Presidents Positives/Negatives

Johnson 1808-75Democrat - 1865-9

Forced to support CR Bills as Congress overruled his veto's. Allowed de facto ignorance of laws/black codes. Pardoned southerners/gave back promised AA land to restore then to US.

Roosevelt 1882-1945Democrat – 1932-44

Forced to exclude AAs from ND in order to pass it through Congress. Depression hit AAs hard -> encouraged fairer wages/lower working hours. Minor help -> executive order to ban discrimination

at work.Truman 1884-1972

Democrat – 1944-53FD -> ended segregation in army in 48 -> set up Presidents Committee on CR (excluding CR activists)

to discuss/improve AA living quality -> only highlighted problem no legal change.

Eisenhower 1890-1969Republican – 1953-61

Only active as last resort. Appointed AA as chief SC judge but didn’t enforce B vs. B or act in 56 when Daniel stopped integration. 57 Little Rock – sent in Rangers

Johnson 1908-1973Democrat – 1963-69

Used JLK’s death/southern background to join Democrats and Republicans and push for CR legislation -> 64 CRA+65 VRA. Vietnam -> took funding/attention -> MLK spoke out -> ended

president-CR leader link. Used shock of MLK’s death to push 68 FHA through.

Nixon 1913-94Republican - 1969-74

Strong-line against militant groups. Affirmative Action –> 69-74; 1% to 12% employment in Phili. Bussing -> 74; less segregation in southern schools. Brought 3 branches together -> 72 EOA + 71 G

vs. DPC. Only to harm TUs/buy votes. 72 WS -> lost power

Reagan 1911-2004Republican – 1981-89

Actor -> conservative -> hard line on student. Opposed 65 VRA as ‘humiliating’ -> opposed AA positive/focused legislation. ‘Colour-blind’ to ignore affirmative action -> less AAs in administration since Eisenhower. Economic down-turn -> 40% of most benefit claims; policies impacted poor worst

-> AAs stuck in poverty when economy recovered. Appointed conservative CSC judge; legislation stopped but no -ve precedents. Accepted Congress rulings but delay them.

Andrew Johnson – 1808-1875President – 1865-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Huge questions

surrounding AA’s rights and their implementation.

• 1865-1877 - Reconstruction was enforced on south which they resented and AA rights dwindled.

• Johnson and Congress continued to clash.

2) Changes in law:• 14th Amendment 1868 – all

AA’s got citizenship and equal protection under the law.

• Civil Rights Act 1866 – (excluding NA) gave all races citizenship.

• Military Reconstruction Act 1967 – divided south into military districts ruled by northern Army Generals.

• 15th Amendment 1870 – forbade denial of vote.

3) Reconstruction:• Wanted to re-admit south

into the union (was a southerner) with pre-war relations quickly to gain southern supporters.

• Issued 1000’s of pardons to rebels so rich plantation owners could assert their authority.

• Though he begrudgingly supported the 13th, he said nothing of AA’s CRs and allowed the Black Codes.

• Majority of northerners saw political advantage in crushing south and enfranchising AAs (they would obviously vote Republican).

• Could not stop Congress’s Amendments but could veto legislation (which were overridden with 2/3rds majority in Congress).

4) Impeachment 1868:• A trial of an authoritative figure for a serious offence and the only way to remove a

President.• House of Representatives is a prosecutor and the Senate jury.• Came when Johnson dismissed his successful War Secretary.• Was acquitted by one vote but weakened and allowed Republicans to rule for the rest of

the year before not re-running at the election.

5) Land Problems:• After Emancipation

Proclamation, many AA’s had same lives, just with (little) pay because of lacking education.

• Most turned to sharecropping.• Vision of ’40 acres and a mule’

but failed – Johnson's amnesties meant that only 800,000 acres were ever available and that was taken back because of South's poorness (1/3 mules dead and 50% of machinery gone because of the war).

• Land owners rose rent on sharecroppers and the crop-lien system encouraged cotton which weakened race relations.

6) Black Codes 1865:• Varied state by state but all stated that:• A ‘negro’ had more than or 1/8th black blood.• Inter-racial marriages were allowed but mixed

were annulled.• Property could be owned.• Legal rights were limited.• AA’s could testify but not against whites or

serve on juries.• No vote.• Segregated schools.• Pre-emptied formal segregation for the 80/90s.

Franklin D. Roosevelt – 1882-1945

President – 1932-44 (re-elected 3 times)

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Previous presidents were indifferent,

incompetent, preoccupied and powerless to the Democratic Congress men who would oppose pro-AA legislation.

• However, he was preoccupied with ‘saving America’ – in which he could not include AAs because of Democrat opposition.

2) Support for AAs:• Frankly told NAACP leader White in 1933

that he could not involve AAs in his New Deal (initiative to increase America’s economy after 1929 WSC) if it was to be passed though Congress.

• If insisted on the AA problems, he would lose Democratic support.

• AAs plight received more support from Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 (cousin and wife to FDR) who became aware of problems after touring the nation as First Lady. She publicly supported the NAACP’s Anti-Lynching Bill 1930s to FDR’s embarrassment.

3) New Deal:• Encouraged a wage rise and cutting of working

hours.• By 1935, 30% of AA families were on benefits

compared to 10% of whites – illustrating their poverty and the fair split of federal funding.

• However, urban AA unemployment rates remained high and sharecroppers were hit hard by Depression (not covered by the Social Security Act or the National Labour Relations Act that helped whites because of Democrats refusal to vote for pro-AA legislation)

4) Individual Help:• Supported the 1941 Philip Randolph demand

for fair employment opportunities by issuing his Executive Order to ban discrimination in workplaces.

• Set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission to implement this.

Harry S. Truman – 1884-1972President – 1944-53

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Served as a Democratic Senator 1935-1944,

then became Roosevelt’s Vice.• Authorised atomic bomb on Japan in 1945.• ‘Fair Deal’.

2) AA help:• Used his authority as Commander-in-Chief of

Army to end military segregation in 1948.• Commissioned a President’s Committee in

CRs in 1946 - committee that reported directly to him on AA welfare/how to gain their equality in a peaceful way. Included TU leaders, churches and teachers but not CR activists. Issued a report in 1947 after interviewing 250 people; ‘To Secure These Rights’.

• Identified major CR problems.

3) Impact:• Created opinion that changed climate so as

future changes were welcomed but did not create any legislation as was always blocked by Congress.

Dwight D. Eisenhower1890-1969

President – 1953-61FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in

WWII.• 2 terms as Republican President – popular

because of military past.• Conception of Presidency; passive not active

(only active as last resort)• Appointed Earl Warren as Chief SC judge.• Failed to enforce B vs. B.• Failed to act in 1956 when Governor Daniel

of Texas sent in Rangers to stop integration enforcements so as to avoid opposition.

• However, did take action in Little Rock in 1957.

Lyndon B. Johnson – 1908-1973President – 1963-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• President after JFK’s assassination and won

landslide victory in 1964 election.• Though not always consistent, he was one of the

few southern Senators who gave support to CR in 50s.

2) 1963 CRA:• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully

used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ

and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –

violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing

Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

Richard Nixon – 1913-1994President – 1969-74

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Growing BP support meant many more

whites were voting Republican.• Nixon took a hard line against militants

and wanted a pause in the drama.• Eisenhower’s running mate in 52, took a

hard line against Communism.• In 50s in Senate, took moderate line for

AA CRs.• Ran for Presidency in 60 but Kennedy

won• Though he opposed militant CR,

affirmative action and bussing were helpful.

• Watergate scandal ruined reputation in second term and withdrew rather than be impeached.

2) Actions:• Took strong line on law and order but

after early initiative, no CR actions were taken as he was dominated by WS.

• Meant overcrowding continued and AAs remained poor (especially in recession)

• However, pervious CR gains provided momentum for changes in employment and education.

3) Employment:• Encouraged affirmative action – meant that

AAs were hired over whites to work against discrimination over past 100 years.

• Controversial; could positive discrimination be justified by giving AAs employment quotas in large companies? Could they overlook lacking education?

• Some, including SCLC members, thought it was unwise as the American society was known for its emphasis on meritocracy.

• Resulting in AA workers in Philadelphia contracts to rise from 1% to 12% from 1969

• For first time, all three American Constitutional powers worked together; Congress passed 1972 Equal Opportunities Act, giving more power to Equal Opportunities Employment Commission/enforcement of federal guidelines in Courts. SC passed 1971 Griggs vs. Duke Power Company (expectation of employers for AAs to pass exam was unreasonable because of past educational discrimination).

• Didn’t do it for AAs – thought it would split TUs and was clear that voting equality was de facto and Nixon was buying votes.

4) Education:• Desegregation of schools was still implemented

because of liberalism of SC.• Bussing – mandatory transportation of children to

even out race ratios in schools. An extreme way to de facto enforce desegregation. Those who liked closer schools/racist opposed it.

• Effect – by 1972, southern schools were more integrated than most other US states.

Ronald Reagan – 1911 - 2004President – 1981-89

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Hollywood actor, losing his

liberal views after becoming president of the Screen Actors’ Guild.

• Governor of California in 1966/70 where he dealt forcible with student rioting.

• Opposed 1965 Voting Rights Act as ‘humiliating’ south.

• As president, tended to oppose welfare and employment programmes focusing on AAs.

• Following conservative economic/social policies was popular.

• Anti-communist but improved Soviet ties.

• After opposing positive legislation while it passed, he now accepted it and claimed his administration was ‘colour-blind’ but this was a way of resisting affirmative action.

• Appointed fewer AAs to his administration since Eisenhower.

2) Effect:• Presidency coincided with

economic slowdown.• Reductions in welfare payments

hit AAs hard; in 1980, AAs made up 11.7% of the population but made up 43% of Aid to Families with dependent children claims, 34% of housing subsidiary claims and 35% of food stamp claims.

• Reagans shit policies impacted most severely poor AA families worst.

• After 1983, economy recovered but many AAs did not benefit (caught in poverty trap).

3) Judicial Appointments:• Felt judicial merit should not be

sacrificed for equality.• Appointment of conservative SC

judge William Rehnquist caused more cautions interpretations of CR legislation.

• Though no negative precedents made, they gave other rulings that modified previous CR changes.

4) Congress:• Forced to accept Congress

ruling which he could delay but not stop.

• 1982 – renewal of VRA, Congress strengthened it with stricter laws concerning discrimination against groups of voters.

• 1983 – insisted on MLK’s birthday becoming a national holiday to which Reagan reluctantly agreed.

• 1988 – strengthen the 1988 Fair Housing Act and passed another CR Restoration Act over Reagan’s veto (the 1984 Grove City vs. Bell ruling that organisations receiving federal funding only had to abide by the CR legislation for the area they were focusing on was overruled so that all aspects of CR legislation must be met before funding was allowed).