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SAFETY SERIES No. 41

Objectives and Design of Environmental

Monitoring Programmes for Radioactive Contaminants

Sponsored by the IAEA and W H O

AGENCY, VIENNA, 1975

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www.ns-iaea.org/standards/

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES

FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS


The follow ing States are M em bers o f the In ternational A tom ic Energy A gency :

AFGHANISTAN GREECE PAKISTANALBANIA GUATEMALA PANAMA

ALGERIA HAITI PARAGUAYARGENTINA HOLY SEE PERUAUSTRALIA HUNGARY PHILIPPINESAUSTRIA ICELAND POLANDBANGLADESH INDIA PORTUGALBELGIUM INDONESIA ROMANIABOLIVIA IRAN SAUDI ARABIABRAZIL IRAQ SENEGALBULGARIA IRELAND SIERRA LEONEBURMA ISRAEL SINGAPOREBYELORUSSIAN SOVIET ITA LY SOUTH AFRICA

SO CIALIST REPUBLIC IVORY COAST SPAINCAMEROON JAMAICA SRI LANKACANADA JAPAN SUDANCHILE JORDAN SWEDENCOLOMBIA KENYA SWITZERLANDCOSTA RICA KHMER REPUBLIC SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLICCUBA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF THAILANDCYPRUS ’ KUWAIT TUNISIACZECHOSLOVAK SOCIALIST LEBANON TURKEY

REPUBLIC LIBERIA UGANDADEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S LIBYAN ARAB REPUBLIC UKRAINIAN SO VIET SO CIA LIST

REPUBLIC OF KOREA LIECHTENSTEIN REPUBLICDENMARK LUXEMBOURG UNION OF SO V IET SO CIALISTDOMINICAN REPUBLIC MADAGASCAR REPUBLICSECUADOR MALAYSIA UNITED KINGDOM OF GREATEG Y PT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF MALI BRITAIN AND NORTHERNEL SALVADOR MEXICO IRELANDETHIOPIA MONACO UNITED STA T ES OF AMERICAFINLAND MONGOLIA URUGUAYFRANCE MOROCCO VENEZUELAGABON NETHERLANDS VIET-NAMGERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC NEW ZEALAND YUGOSLAVIAGERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGER ZAIRE, REPUBLIC OFGHANA NIGERIA ZAMBIA

NORWAY

The A g en cy 's S tatu te was approved on 23 O ctober 1956 by the C onference on the S tatu te o f the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New Y ork; i t entered into force on 29 July 1 9 5 7 . T h e H eadquarters of the A gency are situated in V ien na. Its principal o b je c tiv e is "to a cc e le r a te and enlarge the contribu tion of a to m ic energy to p e a c e , h ea lth and prosperity throughout the w orld".

© I A E A , 1975

Perm ission to reproduce or translate the in form ation contained in this p ublication m ay be obtained by

w riting to the In ternational A tom ic Energy A gen cy , Karntner Ring 1 1 , P .O . Box 5 9 0 , A -1011 V ien na. Austria.

Printed by the IAEA in AustriaJanuary 1975


SAFETY SERIES No.41

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING PROGRAMMES FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS

SPONSORED B Y THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

AND THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 1975


THIS SAFETY SERIES WILL ALSO BE PUBLISHED IN FRENCH

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS

IAEA, VIENNA, 1975 ST I/PU B /385

ISBN 92-0-1 23075-3


FOREWORD

Environm ental m onitoring is a very im portant com ponent of the verifica tion system for dem onstrating that the con trols on the re lea ses o f radioactive substances to the environm ent under norm al working conditions are functioning as intended. It is a lso used to provide tim ely inform ation fo r decisions on any action that can be taken to protect the public in the event o f a la rg er , accidental re lea se .

There has been uncertainty in the past on the type and scope of the m onitoring program m es required fo r different types o f work involving the use o f radioactive m ateria ls. This often stem s from the lack of a c lea r understanding o f the ob jectives of an effective m onitoring program m e. It can lead either to an inadequate system , w h ich fa ils to give the n ecessa ry assu ran ce, o r to an overelaborate system , which is wasteful o f resou rces in manpower and equipment.

F o r this reason the International A tom ic Energy Agency and the W orld Health Organization convened a panel o f experts which produced this manual o f guidance fo r their M em ber States on the ob jectives and design o f environm ental m onitoring program m es for radioactive contam inants.

In preparing the manual, attention was given to the recom m endations o f the International C om m ission on R adiological P rotection , in particu lar to those connected with environm ental m onitoring, and to e a r lie r publications o f the IAEA and WHO on related top ics .

Exam ples of environm ental m onitoring program m es and of the methods and techniques used have been provided by m em bers o f the panel fo r inclusion in the annexes to the manual.


CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

II. ASSESSMENT OF THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND DEFINITION OF ITSOBJECTIVES ................................................................................. 3

O bjectives of environm ental surveys fornorm al situations .................................................................... 3

O bjectives o f em ergency surveys .......................................... 4

III. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE DESIGN ANDIMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES ................................................. 5

The operator ................................................................................. 5The com petent authorities ....................................................... 6

IV. THE DESIGN OF ADEQUATE MONITORINGPROGRAMMES ............................................................................. 8

B asic factors ................................................................................. 8E ssential features of adequate program m es .................... 11M onitoring of effluents on ly .................................................... 11Lim ited m onitoring program m es .................................. ....... 12M onitoring program m es fo r planned re leases ................ 12Surveys for use with unplanned re lea ses from an

installation ................................................................................. 14

V. CHARACTERISTICS OF MONITORINGPROCEDURES ................................................................................ 17

A. Planned re lea ses ................................................................. 17B. Unplanned re lea ses ............................................................ 21

VI. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS OFMONITORING PROCEDURES ..................................... ........... 23

Determ ination o f doses to individual m em bers of thepublic from planned re lea ses ............................................. 23

Determ ination of dose to the whole population withina selected region from planned re lea ses ...................... 23


Determ ination o f doses to individual m em bers ofthe public from unplanned re lea ses .................................. 24

Other uses of m onitoring data .............................................. 24R ecord keeping .............................................................................. 24Sample preservation ................................................................... 25A ssessm ent of the significance of m onitoring

results ......................................................................................... 25

VII. MONITORING SYSTEMS AT LOCAL, NATIONAL,REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS ................. 26

B asic elem ents that characterize lo ca l m onitoringorganizations ........................................................................... 26

B asic elem ents that ch aracterize national, regionaland international m onitoring program m es ................... 28

VIII. GLOSSARY ...................................................................................... 29

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS ..................................................................... 35

ANNEX I. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS AND REPORTINGPROCEDURES .................................................................... 39

Introduction .................................................................................... 39A ir sampling ................................................................................... 39W ater sam pling ............................................................................. 40Sediment sam pling ....................................................................... 41Food .................................................................................................. 41A nalytical quality control ......................................................... 41Reporting procedu res .................................................................. 42

ANNEX II. CRITICAL NUCLIDES, PATHWAYS AND POPULATION GROUPS, AND OTHER HAZARD ASSESSMENT APPROACHES ................... 47

India: Identification of cr it ica l nuclides, pathways and population groups in the neighbourhoodof the Tarapur rea cto rs ............................................. 47

United Kingdom: A nalysis of alternative hazardassessm ent approaches ......................... 48


Introduction ..................................................................................... 56Exam ples of reported dose estim ates

India ............................................................................................... 57United Kingdom ........................................................................ 59United States o f A m erica .................................................... 68

ANNEX IV. EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING PROGRAMMES ............................... 71

Argentina ......................................................................................... 71C om m ission of the European Com m unities ...................... 78C zechoslovakia .............................................................................. 89F ederal Republic of Germ any

Environm ental m onitoring at the Julich NuclearR esearch Establishm ent ................................................. 92

Environm ental m onitoring program m e ofthe Karlsruhe Nuclear R esearch Centre .................... 100

Japan .................................................................................................. 103United Kingdom

M onitoring program m es conducted by selectedestablishm ents ..................................................................... 103

M onitoring program m es conducted by the F ish eries R adiobiological Laboratory,M inistry of A gricu lture, F ish eries and Food ............ I l l

United States o f A m erica ...................................................... 123

ANNEX III. DOSE ESTIMATES ....................................................... 56

REFERENCES 130


SECTION I. INTRODUCTION

101. This manual is intended to provide guidance on the ob jectives of environm ental m onitoring program m es related to the use of radiation sou rces and radioactive m aterials and the operationo f nuclear fa c ilit ie s , on the developm ent of adequate program m es and procedures fo r the types o f installations and the populations and environm ents concerned, and on the interpretation of the resu lts of the m onitoring procedures in term s of the a s s e s s ment of the possib le radiation dose to man.

102. The guidance provided is intended prim arily fo r those whose function it is to design and operate environm ental m onitoring program m es fo r use under norm al operating conditions and in foreseeab le types of em ergency situations.

103. Consideration is given to the respon sib ilities and functionso f operators o f nuclear facilit ies and o f com petent authorities, including Governm ent Departm ents, public health and other public authorities who have respon sib ilities [1] fo r protecting the public against any detrim ental e ffects to health, and the environm ent against the effects o f radiation and radioactive m ateria ls. The respon sib ilities o f the operators and the com petent authorities in this respect must be very c lea rly defined.

104. The guidance provided is o f a general nature and is intended to c la r ify the basic princip les involved in such a way that they can be applied e ffective ly in particu lar circu m stances.

105. Some inform ation on the identification of cr it ica l pathways and population groups, the ch a ra cte r is t ics , standardization and in tercalibration of instrum entation, and the evaluation o f radiation dose is included in the Annexes, together with exam ples o f m onitoring program m es designed fo r sp ecific installations.

106. While it is hoped that this guidance w ill be of use to M em ber States at all stages o f developm ent in the use o f ionizing radiation, particu lar attention is given to the sp ecia l needs o f developing countries and those with little experience in these m atters.

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2

107.

108.

The requirem ents fo r environm ental m onitoring have been dealt with in outline in IAEA Safety Series N o.l - The Safe Handling o f R adionuclides. The topic has a lso been dealt with in m ore detail in IAEA Safety Series No. 16 - Manual of Environm ental M onitoring in N orm al Operations; IAEA Safety S eries N o . l8 - Environm ental M onitoring in E m ergency Situations; and WHO Publications - The Environm ental Radiation Surveillance L aboratory, and Routine Surveillance fo r Radionuclides in A ir and W ater. These publications may be considered as com plem entary docum ents to this manual.The present manual unifies and brings up to date the princip les and ob jectives o f environm ental m onitoring fo r norm al situations and em ergen cy situations enunciated in these e a r lie r publications. Useful re feren ce can still be made to the technical m ateria l contained in the WHO publications and in the annexes to IAEA Safety Series Nos 16 and 18.

SECTION I


SECTION II. ASSESSMENT OF THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND

DEFINITION OF ITS OBJECTIVES

201. Environm ental surveillance system s vary in size and co m plexity and should be related to the expected potential hazard. A com petent authority w ill require a routine environm ental m onitoring program m e when a potential re lease o f activity o r the expected radiation levels w ill result in one o f the follow ing:(a) A significant fraction o f the dose lim its to c r it ica l groups

or the whole population recom m ended by the International C om m ission on R adiological P rotection [2]

(b) A significant fraction o f that perm itted by lo ca l regu la tions, where appropriate.

The num erical values for these fractions should be fixed in the light o f lo ca l conditions. Effluent m onitoring, which is m andatory in any ca se , should provide sufficient inform ation fo r the assessm ent o f environm ental levels where en viron mental m onitoring is not required.

OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEYS FOR NORMALSITUATIONS202. The prim ary ob jectives o f environm ental surveys fo r norm al

situations are:(a) A ssessm ent o f the adequacy o f controls on the reletase of

radioactive m aterials to the environm ent(b) A ssessm ent o f the actual o r potential exposure o f man to

radiation o r to radioactive m aterials present in his environm ent o r , as a m inim um , the estim ation o f the probable upper lim its of such exposure

(c) Dem onstration o f com pliance with the applicable regu la tions, environm ental standards, and other operational lim its

(d) The possib le detection o f any lon g-term changes or trends in the environm ent resulting from the operation o f the installations.

203. Additional benefits rece ived from such environm ental surveys m ay include:(a) An increase in knowledge concerning the corre la tion of

levels o f d ischarge and the environm ental e ffe ct, thus

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4 SECTION II

im proving the basis fo r future predictions and for the estim ation o f maximum or other levels that might arise in an em ergency

(b) The provision o f data that may be used to provide the public with adequate inform ation on environm ental surveillance

(c) The maintenance o f a capability that w ill go at least som e way to providing a means for dealing with a foreseeab le em ergency situation

(d) The provision o f data related to the behaviour of elem ents in the'environm ent including the e co log ica l, h ydrolog ica l, geoch em ica l and m eteoro log ica l aspects o f such behaviour.

OBJECTIVES OF EMERGENCY SURVEYS

204. The prim ary ob jectives o f em ergency surveys are:(a) The rapid com pilation of inform ation, on a tim ely basis ,

on the magnitude and location o f the possib le hazards to the public fo r the purpose o f defining the type and extent of any n ecessa ry counterm easures or other em ergency procedures

(b) The assessm ent of any hazard from inhalation o r external radiation to serve as a basis fo r the planning of im m ediate counterm easures

(c) The rapid determ ination o f the possib le contamination of foodstu ffs, including milk and drinking w ater, as a basis for decisions on re jection or continued use

(d) The provision o f data n ecessary to a ssess the radiation doses actually rece ived by m em bers o f the public, taking into account any counterm easures that have been applied

(e) To provide inform ation fo r the public regarding the em ergency situation.

Another benefit to be obtained from such em ergency surveysis:(f) The co llection o f scien tific inform ation on the results of

the em ergency and on the behaviour o f the released rad io active m ateria l in the environm ent. Such inform ation may be useful in checking the adequacy of the m onitoring and accident m itigation system s and to determ ine whether any changes are required in the routine m onitoring program m es.


SECTION III. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING PROGRAMMES

301. The delegation of respon sib ilities fo r the m onitoring of radioactive sou rces and m ateria ls varies accord ing to the adm inistrative p ractices adopted by the country. H ow ever, in general, the responsib ility fo r m onitoring is shared by both the operator of the installation and the com petent authorities.

302. There is no intention o f defining in the follow ing paragraphs the concept of legal responsib ility , but only of outlining the functions that could be assum ed by both the operator andthe com petent authorities. E ffective im plem entation of these functions depends heavily on c lose co -op era tion between the two parties. The operator who is responsible fo r the facility should be duly authorized by the com petent authority; the individual respon sib ilities of both the operator and the com petent authorities should, how ever, be c lea rly defined by the national authorities [ 1 ].

THE OPERATOR

303. The functions o f the operator usually are:(a) To prevent any unacceptable radiation or contamination

hazard to the health o f the public o r damage to the environ ment resulting from the work perform ed within the installa tion a n d /or waste re leases into the environm ent

(b) To com ply with the applicable regulations(c) To provide the means fo r dealing with the consequences,

outside the installation, of radiation accidents that may o ccu r within the installation, in agreem ent with the com petent authorities.

304. To ca rry out p roperly these functions the operator w ill n o r m ally have to:(a) P erform all n ecessa ry p re -operationa l investigations to

serve as a basis fo r e ffective environm ental m onitoring program m es

(b) Design, and provide means for perform ing , adequate o ff- site environm ental m onitoring program m es fo r use during norm al operation that w ill give assurance to the public

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6 SECTION III

authorities that the dose to m em bers of the public rem ains below the allowable lim it, and thus dem onstrate to the com petent authorities and to the public that no unacceptable hazard is created

(c) Design, and provide means for perform ing, em ergency surveys outside the installation in accordance with the agreem ents established with the .competent authorities

(d) Notify the com petent authority, in accordance with agreed procedu res, on such topics as the occu rren ce of incidents and accidents involving radiation o r release o f ra d io active m ateria ls to the environm ent, and the results of m onitoring.

THE COMPETENT AUTHORITIES

305. The designated com petent authorities usually have the follow ing functions:(a) To ensure that the m em bers o f the public and the environ

ment are adequately protected , by, inter alia, establishing and im plem enting appropriate regulations and m onitoring program m es

(b) To dem onstrate to the public that judgements regarding the safety of the public are based on valid inform ation.

306. To ca rry out these functions the com petent authorities should norm ally:(a) Identify those m an-m ade sou rces in the environm ent that

may significantly contribute to the exposure o f the public(b) Design, and provide means for perform ing, adequate

routine environm ental m onitoring program m es in ord er to:- check the m onitoring perform ed by the operators- extend the op era tors ' program m es to include in som e

cases the investigation of other selected pathways in ord er to determ ine whether the situation is adequately controlled

- con firm and satisfy public opinion that there are no unauthorized re leases of radioactive wastes

- check the e ffects o f re lease o f wastes from the w idespread use (for exam ple, in m edicine, agriculture and industry) in p rem ises that cannot be considered nuclear fa cilit ies o f com paratively sm all amounts of radioactive substances.


SECTION III 7

(c) Design and provide means fo r perform ing em ergency surveys in ord er to:- supplem ent, in accordance with established agreem ents,

the em ergen cy surveys perform ed by the operators o f the affected installations

- provide a basis for e ffective counterm easures in the case of accidents (for exam ple, transport accidents) that do not generally com e under the respon sib ility of an opera tor.

Some of these tasks may be perform ed by the operator or u ser under the guidance o f the com petent authority.


SECTION IV. THE DESIGN OF ADEQUATE MONITORING PROGRAMMES

BASIC FACTORS

401. M onitoring program m es may be oriented either to effluent m onitoring, to environm ental m onitoring or to both. Effluent m onitoring is sou rce oriented. It perm its the determ ination o f re leases o f activity from particular plants o r operations either singly or in com bination, and is effective fo r the early detection and determ ination o f accidental re lea ses . The effluent m onitoring data may also be used with additional inform ation on appropriate pathways to estim ate environm ental levels o f contamination.

Environm ental m onitoring enables the d irect m easu rement of environm ental levels of contamination, so excluding the uncertainties o f assum ptions involved in the estim ations from effluent m onitoring. H ow ever, in many ca se s , the environm ental m onitoring program m e can only con firm that environm ental levels resulting from em issions are below som e level determ ined by the minimum detectable level of the m easurem ents.

402. 'Where it has been decided, on the basis o f the cr iter ia described in the firs t paragraph o f Section II, that environ mental m onitoring is requ ired , the m onitoring program m e conducted in the im m ediate v icin ity o f an installation should be designed to determ ine whether o r not the release o f ra d io active m aterials from the installations is being held within the lim its p rescrib ed by the applicable environm ental standards, regulations and other operating lim its. The program m e should also be designed to achieve in the best possib le manner the other ob jectives that have been defined in Section II.

403. In designing such program m es, consideration should firs t be given to m onitoring the specia l nuclides, media and location that provide:(a) A c lea r indication of the degree of com pliance with

applicable standards and regulations(b) Valid data fo r use in estim ating potential exposure of

the public(c) E arly indication o f any significant unplanned re leases

that may have occu rred .


SECTION IV 9

The environm ental and effluent m onitoring data would, in turn, contribute inform ation which w ill be useful in the p eriod ic review ing o f the re feren ce leve ls , such as derived working lim its re ferred to in 'p ara .406 o f this section.

404. The identification o f cr it ica l groups and cr it ica l pathways perm its the developm ent o f the m ost effective and econ om ica l environm ental m onitoring program m es. The p re -operationa l investigation may not, how ever, o ffe r sufficient data for proper identification o f the c r it ica l group, and assum ptions must therefore be made on the basis of general knowledge and the experience gained in other p rogram m es. The tentative nature of the identifications made at this stage and the possib ility o f other population groups and environm ental pathways being cr it ica l should be kept in mind. The results o f environm ental m onitoring follow ing the start o f operation shall be used to con firm o r amend the conclusions drawn on the basis o f p re -opera tion a l data. Among others, any con clusions regarding the possib le m ovem ent through the environm ent o f radioactive elem ents and transfer rates from the. medium to different m atrices should be verified by m easurem ent o f the radioactive elem ents after the start of operations. P eriod ic review of the results of m onitoring program m es is a lso highly desirab le .

405. P re -op era tion a l investigations n ecessa ry for estim ating the dose from planned re leases a:nd for the establishm ent o f lim its and conditions o f radioactive re leases from an insta lla tion to the environm ent include the study of the follow ing:(a) The types and activities o f nuclides that w ill be re leased ,

their physical and ch em ica l fo rm s, the method and route o f such re lease and the rates o f re leases (m inim um , average, and maximum)

(b) The m ovem ent o f the relevant elem ents through environ mental pathways together with their dilution o r re co n centration, and seasonal variations of such m ovem ents

(c) Natural and artific ia l features of the environm ent that affect the m ovem ent o f the elem ents such as geo log ica l, hydrolog ica l, m eteoro log ica l conditions, vegetation and the presence o f water re se rv o irs and harbours

(d) The utilization of the environm ent fo r agricu lture, water and food supplies, industry and recreation

(e) The distribution o f the population accord in g to age and sex, and dietary, occupational; dom estic and recreationa l habits


1 0 SECTION IV

(f) The existing levels o f natural and m an-m ade radioactivity and their seasonal variations

(g) The identification o f b io log ica l and other indicator m atrices o f radioactive contaminant concentrations

(h) The existing ch em ica l pollutants, which may interfere with the radionuclides in their d ispersion and pathways

(i) The assessm ent of expected mean doses to representative individual m em bers o f the public follow ing the studies carried out under all the above points

(j) The tentative determ ination of groups of individual m em bers o f the public who appear to be hom ogeneous with respect to possib le radiation doses from the re lea ses .

406. On the basis o f the assessm ent o f mean doses to groups of individual m em bers o f the public, who appear to be hom ogeneous with respect to possib le radiation dose from environ mental re lea ses , under norm al conditions, the particular group likely to be the m ost exposed is chosen as the c r it ica l group o f the population. The environm ental pathways leading to the exposure o f this c r it ica l group of the population re p re sent the c r it ica l pathways of exposure, and deserve prim ary consideration in the environm ental m onitoring program m e.

407. When the relations between radiation levels and radionuclide concentrations in various com ponents of the environm ent and the estim ates o f dose to the cr it ica l group have been made, derived quantities such as the concentrations and the time integrals o f concentration in food stuffs, a ir, w ater, etc. corresponding to acceptable doses can be adopted as derived working levels fo r the m onitoring program m es.

408. F or the evaluation of the consequences o f unplanned re leases there should be, in addition, an assessm ent o f the likelihoods of various foreseeab le types o f accidents, the types and activities of nuclides that might be re leased , and the en viron mental pathways follow ed by them. Appropriate action levels based on the m onitoring program m e should be specified .

409. With respect to investigations o f the relative contributions o f re leases from an installation to the total environm ental radiation levels and concentrations, ICRP Publication N o.7, 1965, states: "The inclusion o f m easurem ents o f ra d io activity in the program m e of preoperational investigations has a number o f advantages, but w ill seldom provide the best way o f distinguishing between activity from the installation and that from other sou rces . The natural activity of m ost


SECTION IV 11

environm ental sam ples w ill vary seasonally and, to a le s s e r extent, from year to year; preoperational results can be extrapolated to later years only approxim ately. It is th erefore better, w herever p ossib le , to distinguish between the activity from the installation and the natural activity by sp ec ific analytical techniques . . ."

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF ADEQUATE PROGRAMMES

410. The p re -opera tion a l investigations should provide quantitative data fo r the derivation o f working lim its and action leve ls fo r routine and em ergency environm ental m onitoring. This m onitoring is ca rried out by the m easurem ent an d /or analysis of m ateria ls in the cr it ica l pathways; when appropriate, other m aterials serving as suitable indicator m atrices can be chosen . In this connection , the considerations o f para.403 must be borne in mind.

411. The planned m onitoring program m es should be appropriate to the needs, that is to the type o f the installations, the type o f the environm ent in the vicinity o f the installations, the nature and extent o f human utilization of the environm entand the types and quantities o f radionuclides that are expected to be released so that unnecessary co llection o f sam ples and making o f m easurem ents w ill be avoided.

412. The planning and execution o f any environm ental program m e are a m u lti-d iscip linary e ffo rt. T herefore the m onitoring team s should be com posed o f persons trained in the different appropriate d iscip lin es. It is a lso often advantageous tohave personnel individually trained in m ore than one specia lity .

MONITORING OF EFFLUENTS ONLY

413. The detailed review o f installation plans and the p r e operational investigations may indicate that the expected re leases o f radionuclides would be o f such quantity and level that concentrations in the environm ent and the doses to man w ill be insignificant (see p ara .201). In such a case it may not be n ecessa ry to provide fo r an extensive routine environm ental program m e.


12 SECTION IV

414. H ow ever, it is still n ecessary to provide sufficient m onitoring of effluents near the points o f re lease to ensure that they do not significantly exceed the predicted amounts. In som e cases even this lim ited m onitoring may not be requ ired. This should be determ ined and controlled by the competent authority.

LIMITED MONITORING PROGRAMMES

415. As the num ber o f sm a ll-sca le users o f radioactive m aterials in crea ses , there is a possib ility that the com bined effect could, in som e areas, lead to significant levels of ra d io active m ateria ls in the environm ent. In that case a lim ited m onitoring program m e should be initiated by the com petent authorities..

416. Arrangem ents may a lso have to be made by the com petent authorities fo r any em ergency surveys required fo r transport accidents involving consignm ents of radioactive m ateria ls.

MONITORING PROGRAMMES FOR PLANNED RELEASES

417. An important aim o f such program m es is the assessm ent o f the actual o r potential doses to the cr it ica l group o r the estim ation of the probable upper lim its of such doses. This can be done by making m easurem ents, using analytical methods that determ ine the type and activity levels o f the nuclides, at any point along the c r it ica l pathway and in terpreting these m easurem ents in term s of the dose rece ived .The uncertainties in the interpretation can be reduced by choosing m easurem ent points in the pathway as near as possib le to the c r it ica l population group, o r even by m easu rements such as w hole- o r partia l-body m onitoring, perform ed on the individual m em bers o f the group. The frequency ofthe m easurem ents should be related to the h a lf-lives o f the nuclides, their activ ities in the environm ent and the probable rate o f change o f their activ ities.

418. Another aim o f such surveys is to verify that a significant radiation dose is not being rece ived by the c r it ica l population groups, o r other population groups, through other than cr it ica l pathways. Such other pathways must be designated with care and the frequency o f sam pling and m easurem ent need not be as great as fo r the c r it ica l pathways.


SECTION IV 13

419. Results obtained from the m onitoring program m e can also be used as feedback fo r possib le m odification of the m on itoring program m e itse lf. It may becom e evident from evaluation o f these results that the num ber, frequency and types o f sam ples co llected and analysed should be in creased , o r reduced, o r that the sam pling can be stopped com pletely .In addition, when any changes are introduced in the manner o f operation o f the installation and nature and extent o f waste re lea ses from it, an evaluation should be made to determ ine whether any consequent changes are called fo r in the m onitoring program m es.

420. F o r re leases to the atm osphere, m easurem ents o f the con centrations o f identified nuclides in a ir , in rainw ater, o r on the ground surface allow fo r the estim ation of the levels that may accum ulate in foodstu ffs. It is a lso important to take into consideration inhalation and external irradiation doses to humans from re leases to the atm osphere. This is p a rticu larly true close to the installation o r where m eteoro log ica l factors cause the re leases from the stack to be trapped near the ground su rface . A ir concentrations can fluctuate rapidly and m easurem ents may need to be made frequently o r p r e ferab ly continuously, for exam ple in the case o f nuclear pow er plants. In addition, integrating dosim eters or other s im ilar dev ices may be used with advantage. The co llection o f representative food crop s , other native vegetation, and surface so il should be undertaken p eriod ica lly fo r the analysis o f sh ort- and lon g -lived nuclides released to the environ ment. In som e cases it may be advisable to ca rry out m easurem ents firs t on bulk sam ples in ord er to determ ine whether there is. a need fo r m ore extensive analysis.

421. Through evaluation o f m onitoring resu lts , supplemented by any n ecessa ry studies, one should be able to derive m ore p rec ise ly the transfer fa ctors fo r movement o f nuclides through the environm ental m edia.

4 22. When adequate studies have been done to dem onstrate thatthe transport p rocesses are understood, analyses of 'in d icator organ ism s' may adequately define radionuclide levels in the environm ent. The 'in d icator organ ism ' concept o f environ mental sam pling involves the practice o f examining food chains or other environm ental pathways for selected organism s o r m ateria ls that provide a sensitive and reliable m easure o f the quantities o f each radionuclide cycling through


14 SECTION IV

each food-chain pathway. F or exam ple, in the case where the p lan t-cow -m ilk -m an food chain is determ ined to De a cr it ica l pathway, it may not be n ecessary to extensively sam ple and m easure grazing plants to keep track of io d in e -131 cycling in the food chain, since sampling and m easuring the milk produced by dairy cows in surrounding areas may be adequate. Where use o f a single indicator medium is im practica l, sam ples o f severa l media from each pathway should be co llected and analysed.

423. F or re leases to fresh and coastal waters the routes of exposure are generally through drinking w ater, irrigated foodstu ffs, fish and other edible organ ism s and through contamination o f beaches and so ils . In areas where so la r evaporated salt is consum ed d irectly , such salt should be m onitored fo r possib le contamination.

In general, nuclides o f very short h a lf-life are not of prim e concern for planned re leases and very often m easu rements do not need to be made fo r such nuclides. However, consideration should be given to possib le lon g -lived daughter products.

424. In those cases where cooling or waste ponds are located at an installation, nearby ground water w ells and surface water should be m onitored for possib le transfer o f radioactive contamination through seepage from the ponds. To prevent such seepage, som e designs provide for the sealing of bottom s and sides o f ponds. If this is done, m onitoring may not be requ ired , though m onitoring o f the ground water may be one o f the n ecessa ry checks fo r detecting significant leaks in the system . In situations where radioactive wastes are buried , m onitoring should be carried out to detect any contamination of the ground o r surface waters from such burial p ra ctices .

SURVEYS FOR USE WITH UNPLANNED RELEASES FROM AN INSTALLATION [3]

425. The basic factors fo r planning em ergency surveys w ill beestablished by the p re -opera tion a l investigations and m odified as n ecessa ry through evaluation o f operational survey resu lts . In particu lar, an assessm ent must be made o f the consequences o f severa l degrees o f accidents leading to activity re lease o f


SECTION IV 15

different ord ers o f magnitude. Some degree o f im provisation should be provided for in extending the m onitoring program m e to cov er a w ider area than covered in routine surveys o r prev iou sly designed em ergency plans.

426. The need fo r rapid results during em ergency situations may necessitate the use o f sim p ler screen ing procedures and m easurem ent techniques, but where possib le rapid methods o f identification o f nuclides should be used. In som e cases use is made o f m obile m onitoring laboratories fo r field m easurem ents and analyses. Radionuclide and radiation m easurem ents made during routine m onitoring program m es m ay be useful in interpreting the resu lts . It is n ecessa ryto have a p rov isiona l m athem atical m odel o f d ispersion including the m eteoro log ica l fa ctors applicable at the site.

427. In m ost cases it is m ore satisfactory to detect an unplanned re lease by m easurem ents made near the point of re lea se . Continuously operating sam pling and m easuring instrum ents located at w e ll-ch osen points in the environm ent may also be used to detect an unplanned re lea se .

428. E m ergency surveys are usually perform ed by p reselected team s who make m easurem ents and co lle ct sam ples in the im pact area and along pre-arran ged routes in the environ ment. The sam ples should be analysed near the point of co llection if p oss ib le . F or this purpose m obile laboratories m ay be used. H ow ever, the sam ples can a lso be transported to centrally located analytical laboratories if appropriate.It should a lso be pointed out that instrum ents to be used in em ergen cy situations should be p roperly calibrated and in good working condition when needed, in ord er that the em ergency m onitoring not be delayed.

429. Significant results o f em ergency surveys should be c o m municated as ea rly as possib le to the em ergency operation authorities fo r appropriate evaluation and actions. The survey data should relate to those required for:

(1) making d ecis ion s on im m ediate counter m easures such as con trol o f m ovem ent in the public domain

(2) fo llow -up actions such as restriction on distribution o f contaminated food , restr iction on drinking-w ater supply, restr iction on grazing in contaminated pastures, distri~ bution o f farm products and m edica l investigation of som e exposed person s .


1 6 SECTION IV

430. Urgent m easurem ent must involve the im m ediate co llection of relevant data on m eteoro log ica l conditions (principally wind speed and d irection as w ell as precip itation if occu rrin g ),r iv er o r tidal flow conditions, radiation fields from contaminated containment structures etc. The m onitoring team should a lso make rapid assessm ent o f the quantity o f radioactive re leases involved and the principal route o f entry into the environm ent.

431. Evaluation o f the em ergency survey data in conjunction with m onitoring inform ation on planned re leases w ill a lso be useful fo r lon g -term follow -up actions, fo r exam ple those that may be needed to con trol subsequent re leases from the offending installation o r con trol o f public activities in the environm ent after the acute phase o f the em ergency situation has ended.


SECTION V. CHARACTERISTICS OF MONITORING PROCEDURES

501. This section includes considerations relating to sam pling procedu res and the methods o f laboratory analysis and field m easurem ents with referen ce to both planned and unplanned re lea ses . The basic concept is that the p rocedu res, methods and instrum ents should be the sim plest and m ost econ om ica l required to achieve adequately the desired ob jective.

A. PLANNED RELEASES

502. Planned re leases norm ally allow sufficient time fo r carefu l p re -opera tion a l planning and training. W herever p ossib le , the m onitoring procedures should be put into e ffect w ell before re lea ses are planned in o rd er to allow opportunity fo r testing the methods in actual p ractice .

F ield m easurem ents

503. Many instruments are available fo r the d irect m easurem ent o f the alpha, beta, o r gamma radiation levels in the environ ment. P articu larly useful and econ om ica l are those that consist o f a sim ple solid -sta te dosim eter that can integrate exposures ov er long period with no attention.

504. Instruments that continuously m onitor and record levels in sam ples o f a ir o r water are useful in specia l ca ses . However, levels o f contamination in the environm ent are often so low that such d irect m easurem ents are not feasib le . It is th erefore alm ost always n ecessary to co lle ct sam ples for subsequent laboratory analysis.

Sampling

505. Selection o f sam ples must be in con form ity with the ob jectives as defined in Section II.

506. F or m onitoring p rim arily d irected toward assessm ents of population dose care should be taken to obtain representative sam ples through com positing of sam ples from a num ber of sou rces . In som e cases advantage can be taken o f certain sam ple co llection program m es already existing in governm ent agencies.

1 7


18

507.

508.

509.

510.

511.

The m aterials that may have to be sampled are a ir , rain w ater, surface and underground w ater, drinking water, sedim ent, so il , foodstu ffs, vegetation, etc. In m ost cases a representative sam ple o f the m aterials is co llected and the activity of the sam ple is m easured either at the point of co llection o r later in the laboratory .Great care must be taken to ensure that all pertinent in form ation such as orig in , location , time and other data are recorded on suitable ch eck -lis t form s at the time of c o l le c tion. Methods o f identification, transport and handling o f the sam ples should ensure that this valuable inform ation is p reserved fo r as long as required.F or air m onitoring, the sam pling station may be fixed or m obile. Fixed stations located c lose to installations serve m ore to indicate that the installation is operating within the authorized re lease lim its than fo r assessm ent o f d oses . The a ir sam pler may be operated continuously or interm ittently, and continuous sam pling may be com bined with continuous in situ m easurem ent.A variety o f co llection dev ices is available, depending upon the physical and ch em ica l form of the radionuclide to be co llected . F ilters are the m ost com m only used m edia for particulate fo rm s. C harcoal im pregnated filte rs o r charcoa l ca rtrid ges, som etim es coated with KI, are norm ally used for co llectin g iodine. Other types o f sam plers som etim es used in specia l cases include e lectrosta tic precip ita tors , evacuated cham bers, liquid scru b b ers , and dry and wet deposition c o l le c to r s .Sampling o f water is particu larly im portant when the water is used fo r drinking purposes. Some care is n ecessa ry to ensure that the sam ple is representative of the water actually consum ed. Water from which aquatic food is harvested or which is used fo r irrigation should a lso be sampled since the radionuclides contained in the water may eventually reach man.In som e cases sedim ent sam ples can be co llected and analysed to provide an indication o f lon g-term accum ulation o f ra d io nuclides from the w ater. These sedim ents may also reveal the presence o f contamination not detected by m onitoring the w ater. In certain instances r iv er bank deposits are used fo r agricu ltural purposes. In such cases sam ples of the i

deposits should be co llected fo r analysis.

SECTION V


SECTION V 1 9

513. F resh -w a ter and m arine organism s can concentrate ra d io nuclides from the surrounding w ater. Aquatic foods harvested from contaminated waters and so la r evaporated salt from coasta l waters therefore constitute im portant m aterials for sam pling. Samples of these m ateria ls may represent food actually consum ed by people o r may serve as sensitive indicators of environm ental contam ination. Coastal waters when used fo r production of salt, as in trop ica l a reas, should a lso be sam pled.

514. T e rre s tr ia l foodstuffs may becom e contaminated through d irect aeria l deposition , through uptake from contaminated so il o r the use o f contaminated irrigation water in the caseo f vegetable products, and through consum ption o f contaminated herbage in the case o f animal products. Such foodstuffs might include fruits and vegetables, grain, meat and particu larly m ilk. Samples should be co llected d irectly at the farm s where they are produced. If, how ever, they are purchased com m ercia lly , the source o f the foodstuff should be identified, if p ossib le .

Analysis

515. A rad iochem ica l laboratory for environm ental sam ples is required to p erform analyses fo r sp ec ific rad ionuclides, which may be present at low leve l in the sam ples. It is essentia l that the laboratory be under the d irection of a person who is experienced in the application o f the detailed analytical p rocedures required fo r proper perform ance of such a laboratory . Detailed considerations involved in the planning and operation o f a laboratory designed fo r ra d io ch em ica l analysis have previously been published [4 ,5 ].

516. Three levels o f com plexity can be envisioned in the operation o f a rad iochem ica l laboratory .

517. F irs t , m easurem ents o f g ross radioactivity may be acceptable when the com position of the environm ental contamination does not change rapidly with tim e and when the results can be corre la ted with radioanalysis data from a selected num ber of s im ilar sam ples. They can also be used fo r prelim inary screen ing o f a large number of sam ples to select those that m ay require detailed isotop ic analysis. One should, how ever, examine carefu lly whether gross analysis w ill be sufficient fo r the particu lar circu m stances.


2 0 SECTION V

518. Second, d irect qualitative an d /or quantitative analysis for sp ec ific radionuclides can very often be econ om ica lly a ccom p lished without the need fo r p r ior chem ica l p rocessin g through the use o f gam m a-ray sp ectrom eters . Frequently severa l radionuclides can be m easured sim ultaneously by this means [6].

519. Third, detailed rad iochem ica l procedures may have to be conducted on the sam ple to isolate sp ec ific radionuclides p r ior to m easurem ent of their radioactivity. R adiochem ical analytical methods have also been d iscussed in the literature [7 -10 ].It is recom m ended that recogn ized procedures such as these should be adopted whenever feasib le .

A nalytical quality con trol

520. C onclusions reached on the basis o f environm ental m onitoring program m es may have important operational .and econom ic consequences. The data can be used for this purpose with confidence only if the degree o f their reliab ility is knownand docum ented. To ensure the quality o f the data they provide, m onitoring laboratories should continuously evaluate the precis ion and the accu racy of their analytical work.P rec is ion can be tested fa irly easily by duplication o f analy s is . Evaluation of a ccu racy is much m ore difficu lt and ca lls fo r analysis by different labora tories , different analysts and different m ethods. In p ra ctice , a ccu racy may be evaluated by the analysis o f standard referen ce m aterials containing certified concentrations o f the expected ra d io nuclides, o r by participation in analytical in tercom parison organized on a national or an international basis.

521. The International A tom ic E nergy Agency distributes a con siderable num ber o f standard re feren ce m aterials such as a ir fi lte rs , water sam ples, sam ples of b io log ica l m ateria l, seaw ater, sedim ents and so il containing radionuclides at environm ental or m onitoring concentrations. It a lso organizes in tercom parisons of radionuclide determ inations in such m ateria ls under its LOWRA program m e [11], often in c o operation with regional organizations.

522. The W orld Health O rganization has established in 1969 an International R eference Centre fo r Environm ental Radioactivity, in F rance. It has been carrying out a program m e o f in tercom parison o f som e radionuclides in environm ental sam ples with the assistance o f ten selected institutions throughout


SECTION V 21

the w orld . A ssistance has been given to som e of the la b ora tories that did not in itially provide reliab le resu lts . It is planned to continue this program m e, which operates with appropriate national m onitoring system s and aim s to ensure p rop er co llection , m easurem ent and analysis of data relating to environm ental radioactivity. P r ior ity is given to strengthening national institutions so that they can participate.

B. UNPLANNED RELEASES

523. The design of lo ca l fa cilit ies and procedu res fo r m onitoringplanned re leases should provide a sufficient m argin for dealing with any sm all unplanned re lea ses that may be ,detected in the cou rse o f operations. Studies should be made o f a se r ie s o f foreseeab le re feren ce accidents in ord er to evaluate their possib le effects and to provide a basis for appropriate em ergency planning. F or large unplanned re lea ses o f an em ergency nature suitable advance a rran gements should be made fo r obtaining the co -op era tion of other laboratories and organizations, to aid in the assessm ent of the environm ental im pacts.

F ield m easurem ents1

524. F ield m easurem ents o f g ross radioactivity at fixed stations may provide the firs t inform ation on an unplanned re lea se .F o r this purpose, instrum ents that m easure and record dose rate are m ore useful than integrating d osim eters . In som e cases it is useful to install such continuously operating instrum ents near likely points o f discharge and to couple these to chart re co rd e rs and alarm system s that com m unicate to an appropriate con trol point.

525. Follow ing the detection o f an unplanned re lea se , initial e fforts w ill be d irected toward determ ining the nature and extent o f the contam ination. F ield m easurem ents are very im portant in this phase o f response. In the event o f gaseous or a ir re leases lo ca l data obtained through a sm all m eteoro log ica l station should be available in ord er to provide inform ationon loca l conditions as a guide to the probable d ispersa l

1 See also Ref. [ 3 ] .


2 2 SECTION V

routes and m ost suitable sampling points. Remote co m munication of such data is a lso helpful. Usually an overa ll view of the general dim ensions o f the incident is obtained by a specia l team o f field surveyors equipped with m obile o r portable m easuring d ev ices . The rapid transm ission o f in fo r mation and instructions is of great im portance, requiring the use of radiocom m unication sets, such as 'w alk ie-ta lk ie ' type battery-operated sets.

5 26. Survey instrum ents fo r use in the field are intended to m easure d irect radiation from an installation or the radiation emitted from airborne o r a ir-deposited contamination. They can be:- portable, battery-operated type ca rried by personnel- m obile type, mounted in veh icle , a ircra ft or helicopter.

527. A ll instruments used in em ergency surveys should be robust, reliable and sim ple to operate. They should be p eriod ica lly inspected and should be kept in good working ord er at all tim es. Additional instrum ents of the same type should be held in readiness as there may be lo sses during use from physical damage o r from contamination.

528. F or certain types o f unplanned re lea ses , such as transport accidents, it may not be possib le to plan a m onitoring p ro gram m e in advance. In such cases it may be n ecessa ry to re ly on obtaining the se rv ices o f a field survey team provided byan appropriate agency.

Sampling

529. Follow ing the initial determ ination o f the extent o f the contaminated area involved, sam ples should be taken fo r analysis to allow a m ore accurate evaluation of the situation. Such sam ples should be taken with proper precautions re ferred to under planned re lea ses . This is particu larly difficult under em ergency situations and ca lls fo r specia l attention, esp ecia lly fo r those related to sam ple identification.

Analysis

530. Special rapid methods o f chem ica l analysis have been developed [3 ,6 , 12] that provide a means for obtaining separations that w ill provide results o f sufficient p recis ion fo r the purposes o f an em ergency survey. Care should be taken to prevent cross-con tam in ation of labora tories , equipment and sam ples.


SECTION VI. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS OF MONITORING PROCEDURES

601. The results o f an adequate environm ental m onitoring p ro gram m e can be interpreted in term s o f the radiation dose rece ived by individual m em bers o f the public, the integrated dose rece ived by the whole population within a selected region , and the dose rece ived by other organism s in the environm ent, o r in term s of its e ffect on the environm ent itse lf. In interpreting the resu lts , due consideration should be giv6n to the re liab ility o f the data, taking into account the p rec is ion and accu racy o f all the m onitoring procedures em ployed and the variab ility o f the environm ent.

DETERMINATION OF DOSES TO INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OFTHE PUBLIC FROM PLANNED RELEASES

602. The average radiation dose rece ived by m em bers o f the cr it ica l population group can be determ ined from the results of the survey m easurem ents in the c r it ica l pathways using the relationships determ ined in the preoperational investigat io n s .2

603. It is appropriate to evaluate the exposure o f individuals due to planned re lea ses from norm al operations in term s o f dose com m itm ent per year o f operation. How ever, in the case of continuous re leases the annual dose rece ived by individuals is a satisfactory m easure of the exposure situation.

DETERMINATION OF DOSE TO THE WHOLE POPULATIONWITHIN A SELECTED REGION FROM PLANNED RELEASES

604. If the number of individuals that may rece ive a significant dose is large , it may be n ecessa ry to have an assessm ent o f the total risk incurred by that large group. This may be done by assessing the corresponding co llective dose expressed in term s of the man • rads or man • rem s [ 13].

605. The p ractica l assessm ent of the co llective dose is com para tively sim ple fo r the c r it ica l group o f the population. When

2 S ectio n IV , p ara. 4 0 4 .

2 3


2 4 SECTION VI

the assessm ent is extended to la rger groups, a low er lim it might be specified below which the integration w ill not be continued. At this time there is no general agreem ent on such a low er lim it.

DETERMINATION OF DOSES TO INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC FROM UNPLANNED RELEASES

606. In the case of unplanned re leases at w idely spaced intervals o r as single events it is appropriate to make assessm ents of the acute dose and the dose com m itm ent. F or single re lea ses , it may be n ecessa ry to make a specia l assessm ent to allow fo r the conditions actually existing at the time of re lease and at the tim e the surveys w ere perform ed . The dose com m itm ents are then estim ated on the basis of these sp ecia l conditions.

OTHER USES OF MONITORING DATA

607. The environm ental m onitoring program m e can be used asa means of perform ing an independent check on the operation of the installation by determ ining whether re leases are kept within regulatory lim its. The data can also be used to verify the adequacy o f the operational con trol lim its.

RECORD KEEPING

608. Care should be taken in the design o f a record -k eep in g system to ensure that the record s may be useful fo r reassessm ent of dose and, where n ecessa ry , for international com parisons of data. It may be possib le in som e cases to corre la te in form ation on the actual re leases o f identified nuclides into the environm ent with the results of m onitoring different environ m ental m ateria ls. The m onitoring results can then provide useful inform ation on the d isp ersa l o f these nuclides and on their passage through the m onitoring pathways. Some o f the item s that should be recorded are re ferred to in Annex I.


SECTION VI 2 5

609. In som e cases it may be n ecessa ry to check analytical results o f environm ental sam ples o r to ca rry out further scien tific studies. T herefore lon g -term storage of properly identified sam ples may be useful.

ASSESSMENT OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MONITORING RESULTS

610. When the doses to the individual m em bers o f the c r it ica l group o f the population do not exceed the regulatory or internationally recogn ized lim its fo r individual m em bers o f the public, it can be assum ed that the environm ental contamination w ill not be likely to produce any exposure that entails an unacceptable risk .

611. H ow ever, it is im portant to recogn ize that the m ere keeping o f the contamination levels below values corresponding to these regu latory lim its is not in itse lf a su fficient a ch ievement. The contamination levels should be kept to the m in imum values that are readily achievable. Any exposure may involve som e degree of risk and this im portant consideration should not be overlooked . Even if the degree o f risk to man is considered to be acceptable, the corresponding leve l o f environm ental contam ination m ay be undesirable from other points o f view . It may fo r instance restr ict m a n 's use and enjoym ent o f environm ental re sou rces .

612. In addition to checking the op era tors ' program m es and assessm en ts, the com petent authorities must con sider the dose to the whole com m unity in term s of the number of persons exposed as a result o f the re leases from a single installation and as a result of the com bined e ffects o f different installations.

SAMPLE PRESERVATION


SECTION VII. MONITORING SYSTEMS AT LOCAL, NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS

BASIC ELEMENTS THAT CHARACTERIZE LOCAL MONITORINGORGANIZATIONS

Staff

701. The m ore routine functions fo r which staff w ill have to be provided are outlined below [14]. In addition, the staff should be able to design the surveys, interpret the results and suggest alterations to an existing program m e in the light o f changing events. In many cases the recom m ended functions are perform ed in conjunction with outside bod ies, which may be able to provide much relevant data such as m eteoro log ica l and hydrologica l data, dietary habits, etc.

702. In the event of an em ergency , it may be desirable that staff not norm ally working in this particular sphere should be made available to assist in the s im pler operations such as sample co llection . These w ill c lea r ly need som e basic training in their anticipated ro les before they are called upon.

C ollection o f sam ples

703. C ollection o f sam ples may involve collaboration with other organizations fo r the receip t of dated, identifiable sam ples from known locations. F or exam ple a centralized organ iza tion may issue p rec ise instructions and equipment fo r the co llection o f sam ples. If the m onitoring organization also perform s the sam ple co llection , additional transport w ill be requ ired. The provision o f storage space fo r sam ples should not be overlooked .

Preparation and analysis of sam ples, including calibration [5]

704. One can distinguish three situations of increasing com plexity . In the firs t and sim plest case m easurem ents may be made d irectly on untreated sam ples, fo r exam ple, the estim ation o f 137Cs in m ilk by gam m a-spectrom etry . In the second situation som e fa cilit ies for p rocessin g the sam ples into a form suitable fo r counting w ill be requ ired , fo r exam ple, ashing. In the third situation it w ill be n ecessary to undertake rad iochem ica l separations p r io r to nuclide estim ation,

2 6


SECTION VII 2 7

esp ecia lly in the case o f alpha and pure beta em itters and where a very sm all low er lim it of detection is required.

705. The ability to cater for em ergency situations w ill a lso affect the equipment required as in these situations em phasis must be given to a greater speed o f analysis at higher levels of activity than those norm ally encountered.

706. As it is n ecessa ry to perform lo w -le v e l counting in these fa c ilit ie s , it is im portant that they be located at som e distance from a nuclear fa cility in which an em ergency situation might a r ise .

Additional item s

707. Additional basic elem ents to be talen into account in the organization o f lo ca l m onitoring include: The validation of data, the analysis o f data fo r sign ifican ce , the dissem ination o f data, and the storage o f data fo r later retrieva l.

R ecording and evaluation of results

708. The requirem ents may vary from a sim ple form o f 'b o o k keeping' to a com puter program m e in the case of a large , varied environm ental program m e involving frequent sam pling. An essentia l fa ctor in evaluating the results is the accu racy o f the m easurem ents and to this end suitable checks w ill be n ecessa ry [7]. Some o f the item s which should be recorded are indicated in Annex I.These include:(1) Checks on the instrument perform ance

- frequent checks on its response and e ffic ien cy by the use o f standard sou rces (severa l tim es in 24 hours)

- repeated counting over sh orter periods rather than single counting over a long period

(2) Checks on the analytical techniques- regular m easurem ent o f blank sam ples- m easurem ent o f split sam ples, at least over 10% of

the total- com parison of results obtained by different methods- m easurem ent o f re feren ce sam ples- in tercom parisons with other labora tories .

709. It is recom m ended that the review , evaluation and appropriate m odification o f program m e design, organization and im plem en-


2 8 SECTION VII

tation should be an alm ost continual p rocess to ensure that the experience gained in each o f the basic elem ents is utilized in im proving the quality o f the m onitoring program m e.

BASIC ELEMENTS THAT CHARACTERIZE NATIONAL,REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES

710. The prim ary function o f national, regional and international authorities is to organize and im plem ent program m es that include the follow ing elem ents:(a) National and regional

(1) A ssistance particu larly in em ergency cases(2) Calibration fa cilities(3) Training of personnel(4) Determ ination o f com pliance with national standards

and requirem ent(5) Providing expertise , as needed, to assist lo ca l

p rog ra m m es.(b) International

(1) Intercom parison program m es(2) Provide fo r the collection , exchange, evaluation and

dissem in ation of inform ation(3) Provide guidelines on m onitoring program m es and

referen ce methods based on experience at the different levels (governm ents and regions).

711. There should be a high degree o f com patibility and c o operation between loca l and national p rogram m es, p articu larly with resp ect to their aim s and m ethods, so that the m ost effective m onitoring program m es fo r protection of the environm ent can be developed and continually assessed .In addition, the lo ca l and national authorities should ensure that there is a maximum amount o f interaction and co -op era tion at all stages with the program m es o f the operators . This is particu larly im portant at the pre-operationa l, start-up and initial operating stages o f installations. It is a lso highly im portant that the public be included in this p rocess andthat loca l and national authorities should arrange for an accurate and unconfusing presentation o f inform ation to the public regarding their program m es and the resu lts o f m on itoring. Regional program m es are essentia lly extensions of national program m es and should be designed p rim arily to a ssess environm ental im pacts beyond national boundaries.


SECTION VIII. GLOSSARY

801. The action level con sists o f the dose o r range o f doses expected to be rece ived by the population, o r levels of concentration o r tim e integrals o f concentration in the com ponents o f the environm ent, o r radiation levels in the environm ent, derived from the d oses , that justify the perform ance o f rem edia l m easures leading to a substantial reduction o f the d oses , and below which it is unlikely that such m easures w ill be justified unless they have an exceedingly low im pact on the com m unity.

ACTION LEVEL

COMPETENT AUTHORITY

802. A com petent authority is a governm ental o r international authority having ju risd iction with respect to the activities under consideration .

CRITICAL POPULATION GROUPS

803. The com pliance with the dose lim itation for m em bers o f thepublic is checked not by m onitoring individuals but by a s s e s s ments through sam pling procedures in the environm ent.The actual doses rece ived by individuals w ill vary depending on severa l individual factors and it is im possib le to d e ter mine the maximum dose that might be rece ived individually.In p ra ctice , it is possib le to take account o f these sou rces of variab ility by the selection o f appropriate 'c r it ic a l groups' within the population, provided the c r it ica l group is sm all enough to be hom ogeneous with respect to the param eters that affect the dose rece ived . Such a group should be representative o f those individuals in the population expected to rece ive the highest dose , and the ICRP states that it is reasonable to apply the appropriate dose lim its to the mean dose of this group.

2 9


3 0 SECTION VIII

CRITICAL NUCLIDES AND PATHWAYS OF EXPOSURE

804. E xperience has shown that, when radioactive m aterials are introduced in the environm ent, a few nuclides and certain exposure pathways w ill be much m ore important than others and w ill be responsible fo r m ost of the dose received by m em bers o f the public. These nuclides and pathways are designated 'c r it ic a l ' .

DERIVED WORKING LIMIT

805. Many o f the m easurem ents made in a m onitoring program m e cannot be expressed d irectly in term s of dose-equivalent fo r com parison with the lim its recom m ended by ICRP. In these circum stances the use o f stylized exposure m odelscan provide quantitative links between the quantities m easured and the dose o r intake lim its recom m ended by ICRP. The values o f the quantities that correspond in the exposure m odel to the recom m ended lim its are called D erived W orking Lim its (DWL). Due to conservatism in selecting the exposure m odels, the adherence to a DWL provides virtual certainty o f c o m pliance with the ICRP recom m ended Dose L im its.

DOSE, ABSORBED

806. The absorbed dose due to any d irectly or ind irectly ionizing radiation is the energy im parted by ionizing particles to a unit m ass o f irradiated m ateria l. The specia l unit is the rad, which is equal to 0.01 joule per kilogram .

DOSE COMMITMENT

807. The dose com m itm ent is the infinite time integral of the average dose rate caused by a given operation or unit practice exposing a specified population:

o


SECTION VIII 3 1

The dim ension o f the dose com m itm ent is absorbed dose o r dose -equivalent, depending upon whether it is the dose rate D(t) o r the dose equivalent rate H(t) that is integrated over tim e.

The population ov er which the dose rate is averaged may be any population o f in terest; e .g . the whole world population o r the cr it ica l group with regard to the given source of exposure. An extrem e case is the integration o f the dose rate fo r a single individual, in which case the dose co m mitment is sim ply his expected total future dose, e .g . per unit intake o f a specified radionuclide. When the dose com m itm ent is calcu lated , the tissue o r organ fo r which the dose rate is integrated must be indicated.

If the sou rce is constant in tim e, the equilibrium dose per any specified unit of time is num erically equal to the dose com m itm ent per unit time of the practice causing the exposure. F or exam ple, the annual dose in equilibrium is equal to the dose com m itm ent o f one year o f the operation causing the exposu res.

DOSE-EQUIVALENT

808. The dose-equ ivalent fo r a given type of radiation and at a given location in the body is num erica lly equal to the p ro duct o f the absorbed dose in rads fo r that radiation at that position , and appropriate m odifying fa ctors such as the quality fa ctor , which accounts fo r the d ifference in the linear energy tran sfer o f different d irectly ionizing rad ia tions at the location of interest. The specia l unit is the rem .

EMERGENCY SURVEY

809. An em ergency survey is a survey related to an accident involving loss o f con trol over radiation sou rces o r ra d io active m ateria l which could give r ise to external radiation exposure levels o r intakes o f radioactive m aterials in excess o f those perm itted in the applicable regulations fo r norm al operation.


32 SECTION VIII

810. Environm ental m onitoring is that m onitoring perform edoutside fa cilit ies handling radiation sou rces or radioactive m ateria ls, and related to their operation.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

INDICATOR MATRICES

811. Indicator m atrices are sp ec ific com ponents of the environ ment chosen as suitable re feren ce m aterials fo r the environ mental m onitoring program m e. These com ponents are chosen on the basis o f a consistent, constant and w e ll- established relationship of their radionuclide-stable elem ent content, o r tim e-in tegra l concentration, to the same ra d io nuclides present in the ambient medium .

INVESTIGATION LEVEL

812. The investigation leve l is a value fo r a particular type o fm easurem ent above which the result is deem ed to be su fficiently im portant to justify further investigation. Investigation levels are applied to single m easurem ents or to sh ortterm averages, and it is usually legitim ate to operate for prolonged periods in ex cess o f an established investigation level.

MONITORING

813. M onitoring is the m easurem ent o f radiation or radioactivecontamination levels for purposes related to the assessm ent o r control o f exposure o f man and his environm ent.

OPERATOR

814. The operator is the person or authority in charge o f a facility where radiation sou rces o r radioactive m ateria ls are present.


SECTION VIII 33

815. The operational working lim it is a stipulated lim it upon the quantities m easured fo r con trol purposes. It is often low er than the Derived W orking L im it, which would be the m aximum p erm issib le value of the operational working lim it. Operational working lim its take into account additional fa ctors such as the need fo r the practice and the presenceo f other sou rces o f exposure.

OUTSIDE A FACILITY

816. 'Outside a fa c ility 1 denotes an area beyond the boundaries o f a fa cility , but in the region in which the facility may significantly contribute to the radiation dose to m em bers of the public o r to radiation levels in the environm ent itse lf.This region can include areas geographically rem ote from the facility .

PRE-O PERATIO N AL SURVEY

817. A pre -opera tion a l survey is a survey perform ed before a fa cility is put into operation o r before a m ajor extension o f its operation.

STANDARD PERSON

818. The 'standard person ' is the individual person representative o f the lo ca l population groups. This person could be the standard man as defined in ICRP Publication N o.2 (1959)if such is acceptable.

SURVEY

819. A 'su rvey ' is a system atic investigation and m easurem ent o f radiation levels and radioactive contamination lev e ls .The results o f a survey are used p rim arily fo r follow ing the distribution o f radionuclides in the environm ent.

OPERATIONAL WORKING LIMIT


LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS

Chairman

D. Beninson C om isifin N a cio n a l de Energfa A t6 m ica ,Buenos A ires, A rgentina

Panel m em bers

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

E. Kunz In stitu te o f H ygiene and E p id em io lo g y ,Prague

E G Y PT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF

K . M oloukhia A to m ic Energy E stab lish m en t,C airo

FRANCE

R. C oulon C en tre d 'Studes n uclSaires de F o n ten ay -au x-R o ses

GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

J . M ehl Fed era l M inistry for Education and S c ie n c e ,Bonn

assisted byL. A . K onig N u clear Research C en tre ,

Karlsruhe

andK .G . Vogt N u clear Research C e n tre ,

Ju lic h

INDIA

A .K . G anguly Bhabha A to m ic Research C en tre ,T ro m b ay , Bom bay

35


3 6 LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS

JAPAN

T . K ik u ch i

POLAND

Z . Jaworowski

S c ie n c e and T ech n o lo g y A gen cy , Tokyo

C e n tra l Laboratory o f R ad io lo g ica l P ro tectio n , Warsaw

UNITED KINGDOM

I . A . Carr M inistry o f A g ricu ltu re , F isheries and Food, London

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

A . Sch oen

assisted by S . D. Shearer

andJ .K . Sold at

A to m ic Energy C om m ission , W ashington D. C .

En viron m en tal P ro tectio n A gen cy , North C aro lin a

B a tte lle M em o ria l In stitu te, R ichland , W ash.

WHO CONSULTANT

M r. Booth D ep artm ent o f N atio n al H ealth and W e lfa re , O ttaw a, C anada

R epresentatives o f International Organizations

CEC

M . Berlin

FAO

H, M archart

C om m ission o f the European C o m m u n ities , Brussels

Jo in t FAO /IA EA D ivision o f A to m ic Energy in Food and A g ricu ltu re ,V ien n a


LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS 3 7

ICRP

D. Beninson C om isifin N a c io n a l de Energfa A tt5m ica,Buenos A ires, A rgentina

NEA

E. W allau sch ek D ivision o f H ealth ; S a fe ty and W aste M an agem en t,O ECD /N EA ,

Paris

Scientific S ecretaries

SECRETARIAT

G .E . Sw in dell D ivision o f N u clear S a fe ty and Environ m en tal P ro tectio n , In tern atio n al A to m ic Energy A g en cy

E . Shalm on E n vironm ental P o llu tio n , W orld H ealth O rgan ization

E ditor

C .N . W elsh D ivision o f P u b lica tio n s, In tern atio n al A to m ic Energy A gency


ANNEX I

INTRODUCTION

The selection o f sam pling equipment, the method o f sam ple preparation, and the m easuring instrum ents depends on the nature and activity o f the radioactive m ateria l that may be re leased to the environm ent. In an econ om ica l program m e the methods and instrum ents used should be adequate to m eet the ob jectives , but they should, in general, be the sim plest that w ill enable this to be done.

The m ateria ls that may have to be m onitored include a ir, water, foodstu ffs, vegetation, so il, fishing gear. In m ost cases a r e p r e sentative sam ple o f the m ateria l is co llected and its activity is m easured either at the point o f co llection or later in the laboratory . Instrumentation must be provided for sam pling and for activity determ inations.

SAMPLING, ANALYSIS AND REPORTING PROCEDURES [15]

AIR SAMPLING

Samples o f a irborne particulates are norm ally co llected on a filter using an air pump and a flow -m easuring dev ice . A charcoa l filter can be placed after the main filte r to co lle ct iodine. The co llected sam ples may be subjected to gross beta activity m ea su rem ents, radionuclide analysis, gam m a-sp ectrom etr ic analysis, particle size studies or autoradiography. If gam m a-spectrom etry is called fo r , the volum e o f air sam pled should be not le ss than about 300 m 3, hence severa l sam ples may be com posited to provide sufficient activity. The sam pling system should be mounted in a shelter and the d ischarge point located in such a manner that recircu la tion o f the air is prevented.

C onsiderable judgement must be exercised in the selection o f the air sam pling s ites . In general, the sam plers should be placed at three sites o f maximum predicted ground-level concentrations

39


4 0 APPENDIX I

corresponding to the height o f the stack, i f the re leases are d is charged through a stack. Additional sam plers should be placed at m ore distant points in the prevailing upwind direction . The locations o f the maximum ground-level concentrations may be determ ined from data on the atm ospheric stability conditions and the stack height, used in conjunction with data on the prevailing wind d irection s.

The d irect radiation from airborne radioactive m ateria l may be determ ined, if requ ired , by placing integrating or continuously record in g dev ices such as film s , therm olum inescence dosim eters or ion -ch am bers at selected s ites , usually in the vicinity o f the a ir - sam pling system s. The dosim eters are usually placed at a height o f 1 m above the ground. Integrating dosim eters should be read as quickly as possib le after co llection and if they have to be transported over considerable d istances before reading, precautions should be taken to avoid additional exposure from other sou rces of radiation such as packages of radioactive m ateria ls Dr cosm ic radiation at high altitude in a ircra ft.

W ATER SAMPLINGIn the case of an installation located on a r iv e r surface water

sam ples should be co llected from at least two sites — one upstream from the d ischarge point, to provide con trol data, and one downstream . If the installation is located on a lake, the con trol sam ples should be co llected at a site far enough from the discharge point to ensure that any effluent has no significant effect on the sam ple.F or an installation located on an estuary the con trol sam ples should be co llected far enough upstream to ensure that no c ro s s -co n ta m ination is caused by tidal action. If there is a d irect population exposure pathway from surface w ater, continuous sam pling may be desirable .

Owing to the e ffect o f the so il in rem oving m inera ls, routine m onitoring o f underground waters w ill not often be requ ired. W here it is requ ired , specia l attention should be given to tritium and ruthenium. If there is a likelihood that surface waters could carry contamination d irect to underground w aters, the appropriate additional radionuclides should be checked.

If drinking water is obtained from a source that may rece ive effluents, it should be sam pled intensively. This might requ ire the co llection of one sam ple per day fo r gross activity m easurem ent and one sam ple per week fo r analysis. In general, a sam ple of about 3 litres in volum e is required fo r gamma isotop ic analysis.


APPENDIX I 4 1

Sediment sam ples are used to indicate any build-up o f activity sedim entation such as the inner bank of a bend in a r iv e r . Additional areas should be sam pled occasion a lly to determ ine whether the routine sam pling sites should be relocated . If an installation is located a short distance upstream from a fre sh /sa lt water in terface, sedim ent sam ples should be co llected within the in terface. Aquatic plants and animals should also be sam pled period ica lly .

FOOD

Milk sam ples should be co llected from cattle fed on fodder andpasture grown in the neighbourhood o f an installation. F or 131Iweekly or fortnightly intervals would be appropriate; monthly or

90 137quarterly com posite sam ples would be suitable for Sr, C s, etc. One sam ple should be co llected at perhaps weekly intervals from cattle fed on m ateria l grown downwind from the area o f m aximum predicted concentration. An additional sam ple should be co llected at about fortnightly intervals from cattle representative o f a m ilk - shed for the area.

Fish and shellfish sam ples should include each o f the principal edible types found in the neighbourhood. One sam ple should be co llected at about fortnightly intervals near the d ischarge point; an additional sam ple should be co llected quarterly or sem i-annually from the sam e body o f water at a site not influenced by the d ischarge.

Fruit and vegetable sam ples should be co llected , say, tw ice during the growing season near the point o f maximum predicted annual ground concentration and from areas that may be contaminated by water into which effluents have been discharged. The sam ples should not be washed.

Samples o f m eat, poultry and eggs produced in the area should be co llected at about quarterly in tervals. Meat sam ples may be co llected at slaughterhouses i f the origin o f the animals can be identified. Samples should be representative o f animals fed on crops grown in the prevailing downwind d irection and o f animals that drink from water downstream from the d ischarge points.

ANALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

As the sam ples contain very sm all quantities of radionuclides, highly refined m ethods of m easurem ent must be developed and

SEDIMENT SAMPLING


4 2 APPENDIX I

maintained. The laboratories should maintain uniform minimum detectable leve l capabilities and should routinely take part in in terlaboratory quality con trol program m es. A minimum quality con trol frequency o f 10% o f all nuclide analysis, including in-house blanks, standards and splits is recom m ended.

A nalytical con trol methods generally include cross -ch eck in g or splitting sam ples with a con trol laboratory . A c ro ss -ch e ck involves the analyses o f sam ples provided by the con trol laboratory and com parison o f the resu lts with those o f the con trol laboratory as w ell as with other laboratories that rece ived portions of the sam e sam ples. Splitting a sam ple involves obtaining two identical sam ples from a single co llection , one sam ple being, analysed by the m on itoring laboratory and the other by the con trol laboratory , with subsequent com parison o f resu lts . When splitting sam ples for interlaboratory com parison , it is very im portant that both sam ples parts are representative o f the media in question.

Some typical analytical methods and the associated detection capabilities are illustrated in Tables I and II.

REPORTING PROCEDURES

R eporting o f data should be done follow ing a clear and uniform form at suitable for automatic data processin g . '

The reported inform ation should generally include the follow inginform ation:

(1) G eographic location o f sam ple site(2) Sample type (media)(3) Sample number (optional)(4) Identification or organization or person collecting the sample(5) Identification o f organization analysing the sample(6) Tim e and date sam ple was taken (include duration o f sam ple

period for integrated sam ples)(7) Sample preparation as appropriate (e. g. concentration or

wet versus dry)(8) Type o f analysis perform ed(9) Value and units for each analysis and associated 2-sigm a

erro r(10) Param eters needed to calculate decay o f sam ple p r ior to

analysis where sh ort-lived radionuclides are involved(11) Any known events that may have affected the analytical

resu lts .Much o f the above inform ation, such as sam ple site location and

organization identification , can be coded to reduce the re co rd volum e.


APPENDIX I 4 3

TABLE I. AN ALYTICAL METHODS FOR ROUTINE ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY SURVEILLANCE [15]

M edium Code A nalytical method

G am m a-spectrom etry for 131I o f air filters or cartridge samples D osim eter-external exposureC ryogenic separation and liquid scintillation counting Determ ination o f tritium in water Gross beta counting o f air filters Oxalate precipitation

Cobalt and nickel Gamma analysis in waterC aesium -phosphom olybdate-chloroplatinate method Radioactive manganese (ASTM D 2039-69)Radioactive iron (ASTM D2461-69)Radioactive iodine distillation (ASTM D2334-68)Zircon ium - n iobium - 95 Basic carbonate m ethod Radioactive barium (ASTM D2038-68)Radioactive tritium (ASTM D 2476-69)Determ ination o f tritium in water Distillation m eth od -tr itiu m C arbon-14—distillation to C a C 0 3 Basic carbonate method for saline water Radiostrontium in saline water Oxalate precipitation method TBP extraction (90Sr)Difference method (90Sr)Carbonate 14C by liquid scintillation counting Io d in e -131 by ion exchange and precipitation

Reference method - TBP extraction TCA precipitation m ethod - nitric acid separation Ion-exchange procedure - TBP extraction Batch ion -exchange procedure - TBP extraction G am m a-spectrom etry on m ilk

G am m a-spectrom etry o f soft tissue Radioactive iron (ASTM D 2461-69)T T A extraction method TBP extraction method HDEHP extraction method


TABLE II. DETECTION CAPABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH A N A LY TIC A L METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY SURVEILLANCE

4^

Media and isotope

Analytical method

from Table ISample size

Minimumdetectable

levelsa

Annual dose associated with MDL

(m rem /a)k

Assumption for dose m odel

C ritical Annual intake0 organ

Air particulates:Gross beta E 300 m3 3 x 10"® p C i/m 3 Bone 7300 m389Sr F 1200 m 3 5 x 10*3 p C i/m 3 0.025 Bone 7300 m 390Sr F 1200 m3 1 x 10-3 p C i/m 3 0 .0 5 Bone 7300 m 3134Cs A 1200 m 3 1 x 10^ p C i/m 3 0.005 Total body 7300 m 3137Cs A 1200 m 3 1 x 10-2 p C i/m 3 0.0025 T otal body 7300 m3140Ba-La A 1200 m 3 1 x 10"2 p C i/m 3 0 .0038 GI (LLI) 7300 m 3

Air gases:1710 m 3d131 j A 300 m 3 4 x 10* p C i/m 3 1.0 Thyroid

S hort'lived gases B Not applicable 20 m rem /a e 20 T otal body Not applicable36Kr C 1 m 3 1 p C i/m 3 0.002 Skin Not applicable3H (HTO) D 10-15 m l o f condensate 5 x 10"3 p C i/m 3 f 0.000013 Body tissue 7300 m 3

Water:” • “ Co A 100 ml 20 pC i/litre 0 .3 2 h GI (LLI) 440 litres“ C o B 3 .5 litres 10 pC i/litre 0.082 GI (LLI) 440 litres“ C o B 3 .5 litres 10 pC i/litre 0 .16 GI (LLI) 440 litres140Ba-La B 3. 5 litres 10 pC i/litre 0.41 GI (LLI) 440 litres

HI

1 litre 1 litre

1 .0 pC i/litre1 .0 pC i/litre

0.0410.041

3H J 4 .5 ml 200 pC i/litre 0 .018 Body tissue 440 litresK 10-15 ml 200 pC i/litre 0 .018

14CL 10-50 m l 400 pC i/litre 0 .036M 200 ml 30 pC i/litre 0 .031 Fat 440 litres

8°SrS 500 ml 0 .6 pC i/litre 0.0006N 1 litre 5 pC i/litre 1 .4 Bone 440 litresO 1 litre 5 pC i/litre 1 .4P 1 litre 5 pC i/litre 1 .4

50SrR 1 litre 5 pC i/litre 1 .4N 1 litre 1 .0 pC i/litre 2 .7 Bone 440 litresO 1 litre 1.0 pC i/litre 2 .7P 1 litre 1.0 pC i/litre 2 .7Q 1 litre 1.0 pC i/litre 2 .7

APPEN

DIX

I


1M|137CJ g 1 litre134Cs C 3 .5 litresl3,Cs C 3 .5 litres61 Zn B 3 .5 litresMMn B 3 .5 litres

D 400 m l55Fe E 100 mls9Fe B 3 .5 litres

E 100 ml131I B 3 .5 litres

. F 100 m lT 10 litres

95Zr-N b B 3 .5 litres95Zr G 200 ml55Nb G 200 m l

1 litre 1 litre 1 litre 1 litre 1 litre 1 litre 1 litre3 .5 litres3 .5 litres3. S litres

Shellfish (fish):MC o A 200 g60C o A 200 g134Cs A 200 g137Cs A 200 g65Zn A 200 g51Mn A 200 g59Fe A 200 g55Fe B1 100 g89Sr C 200 g

D 200 g90Sr C 200 g

D 200 gE 200 g

Footnotes to Table II on next page.

1 .0 pC i/litre 0 .0 3 Total body 440 litres10 pC i/litre 0 .30 Total body 440 litres10 pC i/litre 0 .14 Total body 440 litres20 pC i/litce 0 .054 T otal body 440 litres10 pC i/litre 0 .082 GI (LLI) 440 litres40 pC i/litre 0 .3 220 pC i/litre 0 .0 2 Spleen 440 litres20 pC i/litre 0 .27 GI (LLI) 440 litres

100 pC i/litre 1 .410 pC i/litre 27 Thyroid 440 litres10 pC i/litre 27

>.04 pC i/litre 0 .15 pC i/litre 0 .071 GI (LLI) 440 litres

15 pC i/litre 0 .2125 p C i/litte 0 .2 1 GI (LLI) 440 litres

5 pC i/litre 1 .2 Bone 365 litres

1 pC i/litre 2 .3 Bone 365 litres

10 pC i/litre 50 Thyroid 365 litres10 pC i/litre 0 .2 5 Total body 365 litres10 pC i/litre 0 .11 T otal body 365 litres

80 pC i/k g 0.027 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg80 pC i/k g 0 .054 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg80 pC i/k g 0 .1 Total body 18.25 kg80 pC i/k g 0.046 T otal body 18.25 kg

160 pC i/kg 0 .018 T otal body 18.25 kg80 pC i/kg 0 .027 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg

160 pC i/kg 0 .091 Gi (LLI) 18.25 kg20 pC i/k g 0.00028 Spleen 18.25 kg25 pC i/kg 0.28 Bone 18.25 kg25 pC i/kg 0 .2 8

5. 0 pC i/k g 0 .5 5 Bone 18.25 kg5 .0 pC i/kg 0 .555 .0 pC i/k g 0 .5 5

APPENDIX I


4̂CT>

a T h e m in im u m d e te c ta b le le v e ls (M D L ) are p ra c t ica l d e te c t io n le v e ls rather than th eore tica l d e te c t io n le v e ls . T h ese le v e ls are c h a ra cte r is t ic o f the a n a ly t ic a l p roced u re and the cou n tin g instrum entation in u se . T h e M DLs listed assum e the fo llo w in g instrum entation: (1) low back grou n d b eta coun ter ; (2 ) standard g a m m a s c a n — 40 0 to 512 m u ltich a n n e l ana lyser — 4 x 4 - in c h N al (T l) d e te c to r ; and (3 ) tritium - liq u id s c in tilla t ion cou n ter . T h e d e te c t io n l im it for a s p e c i f i c ra d ion u clid e by g a m m a -sp e ctr o m e tr y is dep en d en t upon the qu a n tities o f o th er rad ion u clid es present in the sa m p le . T h e d e te c t io n lim its tested are those p r a c t ica lly obta in ed w ith the con cen tra tion s and m ix tu res o frad ion u clid es n orm a lly en cou n tered w ith en v iron m en ta l sa m ples. I f on ly a single ra d ion u clide is present in a sa m p le to b e ana lysed by g a m m a -sp e c tr o m e tr y , then the d e te c t io nlim its listed c o u ld p rob a b ly b e redu ced b y a fa c to r o f 2 . T h e d e te c t io n lim its fo r s p e c i fic n u clid es w ou ld b e c on s id era b ly g rea ter than those listed w hen c o m p lic a te d m ixtures are en cou n tered and in p a rticu lar w hen ce rta in constituents are present in r e la tive ly h igh con cen tra tion s .b T h ese va lu es w ere ob ta in ed by a s im p le ra tio re la tin g R adiation P rotection G uides o f the F ed era l R ad iation C o u n c i l to the dose associa ted w ith these G u id es . A ctu a l dose c a lc u la tio n s resulting from s p e c i f i c e n v iro n m e n ta l le v e ls should take in to considera tion ad d ition a l factors re la ting to pathw ays, in take and other en v iron m en ta l fa c to rs as ap p rop ria te .c Intake va lu es assum e standard m a n qu a n tities or o ther re feren ced values as fo llow s :

1 . 1 litre o f m ilk per day for a 1 -y e a r -o ld c h i ld .2 . 1 .2 litres o f w ater per d a y , a d u lt .3 . 20 m 3 o f a ir breathed per day for an ad u lt .4 . 4 . 7 m 3 o f a ir beathed per d a y for a 1 -y e a r -o ld c h i ld .5 . 1 .8 7 kg food consu m ed per day for to ta l d ie t o f a teen ager .6 . 50 g per d a y o f sh e llfish .

^ T h e annual in take o f a ir is for a c h i ld (a ge 1 y e a r ) . In the case o f 131I, the c h i ld thyroid is the lim itin g fa c to r .e CaF2:M n d os im eter en ca p su lated in 40K -fr e e glass or e q u iv a len t . ̂ A ssum ing tem perature o f 75*F and 90^o re la tive h u m id ity .

8 T h e c r it i c a l organ for 3 H gas m a y be the skin, depen d in g upon the state o f the 3H (gaseous or o x id e ) . T h e b o d y tissue is used as the m ost con servative c a s e , k A ssum ed worst case m ixtu re o f lOO^o 60C o .i Procedure B under sh ellfish is for aq ueous solu tions so that prelim inary sam ple preparation is n ecessary prior to en ter in g this p roced u re .

Footnotes to T ab le II

APPEN

DIX

I


AN N EX II

CRITICAL NUCLIDES, PATHWAYS AND POPULATION GROUPS, AND OTHER HAZARD ASSESSMENT APPROACHES

INDIA

Identification of critical nuclides, pathways and population groups in the neighbourhood of the Tarapur reactors [16]

Critical nuclides

In the early period of operation of Tarapur reactors 131I was the critical nuclide since it was the m ajor activity released to sea .and the seafood picked up the radioiodine. Since seafood in this region is consumed fresh, I becomes important even though it is short lived.

By the end of 1970 and 1971 the activities of other isotopes especially that of 134+137Cs and 58+60Co increased in the radwaste releases. Radiocaesium levels were 2 5 to 30% and radiocobalt levels were 15 to 20%. Thus 131I, 134+137Cs and58+60Co became critical nuclides for exposure consideration from liquid waste discharges. Even though radiostrontium levels were within 2 to 3% of total, since Sr is a bone seeker, radiostrontium becomes one of the radionuclides of interest for exposure purposes. Other radionuclides are short lived and are not of interest biologically for population exposure, except 3H. The 3H released has been quite low even during 1971 and is insignificant for causing exposure.

The air dust filter samples, taken on a m illipore filter paper ( 0 . 2 2 /um pore size) and charcoal cartridge through which air has been filtered, did not show any significant activity above fall-out background in the vicinity of TAPS station during 1969-71, indicating that atmospheric release of particulates and radioiodines are not of significance for evaluation of population exposure.

Even though the inert gas activity releases have gone up to 580 mCi /s during 1971, since these inert gases are not taken up by biological system, they do not come into the diet. Noble gas active nuclides decay to stable end products without giving any problem of significant daughter product activity. Since the activity due to inert gases can cause direct radiation exposure to the public from the active gaseous cloud and also due to submersion, the dose in the

4 7


4 8 APPENDIX II

vicinity of TAPS site have been constantly measured with therm oluminescent dosim eters (TLD) installed at village centres in different directions from the site. The dosimeters were charged once in 3 months and annual dose was evaluated by summing up the quarterly doses. The dose during 1968, 1969 and 1970 is in the natural background radiation level.

Only during 1971 Akkarpatti village, which is about 1.8 km south of site, had about 7 mR and Ghivali village, which is 1.8 km north of site, had about 5 mR dose higher than normal background radiation. This higher than background dose during 1971 was seen during the month of June-July 1971 and at the same time power station stack releases were going up frequently to 500-580 m C i/s .

Daily intake through seafood and critical group of population

It has been seen that except seafood no other dietary item can contribute significantly to the daily intake from radioactivity d ischarged from Tarapur Power Station under normal conditions.Thus it is sufficient to consider the daily intake of seafood by the different groups of population in the Tarapur environment to evaluate the intake of the critical nuclide. The seafood intake of the main group of Tarapur population is taken from the diet survey data.

Using the average nuclide concentration in seafood during 1970 and 1971 from Tables III and IV, the daily intake of critical nuclides by the different groups of population has been evaluated. It has been found that on average only 75% of weight of fish is used in preparing food and 2 5% is discarded as non-edible. The data given in the present study concern the edible portion only. It is observed that fishermen in the TAPS environment, whose seafood intake is about 3 times higher than that of other groups, have the highest intake of TAPS-released radioactivity. Thus they are the critical group of population for TAPS discharges.

UNITED KINGDOM

Analysis of alternative hazard assessment approaches [17]

The critical pathway approach

The critical pathway approach has as its basis a hazard evaluation (Table V), which uses predicted concentrations in the receiving water mass resulting from unit rates of introduction of radionuclides.


APPENDIX II 4 9

TABLE III. AMOUNT OF CRITICAL RADIONUCLIDES IN THE DIETARY MATERIALS IN THE TAPS SITE VICINITY DURING 1968-1971

M a in v a r ie t ie s 89+90Sr i34+‘ 37Cs 131j C o

D ie t ite m and y e a r o f p rod u ction (p C i /k g o f item )

1 2 3 4 5 6

R ice 19 68 5 .6 ± 3 . 0 2 7 .0 ± 4 . 8 BDL BDL

1969 9 . 5 ± 3 . 8 2 8 .0 ± 5 . 8 BDL BDL

1970 1 0 .5 ± 4 . 0 2 6 .5 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL

1971 1 1 .8 ± 4 . 5 3 0 .5 ± 3 .6 BDL BDL

W h ea t 19 68 4 . 5 ± 3 .6 3 8 .5 ± 4 . 6 BDL BDL

19 69 5 . 2 ± 3 . 4 4 4 . 5 ± 3 . 8 BDL BDL

1970 5 . 8 ± 2 . 4 4 2 .4 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL

1971 6 . 3 ± 1 . 8 4 0 .9 ± 9 . 9 BDL BDL

L ea fy 1 9 68 1 2 .6 3 ± 4 . 5 1 9 .0 2 ± 5 . 8 8 9 .2 ± 2 2 .5 BDL

1969 8 .6 4 ± 1 .6 1 6 .4 5 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL

1970 7 . 5 6 ± 2 . 6 2 2 .8 ± 4 . 5 1 0 1 .5 ± 2 5 .5 BDL

1971 8 . 3 ± 1 .2 2 4 . 5 ± 9 . 9 1 5 0 .0 ± 3 1 .0 BDL

V e g e ta b le sR oot and 19 68 4 . 3 0 ± 1 . 2 1 4 .3 ± 1 .2 9 .5 5 ± 2 . 2 BDL

oth er 1969 4 . 2 4 ± 1 .5 1 1 .5 ± 1 . 8 BDL BDL

1970 6 .5 6 ± 2 . 4 1 2 .8 ± 2 . 3 1 6 .5 ± 3 . 8 BDL

1971 4 .1 0 ± 1 .6 1 5 .3 5 ± 3 . 2 2 4 .6 ± 4 . 5 BDL

19 68 6 . 5 ± 1 .6 2 2 .4 ± 3 . 2 7 . 5 ± 1 .2 BDL

1969 8 . 8 ± 2 . 4 2 1 .3 ± 4 . 4 BDL BDL

M ilk1970 9 . 2 ± 2 . 2 2 6 .7 ± 3 . 5 1 4 .4 ± 3 . 5 BDL

1971 1 2 .2 ± 2 .6 . 3 3 .5 ± 4 . 5 2 2 .5 ± 4 . 8 BDL

M utton 1968 8 . 4 ± 2 . 2 2 5 .2 ± 3 . 4 1 0 .3 ± 3 . 3 BDL

(g oa t 1 9 69 7 . 6 ± 4 . 6 2 4 .5 ± 3 . 2 BDL BDL

Fresh m e a tm e a t) 1970 9 . 8 ± 2 . 4 2 8 .4 ± 3 . 6 1 5 .6 ± 2 . 8 BDL

1971 1 2 .2 ± 2 .6 3 3 .5 ± 4 . 5 3 1 .8 ± 3 .8 BDL

C oa s ta l 1968 BDL 1 8 .5 ± 3 .7 BDL BDL

Fish and c a t c h 1969 BDL 1 7 .7 ± 4 . 5 BDL BDL

se a fo o d 1970 7 . 6 ± 2 . 2 3 9 .0 ± 2 6 .2 8 4 .9 ± 3 2 .2 . N e g lig ib le

1971 2 0 .6 7 ± 3 . 8 5 1 2 .1 ± 1 2 9 .5 5 0 8 .6 4 ± 2 4 2 .2 4 . 8 6 ± 2 . 9

BDL■= B elow d e te c t io n l im it for 1 k g s a m p le .


5 0 APPENDIX II

TABLE IV. RADIOACTIVITY OF SEAFOOD IN THE VICINITY OF TAPS SITE DURING 1971

D a te o f c o l le c t io n

D escr ip t ion

131j 89+9°sr 137+134q s

(p C i/k g )

60~C o

1 2 3 4 5 6

5 . 4 .7 1 R ibb on fish (T rich iu ru s sa vla)

9 3 .0 ± 1 4 .7 BDL 3 6 .5 ± 5 . 8 BDL

1 7 .4 .7 1 Prawns 2 0 0 9 .0 ± 1 7 6 .4 2 2 .7 ± 4 . 8 1 5 9 .0 ± 3 1 .0 8 .6 ± 3 . 5

1 7 .4 .7 1 C roa k er(O to lith esargenreus)

3 3 1 .2 ± 3 7 .2 BDL 1 1 7 .0 ± 2 8 .0 BDL

1 7 .4 .7 1 C rabs(S e y llaSerrata)

5 2 1 .9 ± 7 9 .5 1 2 .6 ± 2 . 7 1 7 4 .0 ± 3 3 .0 BDL

1 2 .5 .7 1 Prawns 3 8 0 .5 ± 2 8 .5 1 1 .4 ± 2 . 6 1 4 0 .1 ± 1 8 .9 5 . 7 ± 2 . 2

6 . 7 .7 1 C roa k er 4 1 0 .0 ± 3 8 .0 3 8 .3 ± 4 . 3 1 5 3 0 .0 ± 1 0 .0 BDL

6 . 7 .7 1 Prawns 2 7 0 .0 ± 2 5 .0 8 5 .5 ± 6 . 7 2 1 8 0 .0 ± 1 1 0 .0 1 1 .8 ± 3 .7

7 . 7 .7 1 C rabs 60 3 1 0 .0 ± 3 4 .0 5 4 .5 ± 5 .7 6 9 0 8 .0 ± 3 1 0 .0 3 .2 6 ± 1 . 8

1 1 .7 .7 1 Prawns 1 0 2 5 .0 ± 3 5 .5 3 3 .4 ± 2 . 7 1 2 9 8 .2 ± 7 2 .6 BDL

1 1 .7 .7 1 C la m s(M eretrix )

1 6 7 0 .0 ± 1 2 0 .0 9 . 5 ± 2 . 5 8 3 0 .0 ± 3 . 4 BDL

1 1 .7 .7 1 O ysters 1 5 0 .0 ± 1 1 .4 1 8 .4 ± 4 . 6 1 1 6 .0 ± 5 .6 1 2 .4 ± 3 . 2

3 0 .7 .7 1 Prawns 2 9 6 .0 ± 1 5 .4 1 5 .6 ± 3 . 8 3 8 5 .5 ± 1 4 .6 BDL

8 . 9 .7 1 B om ba y d u ck(H arpodonn ehereus)

2 5 .5 0 ± 2 . 2 8 . 7 ± 2 .6 9 5 .5 ± 4 . 5 6 . 8 ± 2 . 2

8 . 9 .7 1 F ull bea k g ar fish (H em ira m ph us g eo rg i)

8 4 .6 i 1 7 .2 BDL 1 0 2 .0 ± 1 8 .6 1 3 .5 ± 1 .4

1 4 .1 0 .7 1 B om ba y d u ck 2 2 5 .0 ± 1 5 .4 1 1 .6 ± 5 . 4 3 9 5 .0 ± 2 2 .5 BDL

2 8 .1 2 .7 1 M a c k e re l(R a ste llegerkanagurta)

1 3 8 .0 ± 1 2 .4 8 . 5 ± 2 . 5 1 2 3 .0 ± 8 . 8 1 5 .8 ± 5 .2

A v e ra g e : 5 0 8 .6 4 ± 2 4 2 .2 2 0 .6 7 ± 3 . 8 5 1 2 .1 t 1 2 9 .5 4 . 86 ± 2 . 9

BDL = B elow d e te c t io n l im it for 1 k g s a m p le .


APPENDIX II 5 1

TABLE V. CRITICAL PATHWAY APPROACH TO DISPOSAL ASSESSMENT FOR AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Estim ated a c tiv ity le v e l in w ater a t equ ilib riu m from one cu rie per day&

C o n cen tra tio n factors for c r i t i c a l m a te ria ls

A ctiv ity le v e ls in c r i t ic a l m a te ria ls

&L o ca l survey data

♦D a ily in ta k e /d a ily exposure

&ICRP m axim u m perm issible d a ily in tak e/exp o su re

IM axim um p erm issible d aily d ischarge rate

These concentrations are used, together with suitable concentration factors, to derive concentrations for the material or materials likely to provide the greatest degree of human radiation exposure; then, from the known utilization of these materials, the perm issible concentrations of radioactivity are ascertained and, in consequence, the perm issible water concentrations and discharge rates. The vitally important aspect of such an exercise is the habits survey, because it is necessary at an early stage to establish the working, eating and recreational habits of the loca l population, and in certain instances those of populations at some distance from the contaminated area, in order to make quantitative estimates of food intake, or of hours exposed to external radiation. In this way rates of introduction compatible with acceptable dose limits for members of the public may be established, or estimates of the dose resulting from uncontrolled contamination, e. g. weapon-test fall-out, may be made.

The early results of monitoring in relation to potentially exposed groups allow the classification of situations into three principal types:

(a) those where contamination of critical materials leads to a significant fraction of the ICRP dose limit for members of the public;


5 2 APPENDIX II

(b) those where activity is not detectable, or at a very low concentration in critical materials but is easily measurable in indicator m aterials; and

(c) those where activity is not detectable in any materials.The latter situation may still require a limited monitoring programme for what might be termed public relations purposes. The second category of situation can be observed through the medium of an indicator material which is usually chosen for high reconcentration of potentially critical radionuclides.

The first category requires continued study of the exposed population, because a given concentration of the critical nuclide in the critical material will not result in the same degree of radiation exposure for each member of that population. The eventual aim, therefore, is to isolate that group in the population whose habits, location or age lead to their receiving the highest doses. These people then become the critical group and the control limits are applied to the average of this group. In practice, great care is required in selecting this group and,in designing and modifying the monitoring programme to reflect accurately its radiation exposure and further surveys of the habits of the critical population are required from time to time.

The specific activity approach

This basic approach, descriptions of which appear in several publications, stems from a knowledge of the perm issible human organ or body burden for a particular radionuclide as laid down by ICRP (Table VI). This is then expressed as a specific activity in relation to the concentration of the stable nuclide of the same element in that organ or the body, e .g . pC i/g of element x. This specific activity becomes the limiting activity concentration for the water, on the assumption that if this concentration is not exceeded in the water, then it cannot be exceeded at any point in the food chain or in the critical organ in man. The rate of introduction of activity is set so that this ratio in the water is not exceeded.

This approach is very attractive because it dispenses with the concentration factor data (required by the critical pathway system when carrying out the initial assessment) and is supposedly applicable regardless of the eating habits of the individual concerned, thus dispensing with the need for habits surveys. It is , of course, only applicable to food-chain evaluations, and in the application of


APPENDIX II 5 3

TABLE VI. SPECIFIC ACTIVITY APPROACH TO DISPOSAL ASSESSMENT FOR AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE

ICRP m axim u m p erm issible organ (body) burden o f rad ionuclid e

Organ (body) c o n ten t o f stable nuclid e

IM axim u m perm issible sp e c if ic a c tiv ity in seaw ater

&C o n cen tra tio n o f stable e le m e n t in seaw ater

M axim um p erm issible co n cen tra tio n o f rad ion uclide in seaw ater

&Equilibriu m c o n cen tra tio n from u n it rate o f discharge

M axim u m p erm issible rate o f d ischarge

this approach to coastal sites care must be taken to ensure that external dose rates on nearby beaches due to the adsorption of radionuclides on sediments is not excessive. The approach has limitations with respect to elements where data on human stable nuclide concentrations are not available. Nor can it be applied to those cases where the critical organ for the radionuclide or radionuclide mixture is the gastro-intestinal tract.

This method is more easily applied to sea disposal than to disposal into fresh water since the chemical composition of seawater is more uniform. The use of the stable nuclide distribution of an element as an analogue for the radionuclide distribution involves several simplifying assumptions, most of which will lead to conservative rates of radionuclide introduction. However, the most important assumption is that of the relative biological availability of the stable and radioactive nuclides. The greatest variability of stable nuclide concentrations of trace elements is likely to be encountered in coastal waters, where the majority of waste disposal operations are undertaken. Furthermore, the limiting situation posed by most m ajor discharges of radioactivity relates to areas close to the point of release, where it is unlikely that the freshly . introduced radionuclide will rapidly assume the distribution of its


5 4 APPENDIX II

stable counterpart in the receiving water mass, due to differences in physico-chem ical states, which require time and therefore distance to resolve.

Ultimately, this approach offers the possibility, at least so far as food-chain problems in relation to sea disposal are concerned, of setting maximum perm issible concentrations for the water. We are some way yet from being able to attain this objective because many more data are required on trace element concentrations in seawater and on their variability in time and space, on the central problems of relative biological availability, and on the role of particulate matter and organic com plexes in the cycling of trace elements and their artificial radionuclides. Indeed, it is appropriate to sound a note of caution since recent evidence in relation to 55Fe,60Co and 65Zn, introduced to the marine environment from weapon-test fall-out, suggests that rather large differences in specific activity between the water and some elements of the biota can occur.However, this was foreseen, in the original consideration of this system, by the Isaacs Committee who allowed a reduction factor of 1 0 in permitted concentrations to account for preferential uptake of such complexed metal radionuclides. Even so, the factors suggested by the recent findings would need to be more of the order of 1 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 .

Nevertheless, this method does seem to offer perhaps the only sensible approach to the problems encountered in assessing the marine contamination consequences of a project such as the use of nuclear explosives in the excavation of an Atlantic-Pacific inter- oceanic canal. Here, many neutron-induced and fission-product radionuclides can be shown to be below maximum perm issible specific activity prior to the time of release, due to very thorough mixing with stable nuclides from the geological matrix in which the explosion takes place. Since these will also presumably be in the same physico-chem ical states after such intimate mixing, their biological availability and ultimate reconcentration in foods and humans should be governed by the specific activity model.

The consequences of this system for marine monitoring requirements, so far as they were considered by the Isaacs Committee at the time, involved the sampling of all marine foodstuffs and organisms of com m ercial importance and their analysis for radionuclides and stable nuclides to provide data on both the curie quantities and the specific activity. Thus, although only an initial requirement in that once the validity of the specific activity model for the particular situation had been demonstrated it could be considerably relaxed,


APPENDIX II 5 5

the scale of effort is considerably: greater than that involved in the critical pathway approach at the same stage. Ultimately, perhaps, monitoring could be reduced to the sampling and determination of those nuclides at or near maximum specific activity in either the major materials or the receiving water m ass, but even then the analytical effort involved would be considerable. The establishment of a satisfactory specific activity model implies that adequate control can eventually be exercised by demonstrating that the concentrations in the water are below maximum specific activity, but representative sampling of open coastal seawater is a very difficult task and involves the establishment of a sampling network that is extensive in both time and space.


AN NEX III

The estimation of the dose received by the population is based on the estimation of any dose received from external radiation and of the concentration of individual radionuclides in ingestion and inhalation pathways and the use of mathematical models to relate these concentrations to organ or whole-body doses. The estimated dose from inhaled or ingested radionuclides is then added to the measured or calculated dose from exposure to external radiation to give the total dose.

Even with the most sensitive radiation detectors it is sometimes difficult to make measurements of the external radiation or the concentrations of radionuclides in environmental media that are attributable to discharges from a nuclear installation under normal operating conditions. The population doses are therefore more usually estimated from the known activities of radionuclides discharged and the postulated critical environmental pathways and reconcentration factors. Wherever possible, such estimates should be compared with calculations based on environmental monitoring results. In some cases, however, the calculations based on measurements will only show that the population dose is less than some level representing the detection limit of the measuring system.

The models used for calculating the concentrations of radionuclides in the environment should be representative of the environmental and demographic characteristics of the area. The environmental characteristics include those relating to meteorology, hydrology and pathways for exposure to external radiation and to internal exposure from inhalation and ingestion of water and food.The demographic characteristics include population distribution and eating, recreational and other appropriate habits. It may be possible to identify a hypothetical person who receives the maximum dose. This might be a person who lives at the area of maximum predicted ground-level concentration, or a person who eats food grown in the area of highest concentration or ingests or is otherwise exposed to contamination in an identified critical pathway.

The demographic data should also permit the identification of the critical population group. The location of the critical group may be far from the responsible installation.

DOSE E STIM ATES

IN TROD U CTION [15]

5 6


APPENDIX III 5 7

EXAMPLES OF REPORTED DOSE ESTIMATES

India

Estimated doses that might be received by persons in the neighbourhood of the Tarapur reactors [16]

(a) Dose due to dietary intake

Dose to the public due to the dietary intake is calculated as per the method adopted at Hanford. This is based on the dose factors calculated from ICRP standard man's maximum perm issible intake (MPI) value for the particular nuclide and corresponding annual dose. MPI is calculated from maximum perm issible concentration in water MPCW and water intake values. The perm issible annual dose taken is 0.5 rem /a for whole body and 3.0 rem /a for thyroid and bone as the critical organs. The dose factors mrem/MCi intake are given for the nuclides of interest in the present evaluation in Table VII.

From these dose factors and the intake data the dose due to the radioactivity intake is evaluated. It has been seen that in seafood samples 134C s /137Cs ratio is about 0:65 and 90S r /89Sr is 0.1 and these ratios are used for evaluating dose from radiocaesium and radiostrontium. These doses evaluated |for the critical group (fishermen) for 1970 and 1971 are given in Table VIII.

The dose factors in Table VII and doses in Table VIII are evaluated on the ICRP basis. As can be seen in the next section, the stable element intake at Tarapur is different from the ICRP

TABLE VII. RADIATION DOSE FACTORS

N uclides C r it ic a l organ Dose fa cto r (m re m /(iC i in ta k e)

Io d in e -131 Thyroid 1 8 6 0 .0 0 .

C a e s iu m -134 W hole body 6 9 .0 0

C a e s iu m -137 W hole body 3 1 2 .0 0

S tro n tiu m -89 Bone 3 7 4 .0 0

S tro n tiu m -90 Bone 37 4 0 0 .0 0

C o b a lt -60 W hole body 6 .2 3


5 8 APPENDIX III

TABLE VIII. DOSE TO FISHERMAN FROM DIETARY INTAKE OF CRITICAL NUCLIDES

N uclides C r it ic a l organDose during 1970

(m rem )Dose during 1971

(m rem )

Io d in e -131 Thyroid 7 . 8 47

C a e s iu m -134 W hole body 0 .0 5 3 0 .6 9

C a e s iu m -137 W hole body 0 .3 6 4 . 8

S tro n tiu m -89 Bone 0 .1 2 0 .3 5

Stron tium - 90 Bone 1 .2 3 .4

C o b a lt -60 W hole body - 0 .0 0 1

Dose values have a 25% standard error.

value. The body weight of Indian standard man and water intake data are also different from those of ICRP. Thus dose given in Table VIII will be slightly different when these factors are considered.

It can be seen from Table IX that direct dose due to airborne releases from the power station was only 5 to 7 mR during 1971 and below detection during 1970. This was observed in only two villages and during the two months of June and July 1971. The dose received by the critical population group due to contaminated seafood is from the intake throughout the year and not over a small interval. Even though the dose due to fission gases could not be detected in the environment, the dose due to eating contaminated seafood, though very low, could be measured. In the Tarapur Environment the liquid radwaste - sea - seafood - man chain is the important exposure pathway for evaluation of population exposure from operation of the atomic power station.

The critical pathway and critical population group in the case of accidental release may be different from the normally observed findings. Under accident conditions 131I release to atmosphere is primarily expected and the critical food is then leafy vegetables and milk. The population group consuming the highest amount of milk and leafy vegetables would then become the most highly exposed group. In the event of an accidental release to the marine environment the critical pathway sea - seafood - man observed during normal operation would still apply.


APPENDIX III 5 9

TABLE IX. DIRECT RADIATION DOSE MEASURED WITH TLDs IN THE TAPS ENVIRONMENT

V illa g e and d istan ce from TA PS site

Dose(m R /a)

1 968 1969 1970 1971

1 . G h iv ali( 1 .8 km North)

58 58 60 65

2 . A kkarpatti ( 1 .8 km South)

62 60 61 68

3 . Panchm arg ( 2 .5 km East)

58 61 60 59

4 . Eudan( 2 .5 km NE)

57 56 57 58

5 . Pam tem bh i

(5 km SE)

56 58 57 58

N ote: (i) S in ce there was no o p eration involv ing ra d io a c tiv e m a te ria ls , the 196 8 dose rate values ca n be considered as background values in the d iffe ren t v illa g e s , (ii) Dose data have a S’lo

standard error.

United Kingdom [18]

Doses from CEGB discharges

Exposure pathways for liquid discharges from three selected civil nuclear power stations are given in Table X. Typical exposures of the small population groups concerned (10, 50 or 100 persons) are 1 m rem /a or less to whole body, except in the case anglers at Trawsfynydd, whose exposure is about 2 0 m rem /a.At five other stations exposure of the public is less than 0.5 m rem /a.

The absence of any measurable contribution to dose from gaseous discharges is clear from the results of gamma-radiation monitoring in the vicinity of stations and of milk monitoring. There is no measurable contribution to dose to members of the public from solid waste accumulated at nuclear power stations.


TABLE X. EXPOSURE PATHWAYS FOR DISCHARGES FROM SELECTED CEGB NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS

05o

S tation and c r it i c a l m a te r ia l

E xposed p op u la t ion group

D a ily consum ption rate or annual

hours o f exposureE xposed organ

Im porta n tr a d ion u clid es

D erivedw ork ing

lim it

T y p ic a l exposure o f the

p op u la t ion group co n c e rn e d (m r e m /a )

P ercen ta ge o f ICRP

dose l im it

B radw el]Oyster O yster fish erm en

(50 persons)75 g /d T o ta l body 65Z n (c r it ic a l)

137C s , llo m A g 32 p

29 00 p C i /g 0 . 3 < 0 . 1

Traw sfynydd T rou t and p erch flesh

Lake anglers (10 0 persons)

100 g /d T o ta l body 137Cs1MCs

44 0 p C i /g 200 p C i /g

20 4

H inkley Point Fish and shrim p flesh

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s (1 0 0 persons)

90 g /d T o ta l body 131Cs134Cs

49 0 p C i /g 22 0 p C i /g

0 . 4 < 0 . 1

M u d /s ilt L o c a l fish erm en (10 persons)

880 h /a T o ta l body 13,Cs134Cs

570 p r e m /h 1 0 .2

APPEN

DIX

III


APPENDIX III 6 1

No contribution to gonad dose from nuclear power stations exceeds a few man* rem s as an annual total. The total annual dose to the critical group of 100 anglers at Trawsfynydd, whose whole - body dose due to consumption of fish contaminated with 137Cs and

Cs is estimated to be about 20 m rem /a (Table X), is a 2 man • rem s. The other stations in Table X contributed less than 0.1 man • rems between them. It is possible that sm aller doses to larger populations nearby might contribute a few additional man • rem s per station.

Exposure factors involved in the discharge of aqueous radioactive wastes from additional CEGB power stations are listed in Table XI and estimates of the radiation doses received by the population are given in Table XII.

Doses from UKAEA discharges

Upper limits to annual doses arising from radioactive liquid and gaseous waste discharges can be deduced from measured activities when expressed as percentages of DWLs in environmental materials. Most values do not exceed a few per cent and many are well below 1% of the DWL. The only values that regularly exceed 10% are due to 106Ru in liquid discharges to sea from Windscale in Cumberland. Many aspects of the critical pathway have been extensively studied by Preston and Jefferies, who carried out surveys in distribution and consumption of laverbread during the years 1962-1967 and concluded that the average exposure of the critical group concerned ( 1 0 0 persons out of a total of some 26 0 0 0

laverbread eaters) was about 600 m rem /a to the GI tract compared with the dose limit of 1500 m rem /a. This was estimated on the conservative assumption that these exceptional consumers regularly eat laverbread manufactured solely from Cumberland seaweed, whereas an average market dilution factor of 4.2, due to the incorporation of non-Cumberland seaweed, operated during the period of sampling.

Other exposure pathways arising as a result of Windscale discharges are external radiation of fishermen from contaminated estuarine silt and fishing gear, and internal radiation of fishermen who eat locally caught fish. Table XIII gives parameters of interest for all four pathways and estimated exposures to the very limited numbers of persons (10 or 100) in each critical group. The most important group next to laverbread consumers are fishermen who spend about 350 hours per year on estuarine silt and are estimated to receive 50 m rem /a whole-body radiation.


6 2 APPENDIX III

TABLE XI. EXPOSURE FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DISCHARGE OF AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTES

S ite C r it ic a l m a te r ia l C r it ic a l exp osu re c a te g o r y E xposed group

U nited K in g d om A to m ic E nergy A u th ority

W in d s ca le Porphyra (la v erb rea d ) S ilt

B eta dose to GI tract G a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y

G en era l p u b lic (South W ales)

F isherm en

W in fr ith Lobster and c ra b flesh B eta dose to GI tract L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s

S p rin g fie ld s S ilt G a m m a dose to. w h o le b od y D red ge rm en

A ld erm a ston D rink ing w ater B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y

(so m a tic and g e n e t ic h azard )G en era l p u b lic (G rea ter London )

H arw ell D rink ing w ater B e ta -g a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y (so m a tic and g e n e t ic h azard )

G en era l p u b lic (G rea ter L ondon )

A m ersh a m D rink ing w a ter B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y (so m a tic and g e n e t ic h azard )

G en era l p u b lic (G rea ter London )

D ou n rea y D etritus B each sludge

B eta dose to hands G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l f ish erm enL o c a l f ish erm en and others

C h a p e lcross Shrim p flesh Sand and silt

B e ta -g a m m a dose to w h o le b od y G a m m a dose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s S a lm on fish erm en

C en tra l E le c t r ic ity G en era tin g Board and South o f S co tla n d E le c t r ic ity Board

B erk eley S ilt

Shrim p and sa lm on flesh

G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

B e ta -g a m m a dose to w h o le b od y

S a lm on f ish e rm e n /R iv e r A u th ority w orkersL o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s

B radw ell O yster flesh B eta dose to GI tra c t O yster fish erm en and fa m il ie s

H in k ley P oint Fish and shrim p flesh S ilt

B e ta -g a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s L o c a l f ish erm en

D ungeness Fish flesh S ilt

B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y G a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s B ait d ig g ers

O ldbury S ilt

Shrim p and sa lm on fle sh

G a m m a dose to w h o le b od y

B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

Sa lm on fish e rm e n /R iv e r A u th ority w orkersL o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s

S iz e w e ll Fish and sh e llfish f lesh Sand

B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y G a m m a dose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s

L o c a l f ish erm en

Traw sfyn ydd T rou t flesh B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y L o c a l f ish erm en and fa m il ie s

W y lfa Fish and sh e llfish f le sh S ilt

B e ta -g a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l fish erm en and fa m il ie s L o c a l f ish erm en

H unters ton Fish flesh Sand

B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y

L o c a l f ish erm en and fa m il ie s S h ellfish c o l le c t o r s


APPENDIX III 63

T A B L E XI ( c o a t . )

Site C r it ic a l m a te r ia l C r it ic a l exp osu re c a te g o r y E xposed grou p

M in istry o f D e fe n c e (N avy D ep a rtm en t)

C h ath a m R iver m u d /s i l t G a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y G e n e ra l p u b li c (h ou seb oa t dw e lle rs )

Faslane M u d /s i lt G a m m a dose to w h o le b o d y B oatyard w orkers

R osyth S ilt G a m m a d ose to w h o le b od y D red g erm en

Liquid discharges from Dounreay contaminate a variety of potential seafoods to a small fraction of the DWL, but the authorization is largely based upon the activity that collects upon salmon fisherm en's nets and the resultant dose to the hands of the fishermen handling these nets. During 1969 very little fishing was carried out, but monitoring of experimental nets in 1968 showed the average dose to the hands of fewer than ten fishermen during the 1968 fishing season to be about 70 mrem compared with a dose limit of 3 750 mrem allocated to the fishing season.

The critical group with respect to gaseous discharges is often infants who drink cow s' milk and measurements of activity in milk near Windscale indicate doses in 1969 not exceeding 30 mrem to mineral bone due to 90Sr and 3 mrem to whole body due to 137Cs, including the contribution due to fall-out. The critical group for krypton releases from the reprocessing plant at Windscale com prises the few members of the population who live within about 1 km of the plant. A conservative calculation shows the upper limit of exposure of this critical population due to the 1970 UK power programme to be 4 m rem /a (skindose), and of a larger population of a few thousand within about 6 km to be 1-2 m rem /a (skin dose). Dose rates to gonads are about 1 % of these values.

Doses to members of the general public due to burial of solid waste at Drigg and Ulnes Walton are negligible because the substratum is of clay and any water draining from the site runs into non-potable water courses. The amounts of waste disposed of into the Atlantic Deeps are too small to have an appreciable effect on the environment.

The average dose rate due to 1®6Ru in the GI tract of the whole group of 26 0 0 0 laverbread eaters, whose consumption was about 1 0 % of that of the critical group, was about 60 m rem /a during 1962-1967,


6 4 APPENDIX III

TABLE XII. ESTIMATES OF PUBLIC RADIATION EXPOSURE FROM LIQUID RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSALS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 1970 [19]

Site Pathw ay

M a x im u m a ,

e xp osu re o f anin d iv id u a lC7o o f ICRP

r e co m m e n d e dd ose lim it )

A p p ro x im a te to ta l p o p u la t io n gon a d

dose*5 (m a n • rem )

U n ited K in g d o m A to m ic E nergy A u th ority

H a rw e ll 1

A ld erm a ston [■ D rin k in g w a ter < 1 1 000

A m ersh a m JW in dsca le P orp h y ra /la v erb rea d 5

( t o c r i t i c a l group )0.3

E xterna l dose 12 0.5

Fish 1( t o c r i t i c a l group)

150

S p rin g fie ld s E xtern a l dose < i < 0 .1

W in fr ith S h ellfish < i < 0 .1

C h a p e lcross E xterna l dose

S h ellfish

« i

« i

< 0.01

< 0 .1

D ou n rea y E xterna l dose ( foresh ore )

< i < 0 .5

B eta d ose ( fisherm en )

0.4 < 0.01

S h ellfish « 1 < 1

C en tra l E le c t r ic ity G en era tin g Board

B e rk e le y /O ld b u ry E xtern a l dose < 0.3 < 0 .1

F ish /sh e llf ish < 0 .1 < 0 .1

B radw ell O yster 0.1 0.002

D ungeness E xtern a l dose « 0.1 < 0 .1

Fish « 0.1 < 0 .1

H in k ley Point E xtern a l dose 0.1 < 0.1

F ish /sh e llf ish 0.2 < 1

S iz e w e ll E xtern a l dose « 0.1 < 0 .1

F ish /sh e llf ish « 0.1 < 0 .1

T raw sfynydd Lake fish 3 < 0.5

South o f S co tla n d E le c t r ic ity Board

H unterston E xtern a l dose < 0 .1 < 0 .1

F ish /sh e llf ish < 0 .1 < 0 .1


APPENDIX III 6 5

T A B L E XII (con t. )

Site P athw ay

M a x im u m e x p osu re3 o f an

in d iv id u a l (% o f ICRP

r e co m m e n d e d dose l im it )

A p p ro x im a te to ta l p op u la t io n gon ad

dose a (m a n • rem )

M in istry o f D e fe n c e (N avy D ep a rtm en t)

C h ath a m E xterna l dose < 0 . 1 < 0 . 1

Faslane E xtern a l dose < 0 . 1 < 0 . 1

Rosyth E xtern a l dose < 0 .1 < 0 . 1

a Assessed as fro m d isch a rges fro m the s ite n a m ed o n ly .

if the market dilution factor of 4.2 is not taken into account. The more realistic value is 15 m rem /a , giving a population dose of 400 man • rem s to the GI tract. The population gonad dose is less than this by a factor of about 1 0 0 0 , due to the small amount of gamma irradiation of the gonads compared with J3 and 7 -irradiation of the GI tract by 106Ru and its daughter 106Rh, and to the geometrical relationship of the gonads and the GI tract. The annual population gonad dose from this source is, therefore, about 0.4 man - rem s.

The remaining pathways in Table XIII contribute about0.6 man* rems between them. The annual gonad dose to the population o f a few thousand near Windscale due to the plume of 85Kr does not exceed 0 . 1 man • rem s as the gonad dose is about 1 % of skin dose.

A large population of about 5 million consumes Thames water (suitably purified) into which about 1 C i/d of tritium is discharged (322 Ci from Amersham in 1969).! The flow rate at the extraction point is about 2 x 106 m 3 /d . The published ICRP MPCW of 3 x 10’ 2 ptCi/cm3 was calculated from a dose limit of 5 rem s/a , using an RBE of 1.7 and a total daily water intake of 2.2 litres.This MPCW corresponds to a dose rate of about 2 rem s/a on the more recent basis of a QF of 1 and a daily drinking water intake of 1.2 litres. The whole-body (and gonad) dose to individual consumers due to tritium discharged to the River Thames in 1969 was, therefore, about 3 x 10" 5 rem s and the population gonad dose was 150 man • rem s.

Exposure factors involved in the discharge of aqueous radioactive wastes from additional UKAEA establishments are listed in Table XI and estimates of the radiation doses received by the population are given in Table XII.


05

TABLE XIII. EXPOSURE PATHWAYS OF WINDSCALE IRISH SEA RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISCHARGES

C r it ic a l m a ter ia lExposed

p op u la t ion group

D a ily consum ption rate or annual

hours o f exposureE xposed organ

R a d ion u clid es con trib u tin g t o exposure

D er iv edw ork in g

lim it

T y p ic a l exposure o f the

p op u la t ion group co n c e rn e d (m r e m /a )

P ercentage o f ICRP

d ose l im it

Porphyra (seaw eed ) Laverbread c o n sum ers in South W a les2 . 6 x 104 persons (c r it ic a l group 100)

160 g laverbread (80 g seaw eed)

GI tract (LLI)

106Ru ( c r it ic a l ) , 144C e

30 0 p C i /g (106Ru + 144C e ) in thesea w eed

6 0 0 a c r i t i c a l group

4 0 a

Estuarine s ilt F isherm en (10 persons)

350 h T o ta l body 95Z r , 55N b, 106Ru1 . 4 m r e m /h 50 10

Fish L o c a l fisherm en (100 persons)

25 g GI tract T o ta l body

106Ru13,Cs

900 p C i /g 18 00 p C i /g

20 . 5

0 .10 .1

Fishing g ear Fisherm en (100 persons)

500 h Hands I06Ru144C e

15 m r e m /h 20 0 . 3

a T h ese va lu es assum e that there w as no d ilu tion o f C u m berland seaw eed w ith in a c tiv e seaw eed from e lsew h ere ; during the p e r io d o f m a rk et sa m plin g (1 9 6 2 -1 9 6 7 ) , on w h ich these va lu es are ba sed , there w as an a verage d ilu tion fa c to r o f 4 .2 .

APPEN

DIX

III


APPENDIX III 6 7

TABLE XIV. MICROCURIE-DOSE FACTORS FOR CALCULATING ENVIRONMENTAL DOSES

Isotope

GI tra ct

U nits o f m rem /fiC i in take

a T o ta l b o d ya Thyroid a

Units o f % M PRI/(JCi in tak e

B o n e '3

z4Na 6 . 2

M axim um in divid ual

1 .7 . .

32 p 21 7 . 4 6 . 2

51Cr 1 .2 - - -

64Cu 4 . 6 - - -

65Zn 9 .6 6 . 5 0 .1 2

16As 77 - - -

131j - - 1700 Adult -

239Np 19 -

17 000 C hild

-

R E +Y C 50 - - -

24Na 6 . 2

T y p ic a l R ichland Resident

1.7 - -

32 p 21 7 . 4 - 19

51C r 1.2 - - -

64Cu 4 . 6 - - -

65Zn 9 .6 65 - 0 .3 7

76As 77 - - -

131 j - - 1700 Adult -

239Np 19 -

17 000 Child

-

R E +Y C 50 - - -

a M icro cu rie -d o se fa cto r : T h e dose in m rem th at 1 juCi o f an ingested rad ionuclide w ill d e liv er

to a g iven organ e ith er over an in fin ite period o f tim e from an acu te in ta k e , or over a o n e- y e a r period when eq u ilib riu m con d ition s are m ain ta in ed by a con stan t d aily in ta k e . A ll rad ionuclides w ere considered to be in soluble form for com p u tation o f dose fa cto rs . It is reco g n ized that the dose l im it for the to ta l body is based on exposure to the gonads and red bone m arrow . T h e dose facto rs used here for the to ta l body assume a uniform d istrib u tion ,

k In the case o f bone the fa cto r is'exp ressed in per c e n t o f m axim u m perm issible rate o f in ta k e ,

i . e . 100°/o is eq u iv a len t to the M PRI.

c Rare earths plus y ttriu m .


6 8 APPENDIX III

United States of Am erica

Estimated doses that might be received by persons in the neighbourhood of Hanford [20]: factors used for calculating radiation doses

The critical organs of persons receiving radiation doses from environmental sources in the Hanford environs were known from experience to be the total body, bone, GI tract, and thyroid. Study and experience have shown that a major portion (90 to 95%) of

SOURCE NUCLIDE FOOD, ETC.

Z rr

BONE

/•ALL OTHER -SEAFOOD - FISH"GAME BIRDS "MILK -M E A T

-WATER

- E X T 7 ALL OTHER

■ -SEAFOOD ' m ilk 'WATER

-EXT. 7

-ALL OTHER

PER CENT OF STANDARD 20 40 60 80 100

-WATER

E3S3-EXT7

giHBHHm--VEGETABLESHIM III I I I I

MILK

-W A TE R

500 mrem PER YEAR AEC-FRC




FIG . 1. Estim ated doses to th e A verage Richland Resident, 1969 .


APPENDIX III 6 9

radiation doses in the Hanford environs are contributed by a relatively few radionuclides: 24Na, 32P, 51Cr, 64Cu, 65Zn, 76As, 131I,239Np and rare earths plus yttrium fraction. To ease the calculation of the radiation dose contributed by each of these radionuclides to the various critical organs, a table of factors based on the organ dose received from a unit intake (1 jtiCi) of each specific radionuclide was prepared (Table XIV). The parameters set forth in ICRP Publication No. 2 and in the FRC Reports were used in preparing this table. Many of these factors were tabulated previously by Vennart and Minski and published'in the British Journal of Radiology.

SOURCE

NUCLIDE FOOD, ETC

, ALL OTHER -EGGS

^ O f r u it &veg: \MILK

MEAT "FISH -WATER - EXT. y

PER CENT OF STANDARD

20 40 60 80 100

1500 mrem PER YEAR A EC-FR C


1500 mrem PER YEAR A EC -FR C


FIG . 2. E stim ated doses to th e M axim um In d ivid ual, 1969.


7 0 APPENDIX III

The maximum permissible rate of intake (MPRI) of bone- seekers for individuals was taken as one-tenth the product of the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) in water for a given radionuclide, as recommended by the ICRP for continuous occupational exposure, and the rate of water intake as given by the ICRP for the standard man (2.2 litres/d). In the case of 32P the MPRI is 16 mCi/a for the Maximum Individual. The MPRI for an average of the exposed population (the Typical Richland Resident) was taken to be one-third of the MPRI for individuals, of 5.3 /uCi/a for 32P.

Computation of the dose received by the thyroid gland was related to FRC intake guides recommended for 131I. The top of Range II (100 pCi/d) was rounded off by the FRC from approximately 80 pCi/d, which if sustained over a one-year period, would result in a dose of approximately 500 mrem to a 2 g thyroid based upon current ICRP dose calculation factors. Using 80 pCi/d (0.029 /iCi/a) intake of 131I as a basis, the corresponding intake-dose factor was calculated to be 17 000 mrem per /uCi 131I ingested.

Table X IV summarizes the factors used in calculating radiation doses from environmental sources. Figures 1 and 2 show the composite radiation doses for the average Richland resident and the M axim um Individual for 196 9, as given in the annual environm ental reports.


EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES

APPENDIX IV

ARGENTINA

Environmental monitoring in the neighbourhood of the Atucha Nuclear Power Station

1. Introduction

The purpose of the environmental monitoring programme described below is to check that the Basic Safety Standards and the ICRP recommendations are being properly observed as regards exposure of the public during normal operation of the power station.

Monitoring is not an end in itself, but is merely a technique employed in radiological protection. An essential component of the monitoring programme is, therefore, that the results should be interpreted in the light of the ICRP recommendations. The latter recommendations include 'dose-equivalent limits' and radionuclide 'uptake limits', and these can be used in interpreting the monitoring results.

Many of the measurements performed in a monitoring programme cannot be expressed directly in terms that are comparable with the recommended ICRP limits. To interpret these results one needs to use an 'exposure model', which establishes a quantitative relation between the measured quantities and the resulting dose-equivalents of radiation. The expression 'Derived Working Limits' (DWL) describes those values of the monitored quantities that correspond in the exposure model to the dose limits recommended by ICRP.In view of the 'super-safe' hypothesis applied in selecting the 'exposure model1, observance of the DWL values gives the virtual certainty that the recommended ICRP dose limits are observed as well.

It should be stressed, nevertheless, that environmental monitoring is not in itself sufficient to ensure adequate protection of the public. This type of monitoring should be accompanied by suitable 'monitoring of release', in order to be able to estimate the resulting doses in cases where the environmental levels are difficult to measure or to distinguish from radioactive fall-out.

7 1


72 APPENDIX IV

The Derived Working Limits for routine environmental monitoring at Atucha were determined by the methods indicated below, which will be described in greater detail in another document.

2.1. DWL for the contamination of foodstuffs by one

2. D eriv ed W ork in g L im its . M eth odology

In the case of a standard man, not exposed to external radiation, and consuming only one type of contaminated foodstuff, the DWL=IL/g, where IL is the uptake limit and g the annual amount of the foodstuff consumed. Obviously, the dose resulting from consumption of a foodstuff with a concentration C over a period of one year will give a dose commitment of (C/DWL) XDL, where Dl is the corresponding dose limit.

2.2. DWL for the case of irradiation due to contamination of various foodstuffs and to external radiation, in both cases by one radionuclide

Let the concentration of the radionuclide in each foodstuff be termed Q and the external radiation dose to the organ R. The dose limits are not exceeded if

If the concentrations and external dose are equal to their respective DWL values, the expression is equal to one. The equation can be solved for a given DWL if the relations between the concentrations (and the external dose) are known. This is the case when all exposure pathways have a common precursor compartment in the 'exposure model1. If the concentration in this precursor is Ca,Fai is the transfer parameter to the foodstuff i, and FaR is the transfer parameter to the external dose, then we have

radionuclide


APPENDIX IV 73

__ F aK______

The D W L fo r a g iven fo o d s tu ff K is th e re fo re g iven by

DWW =K J_ ) F , g. + ZaR IL L ai gl Dl

2.3. DWL for the case of a mixture of radionuclides

In the case of a mixture of various radionuclides summations similar to those mentioned under section 2.2 must be carried out for each critical organ. It must be realized that if three or more critical organs receive important fractions of their respective dose limits, the irradiation must be regarded as 'whole body'.

If the mixture has a fraction of activity p. from nuclide j, the following relation holds for each critical organ

where Wj is the DWL for the case of the isolated nuclide, as in section 2.2. The above equations (one for each critical organ) form a set from which the smallest DWLj values are selected.

2.4. 'Exposure model' and parameters employed

The 'exposure model' employed does not include the input or the primary dispersion process. It is based on a compartment common to all irradiation pathways (air in the case of stack releases and water in the case of river releases).

Figure 3 describes the model for the case of atmospheric releases. Depending on the particular radionuclide, the critical organs may be: thyroid, haematopoietic tissue, lung, gastrointestinal tract, gonads, or 'whole-body'. Also, the critical organs can be those of 'standard' adults or of children, depending on the radionuclide and the pathway involved. Figure 4 represents the model for aqueous releases. Both'models were used in the 'time- independent' form, i.e . in the state of dynamic equilibrium. The values obtained are also valid in the case of single releases, if interpreted as time integrals and 'committed doses'.


7 4 APPENDIX IV

FIG. 3 . A tm o sp h e r ic re le a se m o d e l.

FIG. 4 . A q u e o u s re le a se m o d e l .

The parameters were obtained in experimental work, in studiesrelated to fall-out measurements and, in some cases, from theliterature. In particular, the rate of deposition of aerosols wastaken as 3 X 10"3 m /s, based on studies of the mean annual valuesin low-altitude releases. The Argentine data contributed to UNSCEARduring the last ten years were used to obtain factors for transfer to

90 i ^7the diet (double-parameter formula for Sr and Cs, and time- integral method for 1311). The factors for transfer of 90Sr to man were derived from the work "Radiostrontium in man, as a function of age" (CNEA 322), replacing the dosimetric factor for whole bone by that for marrow (which was found to be the critical organ).

The composition assumed for the releases was that indicated in the Atucha Safety Report with the addition of values representative


APPENDIX IV 7 5

of the type of fuel involved. Account was also taken of the potential contribution of a further power station at Atucha, which would somewhat change the composition.

The Derived Working Limits obtained with these models and parameters are independent of the way in which the releases are made from the power station, since they relate to the 'blank organism' and its critical organs.

3. Derived Working Limits for AtuchaFigure 5 summarizes the DWL values obtained for the area

near the Atucha Nuclear Power Station, with reference to stack releases. The values indicated refer to levels caused by operation of the power station. The radioactive fall-out (and the natural radiation background in the case of external exposure) make an additional contribution to the measurements indicated, and this had to be taken into account in analysing the monitoring results.

In the case of aqueous releases the critical radionuclides are 37Cs and 6°Co. Figure 6 gives the corresponding DWL values,

which take into account the proportion of these nuclides in the liquid effluents.

In this case, too, the values refer to the levels resulting from operation of the power station, in addition to those due to radioactive fall-out.

4. Sampling and interpretation

For the sampling of material suspended in the air it is recommended that fixed collection stations be established at five positions. This distribution takes account of points where values are likely to be high or the population dense. These collection stations should carry out filtration of aerosols (samples of several thousand m ) and collection of tritiated vapour. For 131I sampling use can be made of carbon filters, but this sampling is not considered essential.As regards the noble gases, it is advisable to measure these in conjunction with other contributors to the external gamma exposure. The optimal sampling frequency is weekly, but depending on the capacity of the equipment other intervals are acceptable.

For measuring the external exposure it is recommended that four integrating dosimeters (films, glasses, or preferably TLD) should be placed 1 m above the ground at the positions mentioned


7 6 APPENDIX IV

D EPO SITIO N RATE

(C i/m 2-d )

90Sr 2.9 x10'12

137Cs 3.6 x io "

1311 3.1 1010

106 Ru 4.4 <1011

A C C U M U LA TE D

DEPO SITIO N (C i/m 2) 90S r 9.9 x lO 9

137Cs 5.6 *10"7

1311 3 .6 x1 0 9

106R u 2 . 4 x 1 0 '6

AIR90.

Sr 1.1 X 10K C i/ m 3

137Cs 1.4 x id 13 Ci/m3131 | 1.2 x ifl12 Ci/m 3

106Ru 1.7x 10'3 C i/ m 3

3h 1.6 x 107 Ci/m3

N O BLE G A S E S 1.5 xlO1

(C i-M e V / m 3)(7 )

90_Sr

MILK

3.5 xlO'’2 Ci/g Ca

IJ'Cs 1.2 x io 10 Ci/q K131! 72 x 10"11 Ci/litre

J H 4.1 xlO '10 Ci/g h 2o

CRITICAL ORGANS (A D U LTS

OR C H ILD R E N , A S A P P R O P R IA TE )

------- W H O LE BODY

------- THYROID

------ HAEMATOPOIETIC ORGANS------- LUNG

------- G A S TR O -IN TE S TIN A L TRACT

______ l______PLAN TS

106R u 6.4 x 1012Ci/kg

3H 7.7x1Q,0 C i/ g H 2O

iIi

DIET90_ r , ,^12 Sr 5.1x10 Ci/g Ca’ ^ C s s .a x i o 11 Ci/g K

II1

L P A S TU R E

131| 9.6x1o” Ci/kg

E X TE R N A L R A D IA TIO N

n e - ^ X T )

FIG. 5. DWL fo r stack re leases t o the A tu ch a area .


APPENDIX IV 7 7

FIG . 6. DWL values f o r 60Co and 137 Cs in the ca se o f aqueous re le a se .

in 4.1, so that one set can be read every quarter and one every year. It is also recommended to take measurements once a week with a portable scintillometer (scale in fJR/h).

Samples of milk should be taken every month at four positions for determining I, and every quarter for other nuclides. Fallout samplers should be positioned at the air-sampling points; samples should be taken corresponding to periods of one month.Once a year a soil sample should be analysed (the top 5 cm) to measure the accumulated deposition. Weekly samples of river water should be taken about 100 m downstream from the discharge pipe.

Every quarter sediment samples should also be taken in the water sampling zone. In.addition, measurements should be made with a scintillometer (graduated in /uR/h) once a month along the bank (several hundred m) and at the Club de Pesca.

From time to time samples should also be taken from grown plants and pasture land up to a distance of 3 km from the power station, and fish samples should be taken at Zarate.

The analytical results obtained (for the nuclides included in Figs 5 and 6) should be compared with the corresponding DWL values and the value f = measured value/DWL should be recorded.If this fraction is more than 10%, the sampling should be.repeated and if the result is confirmed, the release records should be examined. If f is close to unity, the waste processing procedures should be re-examined or the release limits reset.


7 8 APPENDIX IV

It must be emphasized that observance of the 'dose limits' is not enough to ensure adequate radiological protection. The ICRP recommends that the competent authority should limit releases to the environment to values below the 'radiological capacity' (i. e. to that release which corresponds to the dose limits). This derives from the concept of 'as low as is reasonably possible' (ICRP No. 22) and also allows for further installations, which should not be penalized as to their protection costs. It is thus possible to define a protection factor P = authorized release/radiological capacity, which must also be taken into account in monitoring. The working limits multiplied by this factor, DWL XP, are called Authorized Working Limits (AWL). Environmental monitoring should show that these AWL values are being observed.

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Environmental monitoring programme of the Ispra Establishment

1. Radioactive effluents of the Ispra Establishment

The Ispra Establishment of the Joint Research Center of the European Communities covers an area of about 1.5 km and includes few large installations and several laboratories (see Fig. 7). The main facilities are three nuclear reactors (Ispra-1, ECO and ESSOR), a hot laboratory for metallurgical studies of irradiated materials (LMA) and radiochemistry and radiobiology laboratories. The operation of these installations involves the production of radioactive wastes, part of which is released into the environment directly (gaseous effluents) or after decontamination treatment (liquid effluents). The solid wastes deriving from the latter process as well as from other operations are sealed into suitable containers (tar or concrete) and stored on the soil or buried into pits filled with concrete.

The radioactive liquid effluents produced at the various facilities are sent to a treatment station, where they undergo a decontamination process and then are released into the sewer system of the Establishment. The volume of these effluents fluctuates around 2000 m3/a and the overall activity ranges from a few tens to a few hundreds of mCi/a, mainly due to 137 Cs, 60Co and 90Sr. The discharge is not continuous and consists of 20 to 40 single release operations per year.


APPENDIX IV 7 9

FIG. 7. M ap o f th e Jo in t Research C e n ter Ispra Establishm ent ( Ita ly ).

Most of the activity of the gaseous effluents is due to 41A r, whichis released from the stacks of the Isp ra -1 reactor and of the ESSORreactor (~ 10 000 C i/a each). Both installations release also somehundreds of C i/a of tritium. The metallurgical laboratory (LMA),

131which is planned to operate in the future, will release I (order of magnitude 100 m Ci/a) and 85Kr (negligible activity).


80 APPENDIX IV

The liquid effluents of the sewer system flow into a brook named Novellino (mean flowrate 0.3 m3/s ; range 0.15- 1 m3/s), which in turn flows into Lake Maggiore after a course of about 1500 m (see Fig. 8). This brook also receives most drainage water from the territory of the Establishment. The Novellino water is not used by the inhabitants of the zone, on the contrary, the waters of Lake Maggiore and of its only effluent, the River Ticino, represent remarkable resources for food production: both for the fishing activities and the latter, in addition, for the irrigation of a large agricultural area in the districts of Milano, Novara and Pavia.The water supply to the Ispra Establishment and to the attached residence is through a line and pumping station located on the shore of Lake Maggiore near the Ispra port. This is the only case in which Lake Maggiore water is used for drinking.

The economy of the region is principally based on industry and agricultural production is consequently very limited and fills only a small part of the local needs. An analysis of the environs of the Establishment (a 10 km radius area) has shown the following surface distribution: Uncultivated 40%; sown 15%; pasture 20%; orchard 5%; woods 20%. In the same zone the number of bovine animals is about 6000 (of which 3500 lactating); they are fed almost entirely with local fodder. The daily milk production ranges between 20 000 and 25 000 litres and is used about 50/50 for direct consumption (distribution by the milk supply stations of Gallarate and Varese) and for the production of cheese. The principal agricultural products of the zone are maize, potatoes, wheat and rye.

The population density in the region is high: about 300 persons/km2, including also the area of the lakes. The distribution of the population in the surroundings of the Establishment is shown in Fig. 9.

The meteorological profile of the zone, located at th.e foot of the Alps and including some lakes, may be outlined in the following. Rain is pretty high (about 1600 mm/a), particularly in spring and autumn, showers are frequently recorded in the summer months. Winter is normally dry and sunny, with fog occurring during the night and occasionally during the day. The absolute humidity of the air is high in summer, the relative humidity is high in winter, though several very clear and windy days cause it to drop to very low values (fohn). On most days and especially on sunny summer days a regular wind pattern is recorded, with mountain breeze

2. C h a r a c te r is t ic s o f the en viron m en t


APPENDIX IV

FIG. 8. M ap o f the z o n e w ith in d ic a t io n o f sa m p lin g po in ts .


8 2 APPENDIX IV

blowing from NNW and valley breeze from SSW; fohn blows from the Northern directions and the Atlantic perturbations come from NNW. The wind rose recorded at the Observatory of the Establishment shows a dual symmetrical distribution. Figure 10 reports the percent frequency of the six categories of atmospheric stability according to Pasquill, associated with the corresponding wind directions. It will be remarked that category D prevails in the northern directions, whereas the unstable categories are generally associated with valley breeze from SW.

On the basis of the radionuclides present in the effluents and of the characteristics of the environment, the principal critical pathways of exposure have been identified as given in Table XV.


APPENDIX IV

FIG. 10. W ind rose and a sso c ia te d s ta b ility ca te g o r ie s (m e a n o f t h r e e -y e a r ob serv a tion s).


TABLE XV. 1SPRA - PRINCIPAL CRITICAL PATHWAYS

8 4 APPENDIX IV

Criticalradionuclides

Critical pathways Critical population groups

Gaseous effluents

41 Ar Atmosphere Cadrezzate residents

131I Atmosphere-

herbage-milk

Liquid effluents

Cadrezzate infants

90Sr Lake Maggiore water-drinking water

Joint Research Center residents

137 _ Cs Lake Maggiore water-fish

Families of the professional fishermen

3. Actual status of the monitoring network

Control of the gaseous effluents is carried out through (1) measurements performed at the emission sources (reactor stacks) for the evaluation of the quality and quantity of the activity released; and (2) measurements performed (after dilution) in the environment. The latter are carried out by means of a network of monitoring stations located along the fence of the Establishment as well as in some neighbouring villages and equipped with all or part of the following material: a device for the collection of atmospheric dust on paper filter and of radioiodine on activated charcoal; a device for the measurement of the exposure rate with telemetering and recording; a thermoluminescence dosimeter for the measurement of the integrated exposure; and a pot for the collection of the deposited matter.

In addition to the station network there is a mobile unit equipped with a system for the collection on filters of atmospheric dust and for the measurement of its radioactivity; a scintillation counter,


APPENDIX IV 8 5

MONVALLE

MILK GRASS

© BREBBIA © BREBBIA

© CADREZZATE © CADREZZATE

( D ISPRA 0 ISPRA

© OSMATE © MONVALLE

© OSMATE

© TAINO

DRINKABLE AND UNDERGROUND WATERS

© J.R.C. RESIDENCE

© CASCINA CASELLO

© „ CASE NUOVE

© „ BARAGGIOLA

® „ ANTONIETTA

FIG . 11. S am p lin g netw ork.

with multichannel analyser, for the identification and measurement of gamma emitters; and material for electrical supply,, individual protection, sampling, radiocommunication, portable monitors.

Control of liquid effluents is carried out through measurements performed directly on the effluents before release and measurements performed (after dilution) in the environment. These include


T A B L E X V I. SU M M A R Y O F SAM PLING AND M EASU REM EN TS 00C75

M a te ria l S a m p lin g pointSam p lequantity

Frequency o f sam pling

A nalysis perform ed on th e sam p le

Frequency o f an alysis (sin g le or

pooled sam p les)

A tm osp h ericdust

10 m o n ito rin g station s

500 m 3 D aily Gross b e ta and alpha ra d io a c tiv ityG a m m a -sp ectro m etry90 Sr, 137 Cs and 239 Pu d eterm in atio n s

■DailyM onthlyM onthly

D eposition M o n ito rin g statio n s 0 .2 m 2 In ca se of em erg en cy on ly

- -

4 m 2 (1 point)

M onthly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry ,90Sr, 137 Cs and 239 Pu d eterm in atio n s

M onthlyM onthly

Air M on itorin g station s - M onthly D eterm in a tio n o f the exposure by th e rm o lu m in esce n ce dosim eters

M onthly

Su rface w aters Lake M ag g io re 5 litres M onthly Gross b e ta and alpha a c t iv ity M on th ly

20 0 litres M onthly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry 90 Sr d e term in atio n

Q u arterlyA nnual

River T ic in o 1 litre D aily 90 Sr d eterm in atio n A nnual

River A cqua N era 1 litre T w ice a w eek Gross b e ta and alp ha a c tiv ity M onthly

Brook N o v ellin o 1 litre Continuous and proportional to

th e flow

Gross b e ta and alpha a c t iv ityG a m m a -sp ectro m etry

90 Sr and 226Ra d eterm in atio n s

D ailyQ u arterlyQ u arterly

D rinking w ater J .R .C . R esid en ce 1 litre D aily Gross b e ta and alpha a c t iv ity 90 Sr d e term in atio n

M onthlyA nnual

APPEN

DIX

IV


T A B L E X V I (con t.)

M a te ria l Sam p lin g pointS am p lequantity

Freq u en cy of sam p lin g

A nalysis p erform ed on

th e sam p le

F req u en cy o f an alysis (sin g le or

pooled sam p les)

Underground T h re e w ells o n -s ite 50 litres Q u arterly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try Q u arterly

w atersFour w ells o f f-s i te 5 litres M onthly Gross b e ta and alp h a a c t iv ity M onthly

Bottomsed im en ts

Brook N o v ellin o and Ispra Bay

1 kg Q u arterly G a m m a -sp ec tro m etry Q u arterly

S o il A bout 20 points 2 kg O c c a s io n a lly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try90 Sr and 137Cs d eterm in atio n s

O c c a s io n a lly

Grass 6 points 2 kg M onthly(A p ril-O c to b e r)

G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try 90Sr d e term in a tio n

M onthlyA n n u a l

M ilk 4 lo c a l dairies 2 litres W eek ly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try 90Sr d e term in a tio n

M onthlyB i-m o n th ly

Fish Lake M aggiore 2 kg Q u arterly G a m m a -sp ec tro m etry 90 Sr d e term in a tio n

Q u arterlyA nnual

Liquidra d io a c tiv ee fflu en ts

T re a tm e n t s tation 2 litres B efore e a ch re le a se

Gross b e ta and alp h a a c t iv ity , g a m m a -sp e c tro m e try , rad io n u clid e d eterm in atio n s

On ea ch sam p le

oo<3

APPEN

DIX

IV


8 8 APPENDIX IV

the continuous monitoring at the station located on the brookNovellino (see Fig. 8) and the determinations on surface water samples collected in the zone (Lake Maggiore, River Ticino).

The monitoring programme includes also: determination of soil radioactivity, carried out in a score of locations within 15 km of the Establishment; measurement of the activity in the bottom sediments of the brook Novellino and of the Ispra bay of Lake Maggiore; and follow-up of the contamination of some agricultural products (grass, milk) and of fish (see Fig. 11).

Because of the presence on site of an installation for the treatment and storage of radioactive solid wastes, underground waters are also monitored by means of samples collected in wells located both inside and outside the Establishment (see maps in Figs 7 and 11).

Table XVI provides a summary of the sampling and measurements.

4. Emergency monitoring

In the event of an accidental release of radioactivity into the environment, an emergency plan has been developed in co-operation with the national and local authorities. In such a case a monitoring control centre is activated. This is located in a room equipped with communication systems and where all the data and alarms from the telemetering monitoring stations are centralized.

On the basis of the meteorological information, vehicles equipped with a radio unit and portable instruments are sent along pre- established routes to selected monitoring points in the sector (or sectors) likely to include the contaminated area. The equipment carried by the vehicles allows the collection and field measurements on air, vegetation and milk samples and the direct evaluation of the radioactivity deposited to the ground.

The standard equipment consists of a battery-operated high volume air sampler with paper and charcoal filters, a single- channel Nal(Tl) gamma monitor, large area alpha and beta scintillation detectors, a portable ionization chamber for exposure measurements, tools for sample collection, and individual protective clothing.

5. Criteria on which the programme is based

The programme for the radioactivity monitoring in the environs of the Ispra Establishment is conceived to achieve various objectives, the relative importance of which may change. A detailed


APPENDIX IV 8 9

description of the criteria used for the definition of the programme has been given elsewhere [21], The main objective is, of course, the determination of the dose to which the population is exposed or, at least, the evaluation of the upper limit of such a dose, to comply with the regulations issued by the competent authorities. Other objectives are the improvement of the knowledge in the field of radiation protection and the establishment and maintenance of good public relations with the population of the zone. A further scope is that of keeping in operation men and materials to face possible emergency situations.

Within the limits posed by the practical means, the programme, through a careful choice of materials and measurements, aims at evaluating for the individual radionuclides the activity released, the successive dilution in the main environmental media (air and water) and the possible accumulation in particular materials. This involves a larger number of measurements than would be sufficient to achieve the principal objective of the monitoring programme. However, the information thus collected is often very useful in providing a better knowledge both of the local situation and, more generally, of the mechanisms involved in the transfer of the radionuclides to man. Moreover, it has been judged useful to maintain some other measurements, in addition to those concerning the critical pathways and groups, with the aim of keeping a check on the absence of unexpected contamination due to the Establishment.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Monitoring pitwater from mines for radioactive ores

In mining radioactive ores in various districts it is necessaryto drain off the pitwater, which usually contains variable amounts

226 210of natural radioactive substances, especially Ra, Pb and uranium. The release of pitwater into surface waters is preceded by decontamination. According to the regulations previously valid, the volume activities (concentrations) of radionuclides in waste water should not exceed the maximum permissible concentrations laid down at that time for drinking water, or ten-fold higher values in the case of special approval of the local hygiene authorities. At present the Czechoslovak regulations postulate, as a criterion (upper limit) for the release of radioactive substances into the environment, the dose limits for members of the public (values recommended in


9 0 APPENDIX IV

ICRP Publication No. 9) related to the average exposure of the critical group of the population. At the same time, however, it is required that exposure of the population be maintained at the lowest achievable level, i. e. that the amount of radionuclides introduced into the environment should be as small as possible.

An investigation into the ways the population uses the rivers in individual localities (riversides) disclosed that the highest exposure must be expected in the population group using water from percolation wells situated near the rivers for drinking, cooking and sprinkling the gardens where they grow vegetables and fruit for their own use. The other ways of exposure (consumption of fish from the rivers, bathing, etc. ) turned out to be substantially less significant. 226Ra proved to be the critical nuclide because of its substantially higher representation in the mixture of the nuclides released and its significantly higher radiotoxicity.

On the basis of data on consumption of the mentioned foods and drinking water obtained by local investigations and of data, on the mixing of pitwater with river water, amounts of 226Ra were derived that, when released into rivers in individual localities, would not result in exceeding of the dose limits in the given critical group of the population. In assessing the admissible amounts; the intake rate of the nuclide was assumed to be continuous and constant. Further, it was assumed that the volume activities of 226R.a in water of the percolation wells and in the river will not differ, and that in the case of irrigation of vegetables and fruit with these waters the established Ra content will be increased ten-fold at most. This assumption was, among others, based on the results of the experimental growing of vegetables in the tailing pond of a radioactiveore mill. As a result of decontamination, the volume activities

226of Ra in the released pitwater are substantially lower than the values derived from the dose limits according to the above- mentioned procedure. A series of technological processes is used to decontaminate the pitwater, especially cation exchangers in natrium cycle and coprecipitation with solutions of BaCl2 and A12(S04)3 with a high decontamination efficiency.

To check on the adherence to the derived limits and to the requirements of the regulations on radiation protection a system was elaborated of effluent monitoring and environmental monitoring, the components of the system being given in Table XVII.

Participating in the realization of the system were the waste producer (the mining organization), mainly in monitoring pitwater including checking the effectiveness of decontamination, the Hygiene


APPENDIX IV 9 1

T A B L E X V II. M ONITORING SYSTEM IN R A D IO A C TIV EP IT W A T E R R E L E A S E

V ectors or

in d icesR e la tiv e sam p ling

frequ en cyL o catio n o f sam p ling

Pitw ater D a ily cu m u la tiv e(b e fo re and after

d eco n tam in atio n )

sam ples

S u rface w ater 1 - 4 tim es S eries o f sam p ling pointsper m onth up and dow nstream

Bottom sedim ents Q uarterly S eries o f sam p lin g points up and down stream

A qu atic b io ta Y e a r ly or S eries o f sam p ling points

( e . g . fish , a lg a e , reed )

quarterly up and down stream

W ater of 1 - 4 tim es Location of

p erco la tio n w ells per m onth exp ected c r i t ic a l

groups

V eg etab les from T im e of L o cation o f e x p ectedirrigated soil gathering c r i t ic a l groups

Service and the Water Economy Inspection. Some components ofmonitoring, such as follow-up of radioactivity of fish, algae, andother aquatic plants in rivers, are directed towards verificationof the importance of other ways of exposure than those expected tobe critical, or towards gaining generally valid information.

2 26 210 In the collected samples Ra and occasionally also Pband 210Po are determined.

The review is based on the work done in the Institute of Industrial Hygiene in Uranium Industry, Pribram-Kamenna.


FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Environmental monitoring at the Kernforschungsanlage Julich GmbH [22]

1. General comments

As a departure from the earlier annual reports on environmental monitoring at the Julich Nuclear Research Establishment (KFA), in which all the individual radioactivity values were presented, only mean values will be presented in future, except in cases of significant rises in the environmental radioactivity level or of investigations carried out for special reasons. The individual radioactivity values will continue to be presented in the quarterly reports prepared for the information of the supervisory authorities of the province of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen) and the interested organs of the Federal Ministry for Education and Science. When there is an unusual rise in the radioactivity level (especially when the reference levels — 'alert', 'pre-alert' and 'scientific interest' — laid down by OECD are exceeded), this information is transmitted direct to the Federal Ministry for Education and Science (which passes it on to NEA) and to the competent provincial body.

As the Annual Report for 1970 described in detail the objectives of the environmental monitoring activities, the measurement programme, the methods employed and the measurement procedures, the present report is confined to a description of the modified measurement programme and a discussion of the 1971 results.

2. Measurement programme

The environmental monitoring measurement programme was revised in collaboration with the Interministerial Committee of the Supervisory Authority (Tables XVIII-XX). The earlier measurement programme was for historical reasons based on the establishment of a zero level and the measurement of bomb fall-out. When the measurement programme was revised, due account was taken of new measurement procedures, of experience pointing the way to greater environmental monitoring efficiency, and of the principle of combining amount received and emission monitoring. On 1 January 1972, the measurement programme in operation since 1 April 1971

9 2 APPENDIX IV


APPENDIX IV 9 3

will undergo some further modification, which has again been decided upon by the Interministerial Committee and which will be discussed in the next annual report.

The new version of the measurement programme takes into account the principles set forth in ICRP publication No. 7, according to which special attention should be paid in environmental monitoring to the critical nuclides, whose emission constitutes the greatest hazard for the critical population group via the critical pathway. Accordingly, besides improvements (some of them introduced earlier) with regard to the overall monitoring of alpha and beta activity for the purpose of determining individual nuclides, general gamma-spectrometric measurements with Ge(Li) detectors have been included in the programme where appropriate. The most important addition to the measurement programme is the monitoring of "31I, which can be a critical nuclide for most of the emitters at KFA both during normal operation and in the event of an incident. The individual modifications of the measurement programme are indicated below:

(a) Monitoring of air (Table XVI)

The electrostatic collection — for one hour on working days — of air dust samples, which does not yield representative results, and the parallel measurement of environmental radiation with an ionization chamber were discontinued and the radiochemical analysis of precipitation confined to the determination of the annual values for 89 Sr and 90 Sr (because of the relatively short half-life of 89Sr, the annual value for this nuclide is determined on the basis of four quarterly samples). It was possible to discontinue the other expensive radiochemical analyses thanks to the gamma-spectrometric determination of the individual nuclides with a Ge(Li) detector and a 2048-channel analyser. Air-monitoring activities were extended to include the measurement of the alpha activity of the precipitation in the Outer monitoring ring.

(b) Monitoring of water (Table XVII)

The water monitoring programme was extended to include mud from the main drain. The sampling of ground water and drinking water at a number of gauge pipe locations, water works and industrial sites was discontinued. The monitoring of drinking water was extended to include the KFA waterworks;


T A B L E X VIII. 1971 M EASU RE M E N T P RO G RAM M E F O R TH E M ON ITORIN G OF A IR

co

S u b jec t o f M easured m easurem ents v aria b le

S a m p lin g or m ea surem ent points

C odeN um ber o f

pointsM easurem ent

fre q u e n cy

A nnual num ber o f sam ples

(m easu rem en ts)M easurem ent procedu re

S h ort- and lo n g - l iv e d beta a c t iv ity ; d e ca y beh a viou r

C en tra l a ir -m on ito r in g poin tInner m on itor in g ring

D 0288 MP

D 0288 M l - 67

C ontinuousm ea su rem en t

7 x continuous (21 x contin uou s)

Step f ilte r system w ith lo n g -ra n g e transm ission o f m easured values

In the exhaust gas trailA lph a a c t iv ity ;

A eroso ls b eta a c t iv ityfrom the em ission sou rces (ca r -b o r n e eq u ipm en t)

As requ ired As requ ired As requ iredStep filte r system and e le c tro s ta t ic sa m p lin g

G a m m a spectrumC en tra l a ir -m o n ito r in g poin t

D 0288 MP 1C on tin u ou s sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly m ea surem ent

12

Large-area f ilte r in g (1 0 4 m 3) ; s e m icon d u ctor sp ectrom etry w ith G e(L i) d e te c to r

G a m m a dose

C en tra l a ir -m o n ito r in g poin tInner m on ito r in g ring

D 0288 MP

D 0288 M l - 67

C ontinuous m e asurem ent

7 x continuous (1 4 x contin uou s)

T w o re lease counters w ith o v er la p p in g ranges; lo n g -ra n g e transm ission o f m easured values

R adiation

C en tra l a ir -m o n ito r in g poin tOuter m on itor in g ring

D 0288 MP

D 0288 P l -45


5 x continuous (5 x contin uou s)

Sh ie lded ga m m a -se n s it iv e re lea se coun ter

ba ck grou n dBeta + ga m m a pulse rate

C en tra l a ir -m o n ito r in g poin tOuter m on ito r in g ring

D 0288 MP

D 0288 P l -45


5 x contin uou s (5 x contin uou s)

N o n -sh ie ld e d b e ta + g a m m a - sen sitive re lea se coun ter

Beta + g am m a and g a m m a pulse rate

In the exhaust gas trail from the em ission sources (ca r -b o r n e

N o n -sh ie ld e d andAs requ ired As requ ired As requ ired sh ie ld re lea se

countercoun ters)

APPEN

DIX

IV


T A B L E X VIII (con t.)

S u b je c t o f m easurem ents

M easuredvar ia b le

Sam pling or m easurem ent points

C od eN um ber o f

pointsM ea su rem en t

fre q u e n cy

A n n ua l num ber o f sa m ples

(m easu rem en ts)M easurem ent p rocedure

A lpha and beta C o lle c t io n with H iberniaa c t iv it y en ter in g C en tra l a ir -m on ito r in g

D 0388 P l -4C ontinuous funnel (5 0 0 c m 2); separate

the s o il ; s p e c i f i c point 5 sa m p lin g ; w eek ly(5 2 0 )

m ea surem ent o f thealpha and beta O uter m on itor in g ring D 0388 MP m ea su rem en t in so lu b le ( fi l te re d ) anda c t iv it y so lu b le (ev a p ora ted ) fractions

C o lle c t io n w ith la rg e -a re a

G a m m a C entra l a ir -m o n ito r in g p oint

C ontinuous funnel (1 m 2); s e m i

spectru mD 0388 MP 1 sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 52 con d u ctor sp ectrom etry o f

m ea su rem en t the eva p ora tion residue w ith G e(L i) detector

P recip ita tionH otp artic les

C entra l a ir -m on ito r in g p oint

D 0388 MP 1C ontinuous sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly m ea surem ent

52A u tora d iogra ph y w ith a d h esive p la tes

soSr a c t iv ity ; 90 Sr a c t iv ity

C ontinuous C o lle c t io n w ith la rg e -a r e aC entra l a ir -m on ito r in g point

D 0388 MP 1sa m p lin g ;quarterlym ea su rem en t

4funnel (1 m 2); ra d io c h e m ica l separation ; lo w - le v e l m easurem ent

C ontinuous sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly m ea su rem en t

C o lle c t io n w ith H ibernia

3 H a c t iv ityC en tra l a ir -m o n ito r in g poin t

D 0388 MP 1 52 funnel (5 0 0 c m 2); m ea su rem en t in liq u id s c in tilla t io n counter

cocn

APPEND

IX IV


CO05

T A B L E X IX . 1971 M EASU RE M E N T PR O G R A M M E F O R THE M ONITORING O F W A T E R

S u b je c t o f M easured m easurem ents v a r ia b le

S a m p lin g or m ea su rem en t points

C od eN um ber o f

pointsM easurem ent

freq u ency

A nnua l num ber o f sam ples

(m easu rem en ts)M easu rem ent procedu re

D irect sa m p lin g (w ith d red ger -

A lph a a c t iv it y ; be ta a c t iv it y ; 40K a c t iv it y

M ain drain o f KFA; River Rur at Selhausen; R iver Rur at A ltenburg ; River Rur at K em pen

D 0488 P 27 D 0488 P 25 D 0488 P 26 D 0488 P 23

4C ontinuous sa m p lin g ; w eek ly m easurem ent

2 0 8(6 2 4 )

typ e sa m p ler) from the tributary; .m ea su rem en t o f the eva p ora tion residue (su rfa ce evaporator in a m eth a ne f low coun ter ; f la m e - p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in ation o f the potassium con cen tra tion )

131I a c t iv it yC ontinuous 1311 separation b y is o to p ic

M ain drain o f KFA D 0488 P 27 1 sa m p lin g ; w eek ly m easurem ent

52 ex ch a n g e ; low -b a ck g rou n d m ea su rem en t

S urfacew aters

3H a c t iv it y

M ain drain o f KFA; D 0488 P 27C ontinuous sa m p lin g ; w eek ly m easurem ent

R iver Rur at Selhausen; R iver Rur at A ltenburg ;

D 0488 P 25 D 0488 P 26

4 156M easu rem ent in liq u id sc in t illa t io n counter

River Rur at K em pen D 0488 P 23

S h o r t-liv e d be ta a c t iv it y

M ain drain o f KFA; River Rur at A ltenburg

D 0488 P 27 D 0488 P 26

2M onthly ;randomsa m plin g

2 4M easu rem ent o f c o -p r e c ip it a te d preparations in a la rg e -a r e a f lo w counter

G a m m a sp ectru m M ain drain o f KFA D 0488 P 27 1C ontinuous sa m p lin g ; w eek ly m easurem ent

52S e m ico n d u cto r sp ectrom etry w ith G e(L i) d e te c to r (b ea k er )

S a m p lin g fro m sed im en ta tiontanks in the w ater f low ;

Beta a c t iv it y ; M ud . .

40K a c t iv it y

M ain drain o f KFA; River Rur at Selhausen ; R iver Rur at A ltenburg

D 0488 P 27 D 04 88 P 25 D 0488 P 26

3

C ontinuoussa m p lin g ;quarterlym easurem ent

12(2 4 )

m e c h a n ic a l preparation ; m ea su rem en t o f the beta a c t i v ity w ith a la rg e -a re a flow coun ter ; f la m e -p h o to m e tr ic d e te rm in a tion o f the potassium c o n ce n tra tio n

APPEND

IX IV


T A B L E X IX (con t.)

S u b je c t o f m ea surem ents

M easuredv a r ia b le

S a m p lin g or m easurem ent points

C o d eN um ber o f

pointsM easurem ent

freq u en cy

A n n ua l num ber o f sam ples

(m easu rem en ts)M easurem ent p rocedu re

M ud( c o n t . )

G a m m a spectrumM ain drain o f KFA; River Rur at Selhausen; R iver Rur at A ltenburg ;

D 0488 P 27 D 0488 P 25 D 0488 P 26

3

• Continuous sa m p lin g ; quarterly m ea surem ent

12S em icon d u ctor sp ectrom etry w ith G e(L i) d e te c to r (b ea k er )

B io lo g ic a l m a teria ls in su rfa ce w aters (p lan ts , p la nk ton , seston )

Beta a c t iv it y ; 40 K a c t iv it y ; 90 Sr a c t iv it y

River Rur at U nterm au- ba ch ;River Rur at Krauthausen; River Rur at Ju lich

D 0488 P 28

D 0488 P 21 D 0488 P 2 2

3A t appropriate t im es o f the year

1 0 -1 5(3 0 -4 5 )

Dry ashing; m easurem ent o f the be ta a c t iv ity o f the ash w ith en d -w in d ow de tec to r; f la m e -p h o to m e tr ic d e te rm ination o f the 40 K con cen tra tion

G roundw a ter

Beta a c t iv it y ; 40 K a c t iv it y

Groundw ater gauge pipes 16 , 17,. 19 and 25 "A V R II"

D 0588 P 38 39 , 4 0 , 4 9 , 50

5Q u a rter ly ;randomsa m p lin g

2 0(4 0 )

Sa m ples taken b y pu m pin g from ga u ge p ipes; m easurem ent o f the eva p ora tion residue (surfa c e evaporator) in a m etha ne f lo w cou n ter ; f la m e -p h o to - m e tr ic d eterm ination o f the potassium concen tra tion

D rinkingw ater

A lph a a c t iv it y ; be ta a c t iv it y ;40 K a c t iv it y

Julich w ater works; H am bach w ater works;

W ater works o f KFA

D 0588 P 31 D 05 88 P 32

D 0588 P 76

2

1

Q ua rterly ; ran dom sa m p lin g

M onthly ; random sa m p lin g

8(2 4 )

12(2 4 )

S a m p lin g o f natural w ater from su rfa ce w e lls ; m easurem ent o f ev a p ora t ion residue (su rface eva p ora tor) in a m etha ne f lo w cou n ter ; f la m e -p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in a tion o f the potassium con cen tra tion

S h o r t-liv e d be ta a c t iv it y

W ater works o f KFA D 0588 P 76 1M onth ly ; random sa m p lin g

12M easurem ent o f c o -p r e c ip it a te d preparations in a la rg e -a r e a flo w counter

CD

APPEN

DIX

IV


CO00

TABLE X X . 1971 MEASUREMENT PROGRAMME FOR THE MONITORING OF SOIL, FLO RA AND AGRICU LTURAL PRODUCTS

S u b ject o f m easurem ents

M easuredv a r ia b le

S a m plin g points for co m p o s ite sam ples

C od e

Num ber o f points

(co m p o s ite sam ples)

M easurem entfreq u en cy


(m easu rem en ts)M easurem ent p rocedu re

Beta a c t iv it y ; 40K a c tiv ity

J u lich , G ut Lorsbeck S tettern ich , Haus L indenbergH a m b a ch , waterw orks

D 0788 P 61

D 0788 P 62 6

8(1 6 )

D 0788 P 60 (2 )Q uarterly

G a m m a spectrumW e l ld o r f , Gustener H of H o lle n , Burg H ollen H a m b a ch , Burg O b b en - dorf

(8 )

90Sr a c t iv it yD 0788 P 66

D 0788 P 64

6

(1 )A n n ua lly

1

(1 ) S a m p lin g depth 2 0 c m for arab le s o i l , 5 c m for pasture and forest s o i l ; m e c h a n ic a l preparation ; m ea su rem en t o f the beta a c t iv ity w ith a la rg e -a r e a f low cou n ter ; f la m e -p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in ation o f the potassium con cen tra tion ; s e m ico n d u cto r sp ectrom etry w ith a G e(L i) d e te c to r (b ea k er ); c h e m ica l separation o f rad iostrontium from the a lk a lin e earth group and lo w - ba ck grou n d m easurem ent

Beta a c t iv ity ; 40K a c t iv ity J u lich , Gut M ariaw ald

W e lld o r f , Rossler H of N ie d e r z ie r , H of M oes S e lgersd orf, H of Ritz K irch b erg , H of Langen

D 0888 P 71 D 0888 P 70

5

(1 )Q uarterly

(8 )

4(4 )

Pasture so ilG a m m a spectru m

D 0888 P 79 D 0888 P 74

5

(1 )A n n ua lly

1

(1 )90Sr a c t iv ity

4

Beta a c t iv it y 40K a c t iv ity

2

(1 )Q uarterly

(8 )

4

Forest so il G a m m a spectru mS tettern ich , Staatsforst H am b a ch , Grosser Forst

D 0788 P 63 D 0788 P 69

(4 )

90Sr a c t iv it y2

(1 )A n n ua lly

1

(1 )

APPEND

IX IV


T A B L E X X (con t.)

S u b je c t o f m easurem ents

M easuredvar ia b le

Sa m plin g points for co m p o s ite sam ples

C ode

N um ber o f points

( co m p o s it e sa m p les)

M easurem entfreq u en cy


(m easu rem en ts)M easu rem ent p roced u re

Beta a c t iv it y 40 K a c t iv it y

B im onth lyA p r il -O c to b e r

4(8 )

S a m p lin g fro m 1 -2 m 2 o f pasture s o il su rfa ce ; dry ashing; m ea su rem en t o f the b e ta a c t iv ity w ith an

Grass G a m m a sp ectru m As for pasture so il5

(1 )E very 14 days

14(1 4 )

p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in a tion o f the potassium c on cen tra tion ; c h e m ic a l separation o f rad iostrontium and lo w -b a c k g ro u n d m ea su rem en t; g a m m a -s p e c tr o m e tr ic m ea su rem en t o f the dry substance in the bea k er w ith a G e(L i) d e tector

9®Sr a c t iv it y A n n ua lly1

(1 )

Beta a c t iv it y ; 40 K a c t iv ity

6(2 )

M onthlyco m p o s ite sam ples

24(4 8 )

E vaporation and dry ashing; m ea su rem en t o f the b eta a c t iv it y w ith an en d -w in d ow cou n ter ; f la m e p h o to m e tr ic d e te rm in a tion o f th e p otassium c o n c e n tra tio n ; r a d io

M ilk

G a m m a spectru mA s for pasture so il

6(2 ) E very 14 days

15(1 5 )

1311 a c t iv it yJu lich dairy

6A p r il -O c to b e r 90

(9 0 )c h e m ic a l separation o f io d in e or s tron tium and a n t i -c o in c id e n c e m ea su rem en t; g a m m a -s p e c tr o m e tr ic m ea su rem en t o f the liq u id m ilk in th e b ea k er w ith a G e (U ) d e te c to r90 Sr a c t iv it y

6(2 )

A n n ua lly2

(2 )

F ie ld crops

Beta a c t iv it y ; 40 K a c t iv it y

As for arab le so il 6 A t harvest t im e6 -1 2

(1 8 -3 6 )

D ry ashing or o x id a t iv e w e t ashing; m ea su rem en t o f the b e ta a c t iv ity w ith an en d -w in d ow c ou n ter ; f la m e - p h o to m e tr ic de te rm in a tion o f the potasssium c o n c e n tra tio n ; g a m m a - s p e c t ro m e tr ic m ea su rem en t o f the dry substance in the b ea k er w ith a G e (L i) d e te c to r

G a m m a spectru m

coCO

APPEN

DIX

IV


1 0 0 APPENDIX IV

(c) Monitoring of soil, flora and agricultural products(Table XVIII)

This is the measurement programme that has been extended most. As the critical pathway for the uptake of I as critical fission product is generally milk consumption, special importance had already been attached to monitoring of the food chain pasture soil- grass-milk. The number of farms under surveillance was increased to five and the Julich dairy was included in the measurement programme, an agreement having been reached with it whereby samples of the milk supplied by the approximately 40 farms situated within 4 km of KFA are made available for analysis. The special importance attached to the monitoring of grass and milk is indicated by the fact that measurements are carried out every 14 days during the grazing season, by the gamma-spectrometric determination of individual nuclides in composite samples and, above all, by the

■I o iradiochemical determination of I in individual milk samples.

Environmental Monitoring Programme of the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center

Environmental monitoring of the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center is conducted in accordance with the programme approved in February 1969 by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of Baden-Wurttemberg [1].

The programme comprises two parts: I. Direct measurement of radiation; and II. Measurements of activity. While Part I is concerned with the evaluation of possible hazards to man caused by external irradiation effects, and with the determination of dose values, Part II covers the assessment of a possible incorporation hazard to man by determination of the content of radioactivity in several media taken in by man directly or indirectly. Tables XXI and XXII present a rough sketch of the monitoring programme.

Apart from the routine programme additional surveillance measurements are made at special events, e. g. air humidity tritium measurements at routine changes of fuel elements in the heavy-water moderated research reactor FR 2.


APPENDIX IV 1 0 1

T A B L E X X L D IR E C T M EASU REM EN T O F RADIATION

Monitoring system Measured quantity EvaluationNumber o f

measuring points

GM field stations

Detectors:

BZ 120

Continuous scaling o f detector pulses; interrogation of binary coded scaler contents by telephone

(6 + y )"level;

Mean pulse rate between interrogations

Monthly average o f count rates of daily interrogations and m inim um / maximum interrogation values

8

GM monitor system for site monitoring

Detectors:BZ 120 or Valvo 18529 with energy compensation filter

y-dose rate Reporting only when warning or alarm threshold is exceeded

Warning threshold 1 mR/h 20

Warning threshold 100 mR/h ■ 5

GM monitor system for WAK site monitoring

Detectors:BZ 120without energy compensation filter

(0 + y)-radiation level

Reporting only when monitoring threshold is exceeded

6

Monitoring threshold at 10 times the background Ro (R<i = 400 counts/min)

Phosphate glass dosimeter

Accumulatedy-dose

Determination of local distribution o f annual dose

Along the fence o f the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center

100

Concentric circles surrounding the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center with radii o f 1, 2 and 3 km

108

Along the fence o f WAK 6

At the locations o f the GM field stations 8

All meters and recorders of the GM monitor system are installed in the environmental monitoring centre.


TABLE XXII. MEASUREMENTS OF ACTIVITY

102 APPENDIX IV

Surveyed m edium M easured quan tities Sam p lin gNum ber of

sam p ling points

A erosol con ten t in th e air

L o n g -liv ed a - and 0 -a c t iv i ty 7 d a fter sam p lin g

T w ice a w eek w ith

fix e d sep arate filters

2

a - a c t iv i ty 5 d a fter sam p lin g , 0 -a c t iv i ty

5 - 6 h a fter sam p lin g

Continuous w ith step

f i l te r band aerosol

m onitor

1

P recip ita tio n Gross a - and

0 -a c t iv i ty

Sam p lin g two w eeks

w ith H ibernia

funnels

3

T r itiu m a c tiv ity Sam p lin g two w eeks

w ith H ibernia funnels

3

Plutonium a c tiv ity Sam p lin g one m onth w ith w et c o lle c t in g pans a and H ibernia funnels

2

Surface w ater T ritiu m a c tiv ity C ontinuous 1

Ground and drinking w ater

L o n g -liv ed a - and

0 - a c tiv ity (w ithout 40 K after som e 7 d)

W eek ly , every 3 m onths, ev ery 6 months

1

1

Mud L o n g -liv ed o r and 0 -a c t iv i ty 7 d a fter sam p ling

L o n g -liv ed a - and 0 -a c t iv i ty 7 d after sam p lin g and plutonium a c tiv ity

M onthly

Every 3 months 1

1 .1 5 m 2 c o lle c t in g su rface ; p erm an en tly f i l le d to a le v e l o f 2 cm o f d istilled w ater. O verflow into c o lle c t in g v esse l. M onthly w ater volu m e up to 150 litre s .


APPENDIX IV 103

T A B L E XXII (cont.)

Surveyed m edium M easured q uan tities Sam p lin gNum ber o f

sam p lin g points

Plankton L o n g -liv ed a - and 6 -a c t iv i ty a fter som e

7 d and plutonium

a c tiv ity

Every 3 months 1

Fish L o n g -liv ed 0 -a c t iv i ty a fter som e 7 d (w ithout 40 K)

Every 6 months 1

A q u atic plants L o n g -liv ed 6 -a c t iv i ty

after som e 14 d (w ithout 40 K)

Every 6 months 3

Flora

Forage

L o n g -liv ed 6 -a c t iv i ty after som e 14 d

(w ithout 40 K)

Every 6 months 3

Predom in. pine n eed les

Plutonium a c tiv ity Every 3 months 5

JAPANSelected monitoring programmes

The Tokai-Oarai area is one of the centres of nuclear research and development in Japan. It is located about 150 km North-East of Tokyo. There are about 15 nuclear power and other reactors in the area together with fuel fabrication and reprocessing plant and nuclear research establishments. Tables XXIII and XXIV give details of the monitoring programmes in the Tokai-Oarai and Tsuruga-Mihama-Takahama areas.

UNITED KINGDOMMonitoring programmes conducted by selected establishments

Tables XXV to XXVIII present basic information on the monitoring programmes of four selected nuclear establishments: The Radiochemical Centre Amersham, the Bradwell and Trawsfynydd


TABLE XXIII. ALLOTMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENT MONITORING IN THE TOK AI -OAR AI AREA

Allotment and No. o f stations

Items ParticularsInstruments and frequency o f measurement

No. ofTokai area Oaral area Remarks

stations

JAERI PNC JAPCOCom.Lab.

Dai-JAERI PNC

HygienicLab. NIRS

Mitooffice

Monitoring station (continuous) 11 4a 2 3 2a 6b a Centralized surveillance,Alpha, beta, gamma measurement k Telemetering o f data only

Monitoring post (continuous) 32 16 5 10 1

Air dose from gamma rays Dose rates Surveymeter

(1 survey/month)33 5

(1 /3months)

10 18 Scintillation surveymeter

Monitoring car 54 9(2/a)

12d /a )

33c(4/week)

c Continuous measurement during running, JAERI, PNC and Mito office-, one vehicle each

Integrateddose

Monitoring point(film badge and TLD: every 3 months glass dosimeter: every 6 months)

75 15 20 20 20

Airborne dust

Continuous measurement 7 4d 1 2d Gross beta measurement, nuclide analysis as occasion demands ̂ With monitoring stations

Measurement at regular intervals 23 5 18e Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demandse With monitoring car

Fall-out

Deposits One measurement/month 4 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Precipitation Every precipitation 4 1 1 2 Ditto

104 A

PPEND

IX IV


T A B L E X X III. (co n t .)

Items ParticularsInstruments and

frequency o f measurementNo. o f stations


RemarksTokai area Oarai area

HygienicLab. NIRS

Mi to officeJAERI PNC JAPCO

Com.Lab.

Dai-ich JAERI PNC

Environmentalsamples

Rice Harvest time 6 1 1 1 3 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Vegetables Spinach, Chinese cabbage (2 measurements/a)

1 1 1 2 Ditto

Grass JAERI (2 measurements/a) Hygienic Lab. (4 measurements/a) -

5 1 1 1 2 Ditto

Milk Same as grass 1 1 1 4 Ditto

Surfacesoil

Onemeasurement/a

Cross beta 20 4 4 6 4 5 Ditto

Nuclideanalysis

6 2 2 2

DischargeDrain

Monthly mean concentration (4 measurements/month)

29 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 10f 1 8f Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demandsf One measurement/month

Soil near outlet (2 measurements/a)

9 3 2 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Marinesamples

Seawater Two measurements/a 10 2 1 1 1 4 1 Ditto

Bottom soil Two measurements/a 2 1 1 1 1 Ditto

APPEND

IX IV

105


T A B L E X X III. (co n t .)


Items Particulars frequency o f measurement stations Tokai area Oarai areaHygienic

Lab.

MitoRemarks

JAER1 PNC JAPCO Lab.Dai-ich JAERI PNC N1RS

Flatfish(2 measurements/a)

4 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Young of sardines (2 measurements/a)

5 1 1 1 1 1 Ditto

samples organisms Algae(2 measurements/a)

3 1 1 1 Ditto

Shellfish(2 measurements/a)

3 1 1 1 Ditto

Shinkawa - river water (4 measurements/a)

5 3 1 1 lg ^ Sampled at one point at each o f Nakagawa and Kujigawa Riven

River and pond waterShinkawa-river bottom soil (4 measurements/a)

5 3 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Akogigaura-pond water (2 measurements/a)

1 1 Ditto

Hinuma-pond water (2 measurements/a)

4 1 2 1 Ditto

Drinking water Wellwater and tapwater 6 1 1 3 1 Ditto

106 A

PPEND

IX IV


TABLE XXIV. ALLOTMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IN THE TSURUGA-MIHAMA-TAKAHAMA AREA

Items Particulars Instruments and frequency o f measurement

No. of stations


RemarksTsuruga Mihama Takahama

JAPCO HygienicLab. KEPCO

HygienicLab. KEPCO Hygienic

Lab.

Air dosefrom gamma rays

Dose rates

Monitoring station (continuous)

8 3 1 4 Air dose from beta and gamma rays, dust sampler, iodine monitor

Monitoring post (continuous) 22 2 13 7 Air dose from gamma rays

Surveymeter 18 9 9 Scintillation surveymeter

Monitoring car (3 measurement/month)

2(Vehicles)

1(Vehicles

With scintillation monitor, scintillation surveymeter and dust sampler

Integrateddose

Monitoring point 86 9 8 32 3 25 9 Film badge and TLD, 1 reading/3 months

Airborne dust and radioactive iodine

Continuous measurement 7 3 2 2 JAPCO iodine monitors operated only on rise o f gamma-ray dose rate

Fall-out

Deposits One measurement/month 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Precipitation Every precipitation 1 1 Ditto

Environmentalsamples

Rice Harvest time 2 1 1 Ditto

Vegetable Radish, spinach (2 measurements/a)

1 2 1 1 Ditto

Plant Pine needles, pasania (2 measurements/a)

5 3 1 1 Ditto

Milk One measurement/2 months 1 Ditto

Surfacesoil

Cultivated and uncultivated (2 measurements/a)

4 4 1 1 Ditto

Soil bed(2 measurements/a)

4 1 1 Ditto

APPEN

DIX

IV 1

07


T A B L E X X IV . (co n t .)

Item s ParticularsInstruments and

frequency o f measurementNo. of stations


Remarks

Tsuruga Milhama Takahama

JAPCOHygienic

Lab.KEPCO

HygienicLab.

KEPCO HygienicLab.

Drain water and soilDrain water (4 m easurem ents/a)

1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Soil near drain (4 m easurements/a)

1 1 3 Ditto

Marine samples

Seawater One m easurem ent/3 months 9 2 2 2 Ditto

Bottom soil Two measurements/a 4 1 1 1 1 Ditto

Marineorganisms

"Chinu", horse mackerel, octopus, flatfish

3 2 1 Hygienic Lab. and KEPCO;2 m easurem ents/a.Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Algae 2 1 1 Gulfweed: 4 m easurem ents/a, Seaweed, Wakame and Nemacyslus desipinies:1 m easurem ent/a,gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Shellfish 4 1 1 1 1 1 Mytilus edulis; 4 m easurem ents/a, Turbo; 1 m easurem ent/a, gross beta measurement, nuclide analysis as occasion demands

River and pond water

River water (2 m easurem ents/a)

5 1 1 2 1 Gross beta measurement,nuclide analysis as occasion demands

Spring water (2 m easurem ents/a)

1 1 Ditto

Drinking water

Tap water (2 m easurem ents/a)

2 1 1 2 1 Ditto

W ell water(2 m easurem ents/a)

1 1 Ditto

108 APPENDIX

IV


T A B L E X X V . R A D IO CH E M IC AL C E N TRE AM ERSH AM

M a te ria l Sam p lin g frequency Sam p lin g lo c a tio n A nalysis

1. Routine M onitoring C onducted by the Establishm ent

W ater B atch sam pling as required Various h old in g and d elay tanks on site

D eterm in a tio n o f to ta l a lp h a , to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , 226Ra, 90Sr and tritiu m a cco rd in g to th e n atu re o f th e work in th e p a rticu la r build ings co n trib u tin g to th e e fflu e n t b atch

M ilk F ortn ightly Four farm s w ith in th re e m ile s o f the s ite

M ilk bulked and s in g le sam p le ch eck ed for 1311

2 . M on itorin g C on d u cted by the D epartm ent o f th e Environm ent

Liquid e fflu e n t Random Establishm ent As ab o v e

Liquid input, output;

dried sludge liq u id sludge

D aily sam ples bulked Sew age works T o ta l a lp h a, to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity plus ch e ck s on s p e c if ic n u clid es

W ater D a ily sam ples bulked for 1 m onth

Th am es drinking w ater in takes Fu ll iso to p ic analysis a t le a st an n u ally ; m o re restric ted an alysis m onthly

APPENDIX IV

109


T A B L E X X V I. C E G B N U C L E A R PO W E R STA TIO N B R A D W E L L

M a te ria l S a m p lin g frequ en cy Sam p lin g lo ca tio n A nalysis

Fish M onthly B lack w ater Estuary T o ta l beta

Oysters M onthly Tw o oyster beds at about -3 and 5 m iles from station

Includes 65Z n , llornAg T o ta l b eta a c tiv ity

Seaw eed Q u arterly Shore, about g m ile upstream " T o ta l b e ta a c t iv ity plus g am m a sp ec , sca n

S ilt Q u arterly 3 points: one upstream , one dow nstream , one near s ite

T o ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , g am m a sp ec , scan plus g am m a d o se -ra te ov ersam p lin g point

M ilk Fortn igh tly sa m p le tak en from m ilk on day o f c o lle c t io n

Portion bulked by zones, rem ain d er bulked by farm s o v er quarterly period

1 farm in in n er zone ( 0 - 2 m ile s)5 farm s in m id d le zone ( 2 - 5 m ile s) 4 farm s in outer zone ( 1 5 -2 0 m iles)

131 j90(, 89 ,, , . 1 3 7 „Sr, Sr, c a lc iu m , Cs

S o il co res Every fiv e years for c o m p le te c y c le

Inner and m id d le zone farm s T o ta l b eta a c t iv ity plus g am m a sp ec , scan

T a ck y

shades

2 m onthly Four in n er sites (2 shades per s ite)

Four outer sites (2 shades per s ite)G am m a s p e c .s c a n on un treated shades. Hard and soft b e ta a c t iv ity on ashed sam ples (d iffe re n tia ted by absorber p en etra tio n )

110 APPENDIX

IV


APPENDIX IV 1 1 1

nuclear power stations of the CEGB, and UKAEA Windscale. In the case of the Radiochemical Centre Amersham the discharge of liquid radioactive waste to the River Thames is indirect, the actual discharge being initially to the local sewers passing to the Maple Lodge Sewage Disposal Works. Liquid effluent from the latter discharges into the River Colne, which joins the Thames above London's waterworks.

Monitoring programmes conducted by the Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [23T

In the United Kingdom there are now seventeen sites in whose environments the laboratory has programmes for monitoring radioactive wastes. Although the discharges from some sites — particularly power stations — are sim ilar in both content and composition, no two situations are identical. This is a reflection of the diversity of the environmental factors which are involved, and the monitoring requirements vary accordingly.

Monitoring schemes in practice

The degree of radiological exposure from discharges in the United Kingdom varies considerably; the maximum at present is from Windscale discharges, and at the other end of the scale it is unmeasurable by any method even for some sites discharging substantial quantities of radioactivity. The application of the principles discussed above can be illustrated by practical examples, which can be divided into three categories according to the degree of public radiation exposure.

(A) Where exposure is either a significant fraction of the derived working limit or can at least be estimated directly because critical materials are measurably contaminated

(B) Where a quantitative estimate can be made only by referring to indicator m aterials, contamination of critical materials being below detectable levels

(C) Where no quantitative estimate can be made by any method, radioactivity from the discharge being undetectable in any environmental material.

(A) Exposure measurable by sampling critical materials

This category applies particularly to m ajor discharges such as those from the fuel reprocessing plants at Windscale and


T A B L E X X V II. C E G B N U C L E A R P O W ER STATIO N T R A W SFY N Y D D

M a te ria l Sam p lin g frequ en cy S am p lin g lo ca tio n A nalysis

Fish(trout and perch)

M onthly Lake T o ta l a lp h a, to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , g a m m a sp ec , scan w ith ev alu atio n s o f 137C s, 134Cs

W ater W eek ly sa m p le bulked over one m onth

C old lagoon and h ot lago o n T o ta l alp h a, g a m m a spec

C s, 134Cs

to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , scan w ith e v a lu a tio n o f

Mud and p eat Q u arterly Lake bed T o ta l a lp h a, g a m m a sp ec 137C s, 134Cs

to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , scan w ith ev a lu a tio n of

Moss(F o n tin a lis)

Q u arterly Tw o points o f bank o f stream flow ing out o f la k e

T o ta l a lp h a, to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , g a m m a sp ec , scan

M ilk F ortn ig h tly sa m p le taken from m ilk on day of c o lle c t io n

4 farm s in inner zone ( 0 - 2 m ile s)4 farm s in m idd le zone ( 2 - 5 m ile s) 4 farm s in outer zon e ( 1 5 -2 0 m ile s)

Portion o f m ilk from each farm in in n er zone in d iv id u a lly analysed . M id d le zo n e bulked prior to 1311 an a ly sis, outer zone bulked prior to 131I an aly sis, rem ain d er b ulked by farm s over q u arterly period

131 j

90Sr, 89Sr, c a lc iu m , 137Cs

112 APPENDIX

IV


T A B L E X X V II. (con t .)

M a te ria l S am p lin g frequency Sam p lin g lo c a tio n A nalysis

S o il co res Every four years for co m p le te c y c le

Inner and m id d le zon e farm s T o ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , g am m a s p e c .s c a n

T a c k yshades

Tw o m onthly Sev en in n er s ites , four c o n tro l (outer) s ites

G a m m a sp ec , scan on un treated shades, hard and soft b e ta a c t iv ity on ashed sam p les (d iffe re n tia ted by absorber p en etra tio n )

APPEN

DIX

IV 113


T A B L E X X V III. BN F W IN D SCALE

M a te ria l S am p lin g frequ en cy Sam p ling lo c a tio n A nalysis

Seaw eed(Porphyra)

Fortn ightly in v ic in ity o f p ip e -lin e Q u arterly at m o re d istant points

5 points 0 -7 m ile s a long C u m b erlan d coast3 points 6 -2 8 m iles

Includ es 1C6Ru, lAAC e , 95Z r / , 5Nb, 48Sr and alp h a a c tiv ity

Fish Tw o m onthly Offshore b etw een S t. Bees Head and Ravenglass

Includes 106Ru, 137C s, s°Sr, 144C e and to ta l a lpha a c tiv ity

S e a bed mud V aries with d is ta n ce from p ip e -lin e betw een every 3 m onths and annually

Solw ay Firth to M illo m (m in im um o f 9 positions)

Includes to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , 106Ru,

I44C e , 95Z r / 5Nb, 137C s, 134C s, 103Ru, and alp ha a c tiv ity

Sh ore s ilt W hen deposited L o ca l beaches G am m a and b e ta dose rates

Estuarin e mud bank s ilt

Q u arterly Eskm eals, Ravenglass G am m a and b e ta dose rates

S ilt sam p les ta k e n , analysis in clu d es, , . . 1 0 6 „ 1 4 4 „

to ta l b e ta a c t iv ity , Ru, C e , 95Z r/95Nb and 137Cs

S ea w a te r V a r ia b le V ic in ity o f p ip e - lin e , S e a s c a le , Braystones plus m o re extended surveys

Includes 106Ru, 137Cs and 90Sr

M ilk D a ily sam ples bulked over a fortn ight and c o lle c te d Fortn ig h tly sam p les o f m ilk produced on day o f c o lle c t io n

F iv e farm s w ithin 1 -5 m ile sF iv e farm s 2 - 4 m ile sTw o re feren ce farm s at 20 m ile s

90Sr, 89Sr, c a lc iu m 137 Cs131 j

G rass, root m a t, so il

A nnually From m ilk producing farm s ab ov e 9 Op , . 137_ 106Sr, c a lc iu m , C s, Ru, 55Z r / 95Nb

R ain w ater M onthly (4 points on s ite )1 point 2 m ile s from s ite 1 point four m ile s from site

In clu d es 90Sr, ^ S r , 137C s, i34Cs (10SRu, 239Pu)

114 APPENDIX

IV


APPENDIX IV 1 1 5

Dounreay. Contamination of critical materials is also easily measurable at Bradwell and Trawsfynydd nuclear power stations, even though radiological exposure is lower than for Windscale.These examples are among the best for monitoring schem es, and those for the power station discharges illustrate two quite different environments, the discharges being made to saline water from Bradwell, and to fresh water from Trawsfynydd.

UKAEA Windscale,'Cumberland

This site contains the principal facilities of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority for reprocessing spent fuel, and waste from.this plant is effectively responsible for the whole of the radioactivity in the effluent; the reactor operations of the Calder Works and the AGR development make nonsignificant contribution. Effluent composition has been discussed by Howells and, though it is complex and subject to variations, four nuclides dominate the control situation — ruthenium-106, zirconium -95/niobium -95 and, occasionally, cerium -144.

Critical group of laverbread consumers

The critical group are eaters of laverbread, a foodstuff manufactured from the edible seaweed of the genus Porphyra and eaten in South Wales. The critical nuclide is ruthenium-106, although cerium -144 sometimes occurs to an extent which is just significant; it is then also considered. The critical organ is the GI tract, and exposure to other organs from the combination of radionuclides is relatively small.

The seaweed is harvested regularly over m ore than 30 miles of the Cumberland coast and concentrations of radioactivity in it are significant over this whole area. The relative importance of different collection centres varies: in an unpredictable manner and, because of this, a chain of eleven sampling points is maintained which spans all the important collection areas. Measurements from these samples are sufficient? to predict concentration elsewhere, and the relationship between discharge rate and concentration of ruthenium-106 in Porphyra has been well established by this type of monitoring during recent years^

Samples are collected at monthly intervals, and analysis, prim arily for ruthenium-106, zirconium -95 and niobium-95, is carried out by gam m a-spectrom etry. Cerium-144 can be detected


116 APPENDIX IV

TABLE XXIX. RADIOACTIVITY IN Porphyra SEAWEED SAMPLED IN THE VICINITY OF WINDSCALE, 1967-68

D istan ce from C o n cen tra tio n o f rad io a ctiv ity

Sam p lin g point p ip e - lin e (p C i/g (w et))(m iles) 95Z r /95Nb i°6Ru 144C e

St. Bees 6 . 2 North 23 59 8 .4

Nethertow n 3. 5 North 60 119 13

Braystones North 2. 3 North 76 149 21

Braystones South 1 . 2 North 203 249 66

S e lla f ie ld (p ip e -lin e ) 0 41 116 14

S e lla f ie ld (B a ile y bridge) 0. 9 South 52 146 23

S e a sc a le 1. 9 South 50 127 18

Drigg 3 . 5 South 28 89 11

Eskm eals 8 . 9 South 22 60 7. 0

G utterby 12. 5 South 23 43 6 .3

W alney 24 . 0 South 10 22 5 .0

by this means when concentrations are radiologic ally significant.At lower concentrations a chemical separation is needed, followed by beta counting; in such circum stances, in view of its minor contribution to the total radiation dose, a quarterly bulk at a few selected positions is quite adequate. Recent measurements of these radionuclides are shown in Table XXIX.

Sub-critical group of Ravenglass Estuary fishermen

For most waste disposals habits surveys by the laboratory have confirmed that the circum stances of the critical group are such that exposure of all other groups is on such a very much lower scale that, if discharges are controlled to ensure safety of the critical group, then all other groups will automatically be safeguarded to a higher degree. However, there exists a group affected by Windscale discharges that is only just sub-critical to the group of laverbread eaters, and a small monitoring programme is undertaken to keep this situation under review.


APPENDIX IV 117

The exposure pathway is that of adsorption of radioactivity by silt, which is trapped in the Ravenglass Estuary. The result is an external dose rate to salmon fisheirmen working on the mud flats, and only gamma radiation is important. Consequently, the m onitoring for radiological purposes is simple and consists of in situ instrumental measurement at selected appropriate positions at monthly intervals. Application of the data is also straightforward, and a mean dose rate averaged on an annual basis is used with an occupancy factor obtained from habits surveys to estimate the actual dose received. This estimate is compared with ICRP Recomm endations on acceptable lim its, and in this way it can be demonstrated that the maximum dose received in 1967-68 was 14% of the derived working limit. This is as calculated for the person who is spending the maximum time for any member of the group in the contaminated area; identification of the habits of the average member of the group is not possible since the group is too small. Measurements have also been made to show which radionuclides are critical in this exposure pathway and so indicate which of the radionuclides d ischarged need close attention if the effluent composition varies.Under the present conditions, zirconium -95/niobium -95 and ruthenium-106 are of almost equal importance. The value of the measurements is that, though they are not necessary to demonstrate that the situation is radiologic ally safe, they show that if the zirconium -95/niobium -95 fraction were to increase, the dose-rate to this currently sub-critical group would increase, with negligible change in the dose-rate to eaters of laverbread.

Exposure of other members of the public

Experience gained as use of the Windscale site has developed over almost two decades has shown that, though other exposure routes exist, no routine surveillance of them is necessary because the degree of exposure is relatively so small compared with that from eating laverbread. These minor pathways include local fishermen, who eat locally caught fish and handle nets and other fishing gear, and those who harvest seaweed for despatch to South Wales, who are subject to external radiation only. Approximate relationships between the discharge rate of the important radionuclides and these minor effects have been established which can be used to predict variations in the degree of exposure with sufficient accuracy when the effluent composition changes. For instance, the principal radionuclides present ini plaice fished from the vicinity


118 APPENDIX IV

of the discharge point are caesium -134 and -137 and ruthenium-106, with sm aller amounts of strontium-90. The maximum degree of exposure to fishermen from eating this fish is less than 0.2% of the derived working limit.

Bradwell nuclear power station

This was one of the first com m ercial nuclear power stations in the United Kingdom and is now well established, although the effluent composition has not yet quite reached equilibrium. The Blackwater Estuary, which receives low -level liquid radioactive waste from the station, is well known for its oyster fisheries, whose operation sets a practical lim it on discharges.

The critical group for this discharge is to be found among the oyster fishermen themselves, who eat the local product in larger quantities than anyone else. This is a common feature of critical groups where locally caught fish or shellfish is the critical material. Other potential exposure routes are of trivial significance: no other shellfish or fish is collected in important quantities, and use of the foreshore is insufficient to make external exposure important. The critical radionuclide for oyster consumption is z in c-65, although others are detectable to a sm aller but just significant extent — particulary cobalt-6 0, iron-55 and phosphorus-32. This is a classic case of a minor constituent of the discharge being the critical radionuclide due to a very high reconcentration factor — in this case 105.

Basic monitoring to establish that control of discharges is adequate requires a minimum of effort and consists principally of monitoring the critical material, oysters, for zinc-6 5. Two species of oyster are farmed in the estuary, one of Portuguese origin (Crassostrea angulata) being cultivated in addition to the native species (Ostrea edulis). Research has shown that the highest con centrations of zinc-6 5 and also other radionuclides in oysters are found at the nearest com m ercial bed to the power station, where only the native species is cultivated. Higher concentrations are assimilated at a second site of special layings in the immediate vicinity of the outfall on the B arrier Wall, but these oysters are not sold for human consumption; they were laid for the deliberate purpose of indicating the maximum conceivable concentration in any oysters in the estuary. The site is very poor for maintaining oysters in a healthy, growing, condition and layings cannot be left long enough to attain biological equilibrium with zinc, but experience has shown that the basic aim of the layings is regularly achieved.


APPENDIX IV 1 1 9

Both sites are sampled quarterly for the native species, the Portuguese species also being collected at the B arrier Wall position. Routine analysis consists of a gross beta assay followed by gamma- spectrom etry for zinc-65, which also shows the presence of some other nuclides. At the present low degree of contamination the gross beta assay is predominantly due to natural radioactivity — potassium-40 — although phosphorus-32 has made a significant contribution on occasions, particularly in Barrier Wall samples. Specific analysis has to be made by chemical separation to verify the importance of most of the various radionuclides present, although much of the information has been produced prim arily for the laboratory's radioecological research programme in the estuary.

Trawsfynydd

This nuclear power station occupies a unique position in the United Kingdom since it is the only such unit discharging its low - level radioactive waste to fresh water — Lake Trawsfynydd — which is also the source of the station's cooling water. This has posed new environmental problems in waste control, although the principles of application are the s!ame as those for sites discharging their liquid wastes to saline waters.

The critical route to public exposure is by consumption of fish from Lake Trawsfynydd, which thus involves only internal exposure. At the present stage in the station's operational history the critical radionuclides are caesium-137 and caesium-134, to the extent that all others have so far been of trivial significance, although the situation could still change since the station has not yet reached operational equilibrium. However, work by Preston, Jefferies and Dutton has shown that reconcentration factors for the caesium isotopes are very large (about 4 X 103), so that they are likely to remain the critical radionuclides unless the relative discharges of, for instance, phosphorus-32 (which displays sim ilarly high re concentration factors) should increase considerably.

The lake is noted for trout, which is the principal species fished, but a small minority of the critical group, who are essentially local anglers and their fam ilies, eat perch. Both species are normally sampled at quarterly intervals and specific analysis for caesium isotopes is the most important measurement, although a gross beta assay is carried out as a routine. This would easily show any significant quantities of beta emitters such as phosphorus-32.


1 2 0 APPENDIX IV

TABLE XXX. RADIOACTIVITY IN FISH IN LAKE TRAWSFYNYDD, 1967-68

S p ecies1 3 4 _

Cs

R ad ioactiv ity

(p C i/g (w et))137Cs

Trout 0 .7 5 .9

Perch 1 .8 17

W eighted m ean 1. 0 8 .7

The maximum consumption rate has been estimated at 100 g/d from habits surveys, which have in addition formed the basis for identifying the critical group and other important factors. Unlike a marine or estuarine site, there is little possibility of an external dose-rate problem; farmland is not periodically flooded in such a way that significant contamination of working areas could occur. Concentrations of caesium radionuclides in fish in 1967-1968 are shown in Table XXX. No attempt has been made to identify an average rate for the critical group since it is relatively small, and this estimate of 2.5% of the derived working limit is therefore an overestimate of that which the average member has received.

(B) Exposure assessable only by sampling indicator materials

The value of critical materials is most readily appreciated during the early years of operation of a site. Discharge rates tend to build up slowly, and the laboratory is currently surveying several sites where it appears that, though potentially critical materials are not measurably contaminated at present, this may not remain so indefinitely. In these circum stances the most useful and economic development of effort consists of adding an indicator material to the sampling programme whilst maintaining a small survey of potentially critical materials, and analysing the indicator material for specific radionuclides known to be present in the waste d is charged. Part of the monitoring scheme is common to sites in category (C) in that, in the early period of operation of a site, the local public may naturally be somewhat anxious, and a limited programme is needed to reassure them.


APPENDIX IV 1 2 1

Indicator materials chosen by the laboratory are usually species of seaweed and thus not all environments are amenable to monitoring in this way. For instance, barren shingle beaches, such as those around Sizewell, Suffolk, do not provide the conditions necessary for seaweeds to grow. Fortunately, such areas are relatively rare and there is sometimes a range of seaweeds from which to choose. The essential requirements of an indicator material are that it should be a sedentary species and exhibit high reconcentration factors.Most commonly found seaweeds exhibit useful concentration factors for a number of radionuclides found in discharges. The Fucus weeds, particulalry F. vesiculosus, F. serratus and F. spira lis , grow in profusion on many parts of the coasts of the United Kingdom and readily concentrate zinc-54, iron-55, cobalt-60, zirconium -95/ niobium-95, ruthenium-106 and iodine-131. It is from this group of seaweeds that sampling materials for indicator monitoring programmes are normally chosen.

The best example of use of an indicator material in the laboratory's work in this present context is provided by the seaweed F. vesiculosus in the vicinity of Hinkley Point, Somerset. This station has been at power since 1965 and discharge rates so far have been low, no contamination having been detected in any of the potentially critical m aterials. Locally caught fish and shrimps are the most important in this respect, and also the foreshore which might becom e contaminated by gamma-emitting radionuclides and could thus, as a working area of fishermen, give rise to external exposure. During 1968 traces of zinc-65, iron-55 and cobalt-60 were detected in the weed.

These data can be used to make a quantitative estimate of exposure of the critical group if values of appropriate concentration factors in both critical and indicator materials are known. The seaweed concentrations indicate concentrations in the local water m ass, from which the actual concentrations in critical materials can be calculated. Consequently, this procedure is not limited to radionuclides found in the indicator material and concentrations of any constituent in the critical material can be estimated within reasonable limits if full data are available on the com position of the effluent being discharged.

From recent data it appears that at Hinkley Point, Somerset, the critical nuclide will probably be phosphorus-32 if the present discharge regim e is maintained, with minor contributions from chromium-51, caesium-137 and antimony-124. This is the first indication of the identity of the critical radionuclide and though the


1 2 2 APPENDIX IV

maximum degree of radiological exposure is trivial at this stage, equivalent to a m ere 0.07% of the derived working limit, it marks an important step in environmental measurements. A sim ilar series of calculations can be carried out for contamination of beach material, for which the only important nuclides are caesium-137 and -134.The maximum conceivable exposure by this route is even less than by consumption of fish and shrimps, at 0.02% of the derived working limit.

(C) Exposure not measurable by any method

Dilution of discharges from some sites is so large compared with the quantities of radioactivity involved that it can be predicted with confidence that no environmental material will be measurably contaminated. Although there may be little or no scientific need to carry out any environmental monitoring, a limited programme is generally undertaken, at least in the early period of operation of a site, prim arily to allay public fears. Ultimately, the programmes can be contracted, and if this situation of no measurable contamination persists after the station has reached operational equilibrium, it will be possible to dispense with monitoring altogether, leaving any occasional checks to the operator.

A good example of this type of site is provided by the nuclear power station at Dungeness, Kent. Radiological exposure is not measurable by any method, direct or indirect, but monitoring is still designed on the critical path model which provides the only meaningful and scientific basis for expressing results. Detectable contamination is not necessary before potential critical routes can be identified. Two groups of the public would be important in this way — fishermen and bait-diggers — and the monitoring programme is designed to cover their habits. Plaice and whelks are sampled at approximately quarterly intervals subject to seasonal availability, and a simple total beta assay is sufficient to show that no artificial radioactivity is present. Occasionally, samples are analysed by gam m a-spectrom etry to confirm that no radionuclides are being missed by the m ore simple beta analysis. Bait-digging for lug- worm is a regular occupation on the beaches to the east of the power station and the potential critical effect would be external gamma radiation exposure resulting from adsorption of radioactivity on to the fine sand in this area. To cover this pathway gamma dose- rate measurements are made at selected points from half a m ile to four miles from the discharge point. Measurements have so far


APPENDIX IV 123

revealed nothing but natural radioactivity, principally of cosm ic origin. A series of measurement positions is adopted, prim arily so as to have a basis for proving whether any apparent contamination could be attributed to the station. This would only be so if m easurements were made at quarterly intervals during the first three years of operation of the station, after which they were reduced to the present rate of two surveys per year, which reflects the expected trend in a situation of this type.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Typical surveillance programmes [24]

Environm ental m onitoring around facilit ies handling uranium

Tsivoglou [25] has described the environmental monitoring programme around a uranium m ill in Colorado. Little airborne wastes are generated at this m ill since waste gases from furnaces and other equipment are generally scrubbed to remove particulates before release to the atmosphere. Samples of river water and sediment are collected from the river where the liquid wastes are discharged. Water samples upstream and downstream of the mill are taken by means of a pump and tim er set to deliver a small volume of water every 15 minutes to a large collection bottle. Samples are removed weekly and either analysed weekly or com posited for monthly analysis. Analysis is principally for radium-226 and uranium, although analyses for 210Pb, Th and Po have been made on a few samples. Sediment samples are analysed for 226Ra and gross alpha activity. Radium-226 was determined by the radon emanation technique, uranium by fluorom etric procedure and gross alpha activity with an internal proportional counter.

Quantities of uranium are released to the atmosphere from several stacks of the Springfield Works (a fuel fabrication plant) near Preston, Lancs, UK [26]. Traces of the released uranium may deposit on vegetation grazed by cattle. Since uranium ingested by cows is not transferred to their milk, the main criteria is protection of the health of the animals rather than human radiation exposure. Samples of bovine faeces were collected twice during 196 9 from four farms close to the Springfield site and from a central farm several miles away.3 In all but one case samples contained 5 /Ltg of uranium

3 T h e sam p ling o f bovine fa ece s began in 1962. T h e c o n ten t o f uranium was g en era lly in the range 0 - 5 ppm above re fere n ce sam ples tak en at a d istan ce o f about ten m ile s .


TABLE XXXI. TYPICAL ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM FOR A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

V ecto rs or in d ice s R e la tiv e frequ ency A nalyses Sam p lin g lo ca tio n s

S u rfa ce w ater C ontinuous co m p o site or w eeklyR ece iv in g w aters grabo f th e fa c i l i ty

Bottom sed im en ts

Ground w ater

A ir:

(a ) In h a la tio n

(b) Im m ersio n

M ilk

A q u a tic b io ta

Food crops and oth er v e g e ta tio n

S o il

S em ia n n u a lly

As a p p lic a b le (usually quarterly or annually )

H ig h -v o lu m e sam p les o cca sio n a lly L o w -v o lu m e sam p les d aily or w eekly

D osim eters ch an ged m onthly

M onthly

Q u arterly

V a ria b le

S easo n al (b e fo re or at harvesting tim e )

A nnually

S trea m — ab ov e and below the fa c i l i ty ; reserv oir, bay , la k e — n ea rest sh o re lin e ; any nearby d o m estic w ater suppliers using the re c e iv in g w aters as a raw w ater source

N ear re a c to r ’s o u tfa ll or ab ov e and b elow th e o u tfa ll i f th e re ce iv in g w ater is a stream

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans Supplies w ithin 5 m ile s o f th e fa c i l i ty

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans, period ic analysis for 3H with frequency a fu n ctio n o f the lev els m easured

Gross b e ta and g am m a scans

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans o f filters and cartrid ges

Integrated dose due to n o b le gases by ap p rop riate read er d ev ice

G a m m a-sp ectru m analysis for 131I89Sr and 90Sr or to ta l Sr by b e ta analysis

G am m a-sp ectru m analysis for se le c ted rad ion uclides

G am m a-sp ectru m analysis

Sr and Cs or gross b e ta

Populated areas w ithin 5 - 1 5 m iles o f th e fa c i l i ty

D airy herds w ithin 1 0 -1 5 m ile s o f th e fa c ilityD airy herds w ith in 1 0 -1 5 m ile s o f th e fa c i l i ty

N ear th e re a c to r 's o u tfa ll or above and below i f re ce iv in g w ater is. a stream

W ith in a 1 0 -1 5 m ile s radius o f the f a c i l i ty

P rev ailin g downwind d irec tio n in n earest a g ricu ltu ra l areas

124 A

PPEND

IX IV


APPENDIX IV 1 2 5

per gram of dried sample or less. The one exceptional sample contained 30 /jg U /g sample. The limit derived on the basis of the chemical toxicity of uranium is 220 jug U /g.

Nuclear power reactors

The Bureau of Radiological Health of the US Public Health Service has published several reports discussing monitoring programmes in place around existing power reactors [27-29] . Table XXXI below is extracted from one of their reports and summarizes a typical environmental surveillance program me for power reactors.

A programme sim ilar to that described in Table XXXI was recommended by the World Health Organization for surveillance around nuclear reactors and fuel processing plants. The main difference was the additional recommendation o f 3H, U and Pu analysis in samples of water and sediments.

Description of the existing or planned environmental monitoring programmes at nuclear power sites are available through public documents filed with the Atomic Energy Commission or in some instances through open literature reports [30-32]. Environmental monitoring of ports and facilities for nuclear powered naval vessels was discussed iji a recent issue of Radiological Health Data and Reports [33].

Nuclear fuels reprocessing plants

NFS Plant, New York

The Nuclear Fuels Services plant in West Valley, New York, is the first private facility for reprocessing power reactor fuels in the United States. Two complementary environmental surveillance programmes are in operation around the site, one is maintained by the operator of the plant and one by the New York State Health Department. The plant is designed to process one ton per day of reactor fuel of 20 000 M W -d /t exposure. The plant operating license lim its the discharge of 131I to 3 C i/a and noble gases, essentially all 85Kr, to 10 juCi/a.

About 40 000 gallons per day of liquid effluent are released through a series of ponds and lagoons and eventually into a nearby creek. Sampling is performed daily for gross alpha and beta analysis and weekly for isotopic analysis. Low concentrations of 58Co, 60Co,


1 2 6 APPENDIX IV

9(&r, 95Z r -95Nb, 103Ru, 106Ru and 137Cs are present in the effluent.If necessary, the effluent can be temporarily detained in the ponds or diverted to storage and/or treatment facilities.

Both the plant operator and NYS Health Department collect samples of air, water and milk in the vicinity of the site. During the preoperational period the NY State Health Department collected and published detailed data pertaining to population, surface water supplies, agriculture, stream biota, and livestock within a 25-m ile radius of the plant site [34]. Background radiation levels were also measured in a pressurized ion chamber at about 30 locations during the preoperational environmental programme [35] .Two soil samples were collected and analysed for gross gamma activity at each of four locations on the plant site at a 12-month interval.

Milk samples were collected from six farms and analysed for gross gamma activity and for several fission products. Low concentrations of the fall-out nuclides 89Sr, 90Sr and 137Cs were detected in nearly all milk samples. Surface water samples were collected from numerous streams near the plant site and analysed for gross gamma, fall-out nuclides, uranium and radium. Only rarely were positive measurements obtained. Sampling sites were also established for drinking water, bottom mud, fish and air samples.

After operation of the plant for a few years, the Northeastern Radiological Health Laboratory of the USPHS (now part of EPA) performed a special survey of the NFS plant environs [36].Samples of milk, drinking water, fish, and deer were collected and analysed fo r 3H, 60Co, 90Sr, 106Ru, 134Cs and 137Cs. Measurements of 85Kr in air were also made. The study concluded that "the presence of Nuclear Fuels Services ... did not significantly increase the radiation dose to the 'typical individual' in 1968 above that due to fallout and natural radiation".

Environmental surveillance at the Hanford Project

The US AEC Hanford project is a complex of production reactors, fuels fabrication and reprocessing plants, and research facilities.The eight older plutonium producing reactors, now shut down, utilized a once-through cooling system. Columbia River water was passed through the reactors, then into delay ponds and finally back into the river. The effluent contained fission>products and neutron activation products.


APPENDIX IV 127

Atmospheric releases from the fuel reprocessing plants included 131I and some particulate material, principally 106Ru. Liquid effluents from the separations plants are not released directly to portions of the environment accessible to the public. High-level wastes are stored in tanks. Medium level wastes are released to the ground where all the radionuclides except 3H and 106Ru are effectively retained by the soil, which is up to 400 feet thick above the groundwater. Low concentrations of these two nuclides can be measured in groundwater, which migrates very slowly towards the Columbia River. The environmental surveillance programme at Hanford reflects the past need to monitor potential pathways of exposure from both the reactor effluents discharged to the river and the reprocessing plants' effluents released to air and ground.Table XXXII summarizes the types and frequency of sampling and analysis performed during 1969 and 1970.

Manpower and laboratory requirements

The operation of a surveillance programme embraces a number of activities from designing the survey, directing the survey, collecting samples, and analysing samples, to interpreting the data obtained. Professional advice from many sources may be required during the planning phase and at least one professionally trained scientist is needed to supervise the programme initially. The scientist in charge of the survey should have an understanding of, and access to advisors in, sampling techniques, operation and maintenance of counting equipment, chemical analyses, statistical evaluation of data, and general health physics.

The number of supporting technical staff needed will depend a great deal upon the magnitude and scope of the survey. It is generally found that someone with the equivalent of a high school education can carry out the routine procedures used in environmental survey work. Training is essential, however, if samples from the field are to be properly collected and analysed according to specialized procedures.

The equipment and laboratory facilities required vary according to the scope of the survey. The measurement of gross activity requires the usual facilities of a small chemical laboratory supplemented by relatively simple counting devices. Analysis for specific nuclides will normally not require other than conventional laboratory equipment, but it is expensive in time. Further, the sensitivity of


128 APPENDIX IV

TABLE XXXII. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMME AT HANFORD

Item Frequency A nalysis

Effluents

Gaseous ContinuousW eek ly

P a r ticu la te and halogens Isotopic

Liquids:

Released to riv er Released to ground

Continuous

Batchw ise or daily

Gross a c tiv ity

Isotopic

Environm ental m ed ia

Air W eek ly /b i - w eekly

M onthly co m p o site Q u arterly co m p o site (T o ta l 4 2 lo catio n s)

Gross b e ta , alpha, 131I

G am m a scan9 0 - 239_Sr, Pu

Su rfa ce w ater W eek ly to quarterly (3 lo ca tio n s up and dow n-stream

o f P ro ject)

Isotop ic — frequency varies with nu clid e

San itary w ater W eek ly /m o n th ly (3 lo catio n s)

Isotopic — frequ ency varies with nuclid e

Ground w ater M onthly to sem i-a n n u a lly

( ~ 180 w ells)

Gross B eta , 3H,

N itra te ion — frequ ency varies with lo ca tio n

M ilk W eek ly /m o n th lyQ u arterly(4 farm s, 3 c o m m e rc ia l sources)

131I, G am m a scan 90Sr

Fish S em i-m o n th ly

M onthly co m p o site

32 PG am m a scan

G a m e birds Seaso n ally 32 „P, gam m a scan

O ther foodstuffs M onthly / qu arterly /sea so n a lly (Farm s and lo c a l stores)

3ZP, gam m a scan , 90Sr, frequency and s p e c if ic analyses

vary with both food and lo c a tio n

Sh ellfish M onthly (one lo ca tio n )

32P, gam m a scan

Extern al dose S em i-w e ek ly (tw o lo catio n s)

Ion cham bers

M onthly (5 8 lo catio n s)

TLD


APPENDIX IV 1 2 9

T A B L E X X X II. (con t.)

Item Frequency A nalysis

Ground deposition M onthly Portab le survey(4 9 co n tro l points) m eters

M onthly (p lan t roots)

C a r-b o rn e s c in tilla t io n cou n ter

S em i-a n n u a lly(fix e d flig h t patterns out to2 0 0 m iles from P ro ject)

A eria l survey s c in tilla t io n counter

the counting equipment generally needs to be greater than if, for example, only gross beta activity is measured. Time may be saved by making use, when possible, of gamma-ray spectrom etry.

Summary

The scope of environmental surveillance at a particular facility will depend upon the type and extent of nuclear operations carried on within it. Where preliminary surveillance indicates that the public exposure resulting from the discharge of wastes to air and water will be only a small fraction of the dose lim its, environmental surveillance might be drastically reduced. The objectives of radiological control can then be met by occasional checks on the discharge rates or on environmental media where cumulative effects or reconcentration of the effluent radionuclides is suspected.

For radionuclides of long half-life infrequent sampling (quarterly or even annually) is sufficient, unless there are rapid fluctuations in the discharge rates or a m ajor change in the environmental conditions. Nuclides with relatively short half-lives can be sampled at intervals of two to three half-lives. Of course, supplemental samples should be taken if results show any significant or unexpected increase.

Advantage should be taken of data gathered by nation-wide surveillance networks established for measuring worldwide fall-out. In addition, data resulting from effluent monitoring at the facility should be utilized in the planning of new or revised surveillance program mes. The primary aim being to keep the number of samples and analyses to the minimum necessary to ensure adequate control.


The results of the surveillance program m e should som ehow be relatable to assessm ent of the radiation doses rece ived by persons in the vicinity o f the plant.

130 APPENDIX IV

R E F E R E N C E S

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, IAEA/WHO/FA O/ILO Manual, Planning for the Handling o f Radiation Accidents, Safety Series No. 32, IAEA, Vienna (1969). INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Publication 9,Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966).INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Environmental Monitoring in Emergency Situations, Safety Series No. 18, IAEA, Vienna (1965).BARRATTA, E. J ., PARKS, D. C . , MOELLER, D. W ., An Environmental Surveillance Laboratory for Radiochemical Analyses, USPHS Publ. No. 999-RH-7, US Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C.KAMATH, P. R. , The Environmental Radiation Surveillance Laboratory, WHO, Geneva (1970). INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Rapid Methods for Measuring Radioactivity in the Environment, (Proc. Symp. Neuherberg, 1971), IAEA, Vienna (1971).WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, Methods o f Radiochemical Analysis, WHO/FAO/ IAEA, Geneva (1966).INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Reference Methods for Marine Radioactivity Studies, Technical Reports Series No. 118, IAEA, Vienna (1970).USAEC HEALTH AND SAFETY LABORATORY NEW YORK, Manual o f Standard Procedures,New York (1957, revised annually).SUSCHNY, O. , The Measurement o f Atmospheric Radioactivity, Technical Note No. 94,WHO, Geneva (1968).'INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, IAEA Services and Assistance, IAEA,Vienna (1973) 26.WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, "International Standards for Drinking Water", Third Edition, Geneva (1971).UNITED NATIONS SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON THE EFFECTS OF ATOMIC RADIATION,Rep. A /AG 82/R. 268, Annex A, Environmental Radiation (1971).INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Manual on Environmental Monitoring for Normal Operations, Safety Series No. 16, IAEA, Vienna (1965).Based on USEPA, Environmental Radioactivity Surveillance Guide, Rep. ORP/SID 72-2. Dispersal and Uptake o f Radioactive Elements in the Tarapur Environment, Rep. BARC-644, India (1972).PRESTON, A . , Environmental Contamination by Radioactive Materials (Proc. Seminar Vienna, 1969), IAEA, Vienna (1969) 309.Disposal of Radioactive Wastes Arising in the United Kingdom from the Peaceful Uses of Atom ic Energy, Rep. NRPB-R1 (1971).MITCHELL, N. T . , Radioactivity in Surface and Coastal Waters o f the British Isles 1970,Rep. FRL8 (1971).Criteria Used to Estimate Radiation Doses Received by Persons Living in the Vicinity of Hanford: Interim Report No. 2, Rep. BNWL-1019, UC-41 (1969).G. Fis. Sanit. Prot. Riadiaz, 13 (1969) 215-18.


APPENDIX IV 131

[22] Umweltradioaktivitat der Kernforschungsanlage Jiilich im Jahre 1971, Zentralabteilung Strahlenschutz, Zst-Nr. 0157 (1972).

[23] MITCHELL, N. T . , "Monitoring of the aquatic environment of the United Kingdom and its application to hazard assessment", Environmental Contamination by Radioactive Materials (Proc. Seminar Vienna, 1969), IAEA, Vienna (1969) 449.

[24] SOLDAT, J .K ., Environmental Surveillance o f a Nuclear Facility, Rep. BNWLSA-3786 (1971).[25] TSIVOGLOU, E.C. , "Environmental monitoring around a uranium m ill in the USA",

Manual on Environmental Monitoring in Normal Operation, Safety Series No, 16, IAEA,Vienna (1966) 63-70.

[26] WRAY, E. T. , Ed., Environmental Monitoring Associated with Discharges o f Radioactive Waste During 1969 from USAE Establishments, UKAEA Rep. AHSB (RP)R 105 (1970).

[27] WEAVER, C. L ., HARWARD, E. D. , Surveillance o f nuclear power reactors, Public Health Reps, 82 (1969) 899-912.

[28] BRINCK, W. L. , HARWARD, E. D ., CHISSLER, R. I . , "Programs for environmental surveillance around nuclear power plants", Environmental Surveillance in the Vicinity of Nuclear Facilities (REINIG, W .C ., Ed.); Proc. Symp. Augusta, 1968), Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield (1970) 46-54.

[29] KAHN, B. , et al. , "Radiological surveillance studies at a boiling water nuclear power reactor", Environmental Aspects o f Nuclear Power Stations (Proc. Symp. New York, 1970), IAEA, Vienna (1971) 535-48.

[30] LEWIS, L. , "Environmental monitoring for nuclear power plants - A utility health physicist’s viewpoint", presented Southeastern Electric Exchange, Engineering and Operation Division Conf. Atlanta, 1968, Duke Power Company, Charlotte, N .C .

[31] CLARK, B. W ., Description o f the Environmental Monitoring Program for the Monticello Nuclear Generating Plant near M onticello, Minn., Revised June 1, 1969, Northern States Power Company, Minneapolis, Minn. (1969).

[32] OYEN, L. C. , "Development o f the Quad-Cities nuclear power station environs-monitoring program", presented ASME Winter Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif. 1969.

[33] MILES, M. E. , MANGENO, J.J ., BURKE, R. D. , Environmental monitoring and disposal of radioactive wastes from U. S. Naval nuclear-powered ships and their support facilities, 1970, Radiol. Health Data Reps 12 (1971) 235-44.

[34] DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES, Western N. Y. Nuclear Service Center, Preoperational Environmental Study-Preliminary Report, NY State Health Dept. (1962).

[35] DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES, Western N .Y . Nuclear Service Center, Preoperational Environmental Survey, NY State Health Dept. (1964).

[36] SHLEJEN, B. , An Estimate o f Radiation Doses Received by Individuals Living in the Vicinity o f a Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plant in 1968, USPHS Rep. BRH/NERHL 70-1 (1970).


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