future?, 2001; 2001; • Learning to Change: ICT in SchoolsLearning to Change: ICT in Schools, 2001; , 2001; • Learning to Bridge the Digital Divide, Learning to Bridge the Digital Divide, 2000; 2000; • Innovating SchoolsInnovating Schools, 1999., 1999.

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