Odum focus groupcourse_feb132014

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RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute. www.rti.org

Intro to Focus Groups

Emily Geisen

Amanda Wilmot

2/13/2014

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Ground Rules

� Cell phones turned to vibrate or off

� Refreshments and restrooms any time

� Several bio-breaks throughout

� Questions are encouraged at end of each section

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Course Outline

1. The role and use of focus groups

2. Focus group demonstration

3. Developing the protocol guide

4. Moderating focus groups

5. Recruiting and scheduling

6. Participant selection

7. Data management/analysis

8. Reporting findings

9. Drawing wider inferences

10. Qualitative Research Ethics

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1. The Role and Use of Focus Groups

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What is a Focus Group?

“Focus group interviews typically have five characteristics or features: (a) people, who (b) possess certain characteristics, (c) provide data (d) of a qualitative nature (e) in a focused discussion.”

-Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research (Krueger)

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Examples

� A group of coal miners sit around a small conference room discussing mine safety. They all agree that safety is important, but some argue that existing safety regulations are too unrealistic or impractical to be implemented.

� A group of employees sit in a conference room discussing access to email and other work functions from mobile devices. One participant says answering emails on his phone will save him time. Another participant worries that her supervisor will expect her to reply to emails at all hours if she has access on her phone.

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What is a Focus Group, again?

� Researchers have a topic they want to know about:

– Why aren’t coal miners following safety precautions?

– What concerns do employees have about mobile email access?

� These topics are communicated to a group of participants to discuss

– Pre-scripted questions to generate discussion

– Targeted moderation to focus the discussion

� Researchers summarize and interpret what they have learned

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Uses of Focus Groups

� Exploration and Discovery– Collect info that will be used to guide development of a survey

– Collect info for a needs assessment

– Test a new product before development

� Context and Depth– Adding new topics or population groups to a survey

– Delving deeper into a survey topic

– Testing a product with a new audience

� Interpretation– Deciding how to use survey results

– Discuss applications with end users

-Focus Group Guidebook (Morgan)

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Uses of Focus Groups*, Continued

� Stand-alone data collection method, or

� Supplement other qualitative or quantitative research methods

– In-depth personal interviews

– Survey development

– Needs assessment

– Product development

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Focus Groups for Survey Research

� Identify topics/themes that are of interest to population

– Use this to add questions on these topic/themes

– Cut questions that are not relevant, not applicable, or show no variation

� Get more detail on a topic so that you don’t have to ask open-ended questions

– Which of the following are reasons why you do not have health insurance? Too expensive, No health problems, …

� Get reaction to survey materials such as advanced letters, envelopes, etc.

� Explore methods to boost cooperation: what type of incentives would people prefer?

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Strengths of Focus Groups (over other qual./quan. methods)

� If you’re unfamiliar with a topic, you can learn a lot quickly (often used as the first step in research)

� Can be used to observe interactions or group dynamics

� Generate hypotheses (that can be tested using quantitative methods)

� Cheaper/quicker than other methods

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Limitations of Focus Groups

� Some topics are too sensitive or controversial to be discussed in a group setting (social desirability)

� Discussions can get easily sidetracked/derailed

� Limited generalizability of findings/results

� Cannot quantify findings or determine statistical significance

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Thinking about your research…

� How are you going to use focus groups?

– Exploration and discovery? How so?

– Context and depth? How so?

– Interpretation? How so?

� Will your focus groups be stand-alone or will you use them with other research methods?

� What are the strengths/weaknesses of using focus groups for your research?

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Questions/Discussion

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2. Focus Group Demonstration

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3. Developing the Protocol Guide

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The What, Why, Who, How, Where

What Review research objectives

Who Determine number and type of participantsRecruit and schedule participants

Where Determine test location and equipment

Why Identify major topic areas of interest

How Script focus group questionsDevelop focus group guide

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The What, Why, Who, How, Where

What Review research objectives

Who Determine number and type of participantsRecruit and schedule participants

Where Determine test location and equipment

Why Identify major topic areas of interest

How Script focus group questionsDevelop protocol guide

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What’s the Focus Group About: Review Research Objectives

� Start with the overall research objectives / study goals

� Identify what do you already know about the topic

� Determine what new information you want to learn

� Determine what information you want to explore in more detail

� Decide how are you going to use this information

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Review Research Objectives: Example

Step Personal Health Records Example

Study goals: Learn about healthcare consumers understanding, experiences, needs, and concerns about the ways technology can be used within the healthcare system

What do you alreadyknow about the topic:

Research has shown that use of electronic PHRs can save consumers money and improve health, yet they are not being used extensively.

What do we want to learn through focus groups:

Why aren’t more consumers using electronic PHRs to manage their health information?

How will we use this info: Provide recommendations for improving PHRs and promoting awareness.

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Review Research Objectives: Your Turn

Step Your Study

Study goals:

What do you already know about the topic:

What do we want to learn through focus groups:

How will we use this info:

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Why: Identify Major Discussion Topics

� Once you identify what you want to learn, identify major discussion topics (brainstorm)

� Why are we doing these focus groups:

– What is the most important question your research must answer?

– What’s the next most important question?

– And so on …

� Consult with project team members as needed

� Consider how topic areas may need to differ by participant selection

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Identify Major Discussion Topics: Example

� Why aren’t more consumers using electronic PHRs to manage their health information?

� Consumers who have not used electronic PHRs

� How familiar are consumers with electronic PHRs?

� How do consumers currently manage their health information?

� What are the most important factors consumers consider when deciding how to manage their health information

� What are their biggest concerns/fears about using PHRs?

� Narrow list of discussion topics to about 4 major topic questions per hour (more if questions are more specific)

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How: Scripting Questions

� Avoid yes/no or short-answer questions, unless:

� Open-ended follow up is planned (e.g., why/why not?)

� Used to tally group (e.g., those in favor/opposed)

� Open-ended questions generate discussion, however:

– Keep questions focused, one-dimensional

– Be careful of “Why?” questions

– Use scripted probes to focus or narrow topics

� Questions should be easily comprehensible: use familiar words/terms

� Questions should be reflective, not hypothetical

� Move from general to more specific

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Scripting Questions: Example 1

Topic: How do consumers currently manage their health information?

� Bad: How do you manage your family’s health information?

� Good: How do you currently maintain or store your and your family’s medical records, such as records of vaccinations or prescriptions?

– Do you keep paper or electronic records?

– How does this differ for you compared to your children (or elderly parents)?

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Scripting Questions: Example 2

� Bad: Why do you use the mobile device you have?

� Better: What kind of mobile device do you use at work?

� Best: How did you decide what kind of mobile device to use at work?

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Other aspects of Protocol Guide

� Welcome/Introduction

� Icebreaker

� Opening (or Engagement) questions:

– Easy and inviting, comfortable to discuss

– Introduces the topic of discussion, provides context/background

� Exploration questions (main study questions)

� Exit questions:

– Used to wrap-up the discussion

– Check to see if there is anything else people would like to mention that they did not get a chance to

� Pre/Post Questionnaires

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Welcome/Introduction

� Welcome

– Introduce yourself, note-taker AND people behind the glass

– Make participants feel comfortable

� Informed consent (if required)

– Read or summarize consent, ask participants to sign

– Note audio-recording if applicable

– Explain confidentiality

� Go over ground rules

– Refreshments, restrooms, cell phones off or on vibrate

– No right or wrong answers

– Like to hear from everyone

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Icebreaker

� Sometimes it’s helpful to start with an ice-breaker

� Ask participant to provide their name (first name only)

� Have them answer an easy question

– Participants should be able to answer it briefly, quickly

– Should not be sensitive

– Can be related to focus group topic or unrelated

� Example

– Employee focus group: How long at company? Department/Division?

– Focus group of moms: How many children and their ages

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Intro Questions

� Introduce Topic

– Goal/Purpose of the study

– Why participants were selected (if not obvious)

� Provide any needed context

– For focus group on Personal Health Records, we had to explain what PHRs were

– Show participants related materials or products

– Provide background

� Opening Question

– Should be easy/simple to answer

– Non-sensitive

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Pre/Post Questionnaires

� Pre questionnaire:

– Use to collect information about your participants without wasting valuable time during the focus group

– Use to determine how familiar/knowledgeable participants are with topic at start of focus group

� Post questionnaire:

– Can be same as pre-questionnaire to monitor changes in opinion or knowledge

– Can be a handy way to summarize participants’ opinions on discussion topics

� Keep questionnaires short (5 minutes)

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Putting it all together

� Allow time for welcome, explaining the purpose of the study, and consent procedures (if required)

– At least 5 minutes

� Allow time for introductory or ice-breaker question


� Time for your main discussion questions

– About 4 question topics (per hour)

– 10-15 minutes per question

� Exit/Wrap-up


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Determining Question Flow

What order would you put these questions in?

� What kind of device would you prefer to use and why?

� What factors did you consider when determining what kind of device to use?

� What are the biggest limitations or barriers to using a mobile device for the work you do?

� What are the benefits of using a mobile device for the work you do?

� Tell me about the mobile device you use at work. What kind of device is it?

� What are the main reasons that you use a mobile device for work?

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Question Flow

� Tell me about the mobile device you use at work. What kind of device is it?

– What factors did you consider when determining what kind of device to use?

– What kind of device would you prefer to use and why?

� What are the main reasons that you use a mobile device for work?

– What are the benefits of using a mobile device for the work you do?

– What are the biggest limitations or barriers to using a mobile device for the work you do?

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Protocol Guide Examples: Handouts

� Handout 1: Mine Contractors Protocol Guide

� Handout 2: Healthcare Consumers Protocol Guide

� Handout 3: Tobacco Panel Protocol Guide

� Handout 4: Post questionnaire

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Individual Practice (15 minutes)

Use your study or class example

� Identify 1-2 major discussion topics for your study

� Prepare an introductory question

� Prepare 1-2 discussion questions with probes as needed

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4. Moderating Focus Groups

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Understanding the group Process

Model of group phases

(Ritchie and Lewis 2003)

Forming

Testing and dependence

Dependence on the leader

Storming

Intragroup conflict

Criticism

Norming

Development of group cohesion

Optimism

Performing

Functional role relatedness

Cohesiveness

Adjourning (Mourning)

Termination, Separation

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The Ideal Moderator:

� Has adequate knowledge of topic

� Has good communication skills

� Is similar to / can build a rapport with participants

� Can maintain balanced viewpoint

� Is prepared for surprises

� Reports accurately, even if it’s uncomfortable

� Has Experience with:

– group dynamics

– neutral probing/feedback

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What the Moderator Does

� Welcome/Introductions

� Leads discussion

� Concludes discussion

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Welcome/Introduction

� Make participants feel comfortable

� Read or paraphrase this welcome/introduction in protocol guide

� Make sure to collect informed consent

� Notify participants of observers and/or audio recording

� Go over any ground rules

� Let participants get refreshments and get situated before starting actual focus group discussion

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Leads Discussion

� Provides unobtrusive control

� Manages group dynamics

� Asks spontaneous probes as needed to gather more information

� Provides unbiased feedback

� Summarize/verify information

� Manages time

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Provide Unobtrusive Control

� Know when to stop talking

– Don’t constantly interject, let participants discuss back and forth

� Learn to focus the discussion

– You said X, can you tell me more about that?

– Note topics said, that you want to circle around to

� Manage the flow of the discussion

– Don’t have to follow script, allow natural segues

– If a topic you plan to cover later is brought up, indicate that you’ll talk more about that later.

� Encourage different point of views

– Has anyone had a different experience?

– Does anyone view it differently?

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Tips for Managing Group Dynamics

� Dominant talkers:

– Don’t look at them when you ask a question.

– (Politely) cut them off: “Thank you Amanda. Does anyone else have an experience they’d like to share?”

� Ramblers/Off-topic:

– Avoid eye contact after so long off topic, look down or at clock

– Be prepared to interject at next pause

� Shy participants:

– Maximize eye contact

– Call by name: I’ve heard from some of you on this and I want to hear from the rest of you. Sarah, what is your experience with X?

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Tips on Spontaneous Probing

� Leading probes:

– So you had a hard time with that then?

– You didn’t want to learn more about that?

– Was that difficult for you?

� Neutral probing:

– Can you tell me more about that?

– Would you explain that further?

– Can you give me an example?

– Is there anything else?

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When you hear yourself asking a leading question, balance it

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Leadingquestion

“So you think that’s difficult then?”

Balanced question

“...or was it easy?”

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Tips on Neutral Feedback

� Monitor your reaction to participants/discussion

� Be careful of nonverbal cues (leaning back, crossed arms)

� Limit head nodding: shows you’re listening, but also implies agreement

� Provide quick verbal responses periodically (uh-huh, yes, mmm, okay, go on)

� Avoid loaded feedback (which implies agreement)

– Loaded feedback: “That’s good!” “Excellent.”

– Neutral feedback: “That’s helpful” “That’s interesting.”

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Summarize/Verify Information

� As needed, summarize/paraphrase what has been said

– I understand that work-life balance is your most important concern.

– Safety is critical, but some of the precautions you’re asked to follow are pointless or unrealistic. Is that correct?

� See if anything has been missed?

– Did I miss anything?

– Does anyone have anything else to add?

� Probe on any subtopics you didn’t cover

– We talked about X, but I’m also interested in Y

� Move on to next topic

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Conclusion / Wrap-up

� Be sure to leave time for wrap-up, especially for sensitive topics or intense discussions

� Ask participants to identify most important issues

– Of everything we have discussed, what is the most important?

– If you could make one request to X, what would it be?

� Summarize major themes (ask note-taker for help)

– Ask if its an adequate summary

– Ask if anything has been missed, anything to add

� Check with observers to see if they have any questions/clarifications

� Pay participants!

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Dealing with Difficult Situations

� Too many people show up

� Participants bring their children

� Only a few attend

� Group is reluctant to talk

� Can’t get them to stop talking

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Plan Your Response…

� 20 minutes into the focus group, and Sarah has not said anything…

� You can’t get Joe to stop talking…

� John mentions something interesting, but you don’t want to interrupt because there’s a good discussion going…

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Role of Note-Taker

� Can Handle logistics & refreshments

� Collects signed informed consent (if required)

� Takes careful notes

� Does not participate in discussion

� Can recap major themes at end of discussion (used before wrap-up question)

� Monitors recording equipment

� Liaison between moderator and observers/clients

� Debriefs with moderator after session

� Assist with analysis and reports

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Role of Co-Moderator

� Not required, but can be useful in some situations

� Balance out strengths/weaknesses in moderator

� Use to match moderator (without being obvious)

� Switch leading focus group (good for long or intense focus groups)

� Support leader by keeping on track, recapping major themes, etc.

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Moderating style

� Different styles for different people

– Spontaneous flow

– Follow guide strictly

� Adapt to your style, but plan ahead

– Spontaneous: Be sure to note what you’ve covered and what you haven’t so that you don’t forget anything.

– Strict: “That’s a very interesting point, and we’re going to get to that in a minute, but right now I want to focus on X:

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Group Practice Moderating (30 min)

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5. Recruiting and Scheduling

(review on your own)

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At Least a Month Before Focus Group

� Decide on what you’re testing

� Decide on the participants (see Section 6) :

– Who you want to recruit

– How many

– How you will find them

� Plan the test date

– Find a date when your stakeholders can observe

– Decide on your location

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How to Find Your Participants

� Frame/list if available

� Advertisements: Craigslist, flyers, newspapers

– Pros: quick, easy, cheap

– Cons: yields younger, higher educated users

� Participant databases/recruiting orgs

– Pros: quick and easy, pay per user recruited

– Cons: can lead to “professional respondents”

� Other sources: word of mouth; sample lists; clubs, churches, and societies; snowball recruiting

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What to Pay Participants?

� Are participants allowed to accept monetary incentives?

– Federal employees

– Participants who are being paid by their employer

� Is it appropriate for your organization to pay participants?

� Is topic interesting/important enough that incentives are not necessary

� How much should you pay them?

– Trade-off between incentive amount and recruitment effort

– Tailor amount to population and location

– Will participants need to pay for parking?

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Recruiting Tips

� Recruit extras due to no-shows or cancellations

– Example: Recruit 12 to ensure at least 8 show up

� Schedule sessions about 3-4 weeks ahead

– Any earlier and they may forget or make new plans

– Any later and you may not be able to recruit enough participants

� Send them an email or letter confirmation

� Remind them the day before (by email or phone)

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Testing Location

� At a minimum, use a large conference room (at your organization’s offices, hotel conference room)

� For numerous focus groups: formal observation rooms are nice (see picture on next slide)

– One-way mirror so you can see them, but they can’t see you

– Microphones in ceiling to pick up voices, but not other sounds (paper shuffling)

– Video-taping capability

� Rent a focus group facility

– Usually very nice but can be expensive ($1,000 for 2-hour session)

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Observation Room Example

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Create a Virtual Observation Room using screen-sharing software

� Examples: Skype, Go to Meeting

� Fosters collaboration

– Can accommodate observers from any location

– Facilitate discussions in conference setting

� Improved schedule

– Stakeholders get information immediately

– No waiting for recorded videos or report

� Cheaper: Inexpensive compared to travel costs

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Note-Taking

� Recommend having a note-taker and audio or video-recording the session

� Note-takers should be in the room or observation room

� For audio-recording, consider getting additional microphones so that you can hear everyone

� Video-recording can be helpful, but makes some participants uncomfortable

� Participants usually forget they’re being recorded/ observed after 5-10 minutes

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At Least Three Weeks Before Focus Group

� Get started on recruitment

� Organize your incentives

� Develop your focus group guide

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One Week Before the Focus Group

� Final your focus group guide

� Organize roles in the test:

– Meet and greet

– Observers/Stakeholders

– Moderator

– Note-takers

� Do a practice run on any equipment

� Arrange any refreshments

– At a minimum provide beverages

– Tailor food to participants / time of day

– Nothing messy or loud

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Prepare your materials

� Develop consent forms, screeners

� Instructions/directions for participants

� Prepare any visual materials for participants

� Pretest/posttest questionnaires

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The Day Before / Morning Of

� Send out reminders:

– Phone or email to respondents

– Email to observers, stakeholders, note-takers

� Equipment/Facility

– Make sure the room you’ll use is tidy

– Make sure your meet/greet person has the final list of participants’ names

– Incentives are available

– Check any equipment (video/audio recording)

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6. Participant Selection

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Purpose of the session

� To understand the principles of participant selection for focus group research

� To consider the practicalities of participant selection for focus group research

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Focus groups: a qualitative data collection method

� Focus groups are a qualitative data collection method

� When reporting the findings the rationale should be provided for the research along with the methods used

� Is the research…

– Justified

– Rigorous

– Systematic

– Transparent

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Sampling for qualitative research

� The design of a sampling strategy for qualitative research is as important as that for quantitative research

� Qualitative research uses non-probability sampling

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Informing the design of a qualitative sampling strategy

� What are the research objectives? � What is the scope of the research?� Who is out of scope and should be excluded from the sample?� Who is in scope and should be included in the sample?� What is the budget?� What is the reporting time period? � What sampling technique will be employed?� How are the data to be analyzed?� What data collection methods should be employed?� What are the sample criteria?� What size should the sample be?� What will be used as the sampling frame?� How are potential respondents/participants recruited?

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Sampling technique

Quantitative sampling

� Probability sampling� Members of the research population are chosen at random and have a

known probability of selection

� The aim is to produce a statistically representative sample

Qualitative sampling

� Purposive non-probability sampling� The number of people interviewed is less important that the criteria used to

select them

� Members of the research population are chosen on the basis of their characteristics to reflect breadth and diversity of the research population

� We do not aim to produce a statistically representative sample or draw statistical inference

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Sample criteria

� What characteristics will need to be reflected in the sample population to ensure breadth and diversity?

� Criteria used may be based on demographic characteristics or behaviours or attitudes

� Some criteria may be considered more important than others

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Sample size

� Small sample sizes for qualitative research

� There is no need for scale because there is no need for statistical inference

� Sample size determinants:� Heterogeneous or homogenous nature of sample population

� Number of selected criterion

� Scale� 10 to 50 for one-to-one investigation

� 40 to 100 for group interview

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Sampling frames

A sampling frame is a list that identifies units within the target population

Frame evaluation:

� Comprehensive

� Sufficient numbers

� Geographical dispersion

� Respondent contact details correct

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Sampling frames

� Existing frames

– Administrative sources

– Survey samples

� Constructed frames

– Direct and/or indirect methods

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Constructed frames

� Focussed enumeration

� Snowballing

� Screening questionnaires

� Organisations

� Advertisements

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Study about attitudes and behaviors surrounding

dental attendance

Selection criteria initially considered

� Age to ensure demographic balance

� Gender because patterns of attendance differ between men and women

� Family Unit composition because attendance by others in the family might influence the respondents attitudes or behaviours

� Employment activity because attendance might be affected by time constraints during working hours

� Income as a known factor affecting dental attendance patterns

� Regional location as dental attendance varies across the country

� Ethnic origin as may influence attitudes or behaviours

� Type of area as urban/rural location may affect attitudes and behaviours

� Dental health to explore how attitudes vary among people with different dental health

� Current pattern of dental attendance (regular/irregular/occasional) for comparative analysis

Illustration from Ritchie J and Lewis J ‘Qualitative Research Practice’ (2003)

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Prioritised selection criteria

Primary criteria Secondary criteria

Dental attendance pattern Dental Health

Age Ethnic Origin

Gender Type of Area

Region

Family Unit

Employment activity

Income


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Sample Matrix

Area 1 of 6

Group 1 Group 2 Group 318-29 30-44 45+

4 men 4 men 4 men

1-2 regular attenders 1 regular attender 1-2 regular attenders1-2 irregular attenders 1-2 irregular attenders 1 irregular attender1 occasional attender 1-2 occasional attenders 1-2 occasional attenders

4 women 4 women 4 women

1-2 regular attenders 1 regular attender 1-2 regular attenders1-2 irregular attenders 1-2 irregular attenders 1 irregular attender1 occasional attender 1-2 occasional attenders 1-2 occasional attenders

Spread of family unit type and employment activity


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Any Questions?

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Excercise

� Groups

� Designing a sampling strategy for focus groups on the use of electronic personal health records

� 15 mins

� Feedback

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7. Data Management and analysis

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� To understand the principles of good qualitative focus group analysis

� To consider the practicalities of analysing qualitative data

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Acknowledgement

� Some of the slides contributed by the UK National

Centre for Social Research (NatCen).

� The Framework methodology was developed by

Jane Ritchie and Liz Spencer in the 1980s at NatCen.

� http://www.natcen.ac.uk/events-and-training/our-training

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Qualitative data

� Focus group recording

� Focus group transcription

� Notes

� Admin data

� Photographs, videos etc

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Transcription

� Transcription is time consuming

� The focus group transcription should capture the discussion in it’s entirety

� Focus groups are more difficult to transcribe than one-to-one interviews as there are multiple participants to distinguish between

� It may be important for the analysis for the transcriber to be able to identify each participant’s words. The transcriber will use the notetaker’s notes to help determine who is speaking

� Check on quality of the transcription

� Anonymize transcript

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Different approaches to data management, analysis and

reporting

� Summary report

� Qualitative analysis

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Nature of qualitative analysis

� Quantitative research

– Fixed categories aiming to enumerate

– Requires enumeration in order to be meaningful

– Test hypotheses and provide explanation

Qualitative research

- Creating categories

- Developing explanations

- Does not need enumerating

- Range and diversity key

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Aim of analysis - analytical outputs

Categories of things (thematic analysis)� Reasons for gambling

� Sources of debt advice

Categories of people or processes (typologies)

� Types of parents of children with learning difficulties

� Types of welfare benefit claimants

Explanations of attitudes, choices or impacts (explanatory analysis)

� Factors influencing how people save for retirement

� What helps achieve positive outcomes from an employment programme

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The nature of qualitative data

The data are:

� Voluminous

� Unwieldy

� Multi-stranded with overlapping categories and theme

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7.1 Data management

“Chaos is merely order waiting to be deciphered”

Jose Saramago

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Introduction to Framework © NatCen Learning

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What is Framework?

Developed by Jane Ritchie and Liz Spencer in the 1980s at NatCen

Social Research

Key characteristics

� Approach to data management which facilitates case and theme

based analysis of qualitative data

� Case and theme based approach

� Matrix display

� Reduces data through summarisation and synthesis

� Retains links to original data

� Output allows comprehensive and transparent data analysis


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Objectives of data management

Primary objective

Re-order

Make data accessible

Secondary objective

Reduce, prioritize

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Data management

• Data management involves ‘cutting’ up data

• Aim is to create useful ‘piles’ of data

• Three ways you can ‘cut’ data

� Thematically

� By case

� By case and theme


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Theme-based approach

CrimeContact with

CJSImpact

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Case-based approach

Jim

Bob

Wendy

Robbery Contact with police

Financial impact


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Framework is a case and theme based approach

Name

Crime Contact with CJS

Impacts

Jim

Bob

Wendy

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The Framework approach


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Stage 1: Data familiarization process

• Familiarize yourself with the data by reading through transcripts and other documentation

• Immerse yourself in the data

• Begin to construct your analytical framework

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Stage 2: Creating the ‘framework’

Multitude of potential descriptive categories

� different kinds and levels of category

Choice of categories depends on

� interview guide

� research questions

� emergent themes

� recurrence across cases

Data management ≠≠≠≠ interpretation

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Frame construction: individual data

� One chart represents one main theme

� Chart each individual case

– Each individual as one row

– Subthemes in each column

– Give cases same space on each thematic chart

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Frame construction: group data

� Chart as a whole group

– Each group as one case

– Several groups on each thematic chart

� One group per page, tracing individual cases

– Order cases in the same way

– Give cases same space on each thematic chart

– Don’t be alarmed if every cell is not filled for each case

� Guidelines for entering data

– May be useful to keep a record of group process

– Levels of participation, context in which comments made, how views evolve/develop/change


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Respondent

Employment

situation/

activity at time

of contact

Employment

history/work

activity in past

Hopes & aims

regarding

work before

contact

Barriers

perceived

in

achieving

aims

Efforts made to

overcome

barriers before

contacting

NDLP

Perception

of needs

before

contact

Overview of

financial

situation &

views about

at time

Other/Misc

# 1

# 2

# 3

# 4

A chart with sub-categories

Before contact with employment scheme

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Stage 3: Testing the analytic framework

� Testing framework is important

– multi-stranded & overlapping categories

– different experiences

� Test by coding or indexing

– apply numerical code to categories and sub-categories

– code using software or write codes in margin of transcript

� Test by piloting

– enter data from small number of transcripts

� Checking for: overlap / gaps

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Data management coding / indexing

Example of analytical framework index for sexual identity project

1. Demographic details

2. Defining sexual identity

2.1 Conceptualization

2.2 Salience

2.3 Self categorization

2.4 Changes over time

3. Language used

3.1 Terminology used

3.2 Categories used

4. Acceptability

4.1 Acceptance by society

4.2 Understanding purpose of questioning

4.3 Trust in data security

4.4 Trust in data collector

5. Other

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Developing an analytical framework exercise

� Groups to discuss analytic framework that could be used for the morning focus group session

� Create main themes and subthemes

� Post-it notes

� 15 mins

� Feedback – group spokesperson


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Stage 4: Summarising data (‘charting’)

• Condensing data

• retains richness and flavour of data

• Process

• theme by theme (if indexed) or by transcript

• Takes practice – an art

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Entering data (‘charting’)

Process

� theme by theme (only when indexed)

� by transcript

Guidelines for entering data

� summarise material from transcripts/other data sources

� retain language

� mark but don’t recite quotations

� note page references / create links between summaries and the original transcript within CAQDAS software

� use agreed abbreviations/conventions

� avoid repetition by cross referencing data


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Data Management: Good practice

Reading the transcript beforehand

� structure of account and nature of the data

� repetition, clarification, contradiction

Reading chart afterwards

� clarity

� balance and emphasis

� check blank cells

Use ‘other’ column for interpretative notes

� note ‘flavor’ of discussion

� note overarching issues

� alert others to important issues

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7.2 Interpretation

“All meanings, we know, depend on the key of interpretation”

George Elliot

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Descriptive or explanatory analysis

� Descriptive accounts

� Explanatory accounts

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There are three key steps…

Detection

� familiarisation

� extraction (highlight/ summarise)

Categorisation

� creating meaningful conceptual boxes

� assigning data

Classification

� creating higher order categories

� assessing relationships between categories


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Categorization and classification

Lone parents orientation to the Labor Market

• Relevant dimensions

� Attitudes to work

� Barriers to work

� Stage of job search activity

• Typology

� Work not currently an option

� Beginning to think about work

� Personal issue barriers

� Labor market barriers

� Close to work

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Categorization and classification (2)

Classification of sexual identity

� Relevant dimensions

– Conceptualization

– Salience

– Self-categorization

– Changes over time

� Typology

– Latent identifiers

– Conscious identifiers

– Reluctant identifiers

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Associations and explanations

� Linkages between:

– Two attitudes

– Attitude and behavior

– Circumstances and need

� Verified through explanation

– Explicit respondent accounts

– Implicit identified by the researcher

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Making explanations

� Informed by

– Hunches and hypothesis

– Reflections during field work and analysis

– Other research or theories

� Involves

– Detailed within case analysis

– Comparison between cases

– Repeated interrogation of data

� Comprehensive

� Expect multiplicity

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Levels of classification and interpretation

In summary:

� Descriptive categories

– Factors, reasons, impacts

� Classifications or typologies

� Explained associations

� Meaning

� Theory/Strategy generation

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Any Questions?

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8. Reporting the Findings

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Purpose of session

� To provide a basic overview of the principles involved in reporting qualitative findings and constructing a final report.

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Aims of the final report

� To complete and document the research process

� To inform key stakeholders of the findings

� To communicate the findings in a clear and coherent way

� To guide readers in the interpretation of findings (avoid misinterpretations)

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Basic principles for writing

� Tell the story

� Structure the report

� Know your reader

� Write in plain English

� Use visual representation

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Reporting the Findings

� Revisit the objectives (ensure the report covers these)

� Consider the audience

� Check report format

� Consider time available

� Consider length of the report (focus on relevant points only)

� Report findings in past tense

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Structuring the report

� Title

� Contents

� Executive summary

� Introduction / Background

� Methodology

� Findings

� Conclusions

� Recommendations

� Appendices e.g. sample matrix, interview guide

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Nature of the reporting

� Descriptive

� Explanatory

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Defining the boundaries

� Research rationale

� Methodology

– Sampling strategy

– Data collection

– Method of analysis

– What can or cannot be inferred form the findings

� Examples of relevant documentation

– Interview guide

– Contact letter

– Screening questionnaire

– Sample matrix

� Substantiate conclusions by grounding the data in the findings

– Examples

– Quotations

– Case illustrations

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Using Quotations

� Avoid over-use

� Avoid under-use

� Present range and balance

� Edit sparingly

� Should provide illustration only

� Amplify but do not repeat a point

� Avoid reliance on a few articulate respondents

� Avoid very long quotations

� Identify relevant characteristics

� Preserve participant confidentiality

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Quotation examples

� “I don’t feel you have to be out in all contexts…” [Gay

man, 35-44]

� “The Government uses statistics to show what it wants to

show, for example unemployment, they’ve used all sorts

of different measures for employment to show it’s going

down…rather than it necessarily going down itself.”

[MHE Wales]

� “They don’t XXX care about us. It’s everyone for

themselves” [Male, 18-24, Central London]

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Quotation examples

� “I think it depends quite a lot on the way you live and

how old you are. For example, I was born down [South

West county], and my parents being extremely religious,

have very definite views on sexuality.” [Bisexual woman,

aged 35-44]

� “I’ve lived in [Muslim country], nobody would ever admit

that [being gay], so they all choose to be heterosexual.

Somebody’s not been here that long, it’s even more of

an issue.” [Heterosexual woman, aged 35-44]

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Is a quotation necessary?

The actual presence of the question was considered to have an important purpose in its own right. It was thought that as the questioning became more commonplace it would demonstrate to the wider public that non-heterosexuality was unremarkable.

“It’s having it on there, it’s beginning to usualise the

question, it’s a cultural shift, it’s enabling people to

gradually recognise it’s no bloody big deal. But if we

don’t have it there, we are setting up this whole process

of we must be quiet about these people and all the rest

of it.” [Gay/lesbian woman, 55+]

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Avoiding quantitative language

� Avoid tendency to use numbers

� Do not discuss qualitative results in terms of proportions, percentages or statistics

� Indicate strength of finding by discussing in terms of:

– A common finding, A recurring problem, Problems were observed…. etc

� Use diagrams for illustration

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Principles to remember

� Present balanced findings� Present grounded conclusions (avoid assumptions)� Distinguish between findings and your own conclusions� Provide commentary alongside the analysis (do not

leave the reader to do this for you)� Support with evidence from other research findings (if

appropriate)

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Editing and reviewing

� Allow some time before editing (if possible)

� Review the content

� Check accuracy of statements

� Peer Review

� Proof read

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Any Questions?

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9. Drawing Wider Inferences

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� To understand whether wider inference can be made when using qualitative data

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Concerns

� Small samples

� Not statistically representative

� Interviews/discussions not standardized

� Proximity of researcher / too personal

� Biased reporting

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Generalization

� Can qualitative findings be generalized beyond the sample and context of the study research?

� Different definitions of ‘generalization’.

– Representational generalization.

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Representational generalization

Meaning

� Inference to parent or sampled population

� Whether range and diversity (experiences, explanations etc) can be matched with the sampled population

� Whether list (of experiences, explanations etc) is inclusive of what would be found in the sampled population

Basis

� Depends on validity and reliability of findings

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Validity

Validity: Accuracy of representation

� Has the researcher understood the issues

from the respondent’s perspective?

� Have the issues been fully articulated and explained

� Are interpretations underpinned by the data

Alternative terms: Credibility and Plausibility

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Reliability

Reliability: Replicability

� Internal reliability

– Extent to which assessments and judgments are replicated between researchers

� External reliability

– Extent to which findings would be replicated

if the study were repeated with the same

or different sample

Alternative terms: Confirmability, Consistency, Dependability

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Drawing wider inference

Depends on:

� Quality of sampling

– Reflects diversity of sample population

– Includes all key constituents

– Includes outliers and a-typical cases

� Quality of data collection

– Free from interference: neutral and objective

– Probing of meaning

– Exploration of all relevant explanations

� Quality of analysis

– Systematic, comprehensive and inclusive

– Within and between case analysis

– Displays diversity

� Quality of interpretation and reporting

– Comprehensive

– Clear

– Underpinned by data

– Displays multiplicity of accounts and explanations

– Non-quantitative

� Documentation

– Transparency

– Research process

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Validation of the inference

� Validation

– Comparison and check of fit

– Deviant cases analysis

– Member or respondent validation

– Triangulation

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In summary

� Validity: do the data and findings accurately reflect the behavior , views etc of respondents?

– Content validity: the respondent’s expression or articulation of the issue

– Validity of interpretation: the researchers interpretation of the issue

� Reliability: would the data and findings be replicated if the study were repeated?

� Representational generalization: are the data and findings applicable to the wider population from which the sample is drawn?

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Any Questions?

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10. Qualitative Research Ethics

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Qualitative Research Ethics

� Check the legal regulations for the State / Country

� Check your organisations Institutional Review Board (IRB) policies

� Understanding “informed consent” (verbal/written)

� Understanding “confidentiality”

� Basic principles of good social research

– Participant safety (Physical/Emotional/Psychological)

– Researcher safety

� Recompense

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References and Reading List

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Reading List

� Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for assessing research evidence. A quality framework. Produced on behalf of the Cabinet Office by Liz Spencer, Jane Ritchie, Jane Lewis and Lucy Dillon, National Centre for Social Research. ISBN: 07715 04465 8. August 2003. Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office Crown Copyright 2003.

� Assessing the Quality of Qualitative Research. Patient Education and Counseling 90 (2013) 1–3.

� Qualitative Research Practice: A guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. Edited by Jane Ritchie, Jane Lewis, Carol NcNaughton Nicholls and Rachel Ormston. SAGE 2014.

� Focus Groups: Theory and Practice. D. W. Stewart and P.N. Shamdasani. Applied Social Research Methods, Volume 20.

� Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. David Morgan. Sage 1989.

� Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Richard Krueger. Sage 1989.

� Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: a realistic approach. Nick Emmel. SAGE 2013.

� What Are Qualitative Research Ethics? Rose Wiles. Bloomsbury Academic 2013.

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Other Resources

� http://www.eiu.edu/~ihec/Krueger-FocusGroupInterviews.pdf

� http://www.tgci.com/magazine/How%20to%20Conduct%20a%20Focus%20Group.pdf

� http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/focus-groups.htm

� http://assessment.aas.duke.edu/documents/How_to_Conduct_a_Focus_Group.pdf

� http://www.rowan.edu/colleges/chss/facultystaff/focusgrouptoolkit.pdf

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Final Questions and Discussion

Odum focus groupcourse_feb132014

Education

Transcript of Odum focus groupcourse_feb132014