Q. Explain Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’.

Ans. If motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. In this regard, Abraham Maslow developed a model in which basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfilment are pursued. In this hierarchical model, when a need is mostly satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is shown in the following diagram:

Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

Air, water, nourishment, sleep

According to Maslow's theory, if such needs are not satisfied then one's motivation will arise from the quest to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not felt until one has met the needs basic to one's bodily functioning.

Safety

Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:

Living in a safe area, Medical insurance, Job security, Financial reserves

According to Maslow's hierarchy, if a person feels that he or she is in harm's way, higher needs will not receive much attention.

Social Needs

Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other people and may include:

Need for friends, Need for belonging, need to give and receive love

Esteem

Once a person feels a sense of "belonging", the need to feel important arises. Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem such as self respect and achievement. External esteem needs are those such as social status and recognition. Some esteem needs are:

Self-respect, Achievement, Attention, Recognition, Reputation

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Maslow later refined his model to include a level between esteem needs and self actualization: the need for knowledge and aesthetics.

Self-Actualization

Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow.

Self-actualized people tend to have needs such as:

Truth, Justice, Wisdom, Meaning

Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.

Limitations of Maslow's Hierarchy

While Maslow's hierarchy makes sense from an intuitive standpoint, there is little evidence to support its hierarchical aspect. In fact, there is evidence that contradicts the order of needs specified by the model. For example, some cultures appear to place social needs before any others. Maslow's hierarchy also has difficulty explaining cases such as the "starving artist" in which a person neglects lower needs in pursuit of higher ones. Finally, there is little evidence to suggest that people are motivated to satisfy only one need level at a time, except in situations where there is a conflict between needs.

Even though Maslow's hierarchy lacks scientific support, it is quite well-known and is the first theory of motivation to which many people they are exposed. To address some of the issues of Maslow's theory, Clayton Alderfer developed the ERG theory, a needs-based model that is more consistent with empirical findings.

Q. Explain the ERG theory of motivation.

Ans. To address some of the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy as a theory of motivation, Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory, which like Maslow's theory, describes needs as a hierarchy. The letters ERG stand for three levels of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. The ERG theory is based on the work of Maslow, so it has much in common with it but also differs in some important aspects.

Similarities to Maslow's Hierarchy - Studies had shown that the middle levels of Maslow's hierarchy have some overlap; Alderfer addressed this issue by reducing the number of levels to three. The ERG needs can be mapped to those of Maslow's theory as follows:

i. Existence: Physiological and safety needsii. Relatedness: Social and external esteem needs

iii. Growth: Self-actualization and internal esteem needs

Like Maslow's model, the ERG theory is hierarchical - existence needs have priority over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth.

Differences from Maslow's Hierarchy - In addition to the reduction in the number of levels, the ERG theory differs from Maslow's in the following three ways:

i. Unlike Maslow's hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of needs to be pursued simultaneously.

ii. The ERG theory allows the order of the needs be different for different people.iii. The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, the person may

regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle.

Thus, while the ERG theory presents a model of progressive needs, the hierarchical aspect is not rigid. This flexibility allows the ERG theory to account for a wider range of observed behaviours. For example, it can explain the "starving artist" who may place growth needs above existence ones.

Implications for Management

If the ERG theory holds, then unlike with Maslow's theory, managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs to satisfy simultaneously. Furthermore, if growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to recognize this situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the subordinate is able to pursue growth again.

Q. Explain Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory or the Two Factor Theory.

Ans. Hygiene factors are those factors the presence of which does not necessarily motivate but the absence of which, demotivates.

According to Herzberg the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate from those that lead to job dissatisfaction

To better understand employee attitudes and motivation, Frederick Herzberg performed studies to determine which factors in an employee's work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The studies included interviews in which employees where asked what pleased and displeased them about their work. Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the dissatisfier’s hygiene factors, using the term "hygiene" in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction.

The following table presents the top six factors causing dissatisfaction and the top six factors causing satisfaction, listed in the order of higher to lower importance.

Herzberg reasoned that because the factors causing satisfaction are different from those causing dissatisfaction, the two feelings cannot simply be treated as opposites of one another. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. Similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.

Herzberg argued that there are two distinct human needs portrayed. First, there are physiological needs that can be fulfilled by money, for example, to purchase food and shelter. Second, there is the psychological need to achieve and grow, and this need is fulfilled by activities that cause one to grow.

From the above table of results, one observes that the factors that determine whether there is dissatisfaction or no dissatisfaction are not part of the work itself, but rather, are external factors. Herzberg often referred to these hygiene factors as "KITA" factors, where KITA is an acronym for Kick In The A..., the process of providing incentives or a threat of punishment to cause someone to do something.

Herzberg argues that these provide only short-run success because the motivator factors that determine whether there is satisfaction or no satisfaction are intrinsic to the job itself, and do not result from carrot and stick incentives.

Implications for Management

If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management not only must provide hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a continuous management process.

According to Herzberg: The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee.

Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing levels of responsibility. If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation problem.

Critics of Herzberg's theory argue that the two-factor result is observed because it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors. Furthermore, job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high level of motivation or productivity.

Q. Explain Mcclelland's theory of needs.

Ans. In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as:

Achievement, Affiliation, or Power

Achievement - People with a high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers.

Affiliation - Those with a high need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. These individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations.

Power - A person's need for power can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power.

Implications for Management

People with different needs are motivated differently. High need for achievement - High achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback.

High need for affiliation - Employees with a high affiliation need perform best in a cooperative environment.

High need for power - Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.

McClelland's theory allows for the shaping of a person's needs; training programs can be used to modify one's need profile

Q. Help understand the Theory X and Theory Y.

Ans.

Theory X

Theory X assumes that the average person:

1. Employees inherently dislike work and however possible will try to avoid it.2. Since employees dislike work they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with

punishment to achieve goals.3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and will seek formal direction whenever possible.4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little

ambition. Essentially, Theory X assumes that people work only for money and security.

Theory X - The Hard Approach and Soft Approach

Under Theory X, management approaches can range from a hard approach to a soft approach. The hard approach relies on coercion, implicit threats, close supervision, and tight controls, essentially an environment of command and control. The soft approach is to be permissive and seek harmony with the hope that in return employees will cooperate when asked to do so. However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The hard approach results in hostility, purposely low-output and hard-line union demands. The soft approach results in ever-increasing requests for more rewards in exchange for ever-decreasing work output.

Under Theory X the firm relies on money and benefits to satisfy employees' lower needs, and once those needs are satisfied the source of motivation is lost. Theory X management styles in fact hinder the satisfaction of higher-level needs. Consequently, the only way that employees can attempt to satisfy their higher level needs in their work is by seeking more compensation, so it is quite predictable that they will focus on monetary rewards. While money may not be the most effective way to self-fulfillment, in a Theory X environment it may be the only way. Under Theory X, people use work to satisfy their lower needs, and seek to satisfy their higher needs in their leisure time. But it is in satisfying their higher needs that employees can be most productive.

In this situation, one would expect employees to dislike their work, avoid responsibility, have no interest in organizational goals, resist change, etc., thus making Theory X a self-fulfilling prophecy. From this reasoning, McGregor proposed an alternative: Theory Y.

Theory Y

The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best be motivated.

Theory Y makes the following general assumptions:

1. Work can be as natural as play and rest.2. People will be self-directed to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them.3. People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that addresses higher

needs such as self-fulfillment.4. Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.5. Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and inspiration are common in the

population.

Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational goals by using the employee's own quest for fulfillment as the motivator. McGregor stressed that Theory Y management does not imply a soft approach.

McGregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity assumed by Theory Y and therefore may need tighter controls that can be relaxed as the employee develops.

Theory Y Management Implications

If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational energy of its employees:

i. Decentralization and Delegation - If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels of management, each manager will have more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.

ii. Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs.

iii. Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision making process taps their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment.

iv. Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met.

If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs.

Q. Mention the stages in the Perception Process. Illustrate with an example from daily life.

Ans. Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. The perceptual process allows us to experience the world around us.

Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.

Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell and taste. Perception is the process of making sense of the world around us. Perception has its own broadly defined 5 stages of how we perceive people, the processes that influence our perceptions, and some of the ways in which we can make our perceptions more accurate. The 5 Stages are:

1. Selection -We select what we want to perceive.2. Organization -We arrange the information that we perceive from.3. Selection Interpretation -we starts to interpret on the things that we perceive and organize in selection

and organization.4. Memory -We don't retain all we select.5. Stimulation

Perceptual selection is the process by which people filter out irrelevant or less significant information so that they can deal with the most important matters. Perceptual Selection is determined by

1. External Factorsi. Size: The larger the size, the more likely it is to be perceived. The tallest person in the

office will invariably be noticed.ii. Intensity: The more intense an external factor (bright light, loud noise, high pitch sound

etc.) the more likely it is to be perceived. One may notice that the TV commercials always have high pitch as compared to normal telecast.

iii. Contrast: External factors that stand out against the background or things that are not which people expect are more likely to be perceived.

iv. Motion: A moving factor is more likely to be perceived than stationary factor. Films (motion pictures) attract people more than a static picture.

v. Repetition: A repeated factor is more likely to be noticed. Marketing managers use this principle in trying to get attention of the prospective customers.

vi. Novelty and familiarity: Either novelty or familiarity will can attract attention. People would quickly notice a person riding an elephant on a busy street in Delhi. On the other hand, one is likely to spot a familiar face in a crowd or a familiar voice even if there is a lot of noise and confusion

2. Internal Factorsi. Personality: Personality has an interesting influence on what and how people perceive.

For example, conscientious people tend to pay more attention to external environmental cues than does a less conscientious person. Less conscientious persons are impulsive, careless, and irresponsible. They see their environment as hectic and unstable which affects the way they make perceptual selections. On the other hand, more conscientious people organize their perceptions into neat categories, allowing themselves to retrieve

data quickly and in an organized manner. In other words, they are careful, methodical, and disciplined in making perceptual selections.

ii. Learning: Learning determines the development of perceptual sets. A perceptual set is an expectation of a particular interpretation based on past experiences with the same or an identical object. In organizational settings, past experiences of the managers and employees influence their perceptions to a great extent.

iii. Motivation: A person’s most urgent needs and desires at any particular time can influence perception. People perceive things that promise to help satisfy their needs and that they have found rewarding in the past. Also, according to Pollyanna principle, people process pleasant event more efficiently and accurately than they do unpleasant events. For example, an employee who receives both positive and negative feedback during the appraisal meeting may more easily and clearly remember the positive statements than the negative ones.

EXAMPLE: imagine that you are out on a morning jog at your local park. As you perform your workout, there are a wide variety of environmental stimuli that might capture your attention. The tree branches are swaying in the slight breeze; a man is out on the grass playing fetch with his Labrador; a car drives past with the windows rolled down and the music blaring; a duck splashes in a nearby pond. All of these things represent the environmental around you, serving as a starting point for the perceptual process and you forming the perception of the weather, the man playing with his dog and the person driving the car with loud music.

Q. Define Leadership. Explain the Trait Theory of leadership.

Ans. Leadership is the ability to influence a group towards achievement of goals. In short Leadership is a process of getting things done through people. Leadership means responsibility. The leader is the guy the others look to get the job done.

Leadership is a complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.

Trait Theory: Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles.

Great Events Theory: A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person.

Transformational Leadership Theory: People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills. It is the most widely accepted theory today.

The Trait Model of Leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both successful and unsuccessful - and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to assess their likelihood of success or failure.

Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight), demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality, self-confidence, and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness.

Among the core traits identified are:

1. Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative2. Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals3. Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open4. Self-confidence: Belief in one’s self, ideas, and ability5. Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually

skilled6. Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters7. Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders.8. Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility

Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

1. It is naturally pleasing theory.2. It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.3. It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed.4. It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.

Limitations of The Trait Theory

1. There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader

2. The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply generalities.

3. There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader4. The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective leadership. Most of

these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader.

5. The theory is very complex

Implications of Trait Theory

The trait theory gives constructive information about leadership. It can be applied by people at all levels in all types of organizations. Managers can utilize the information from the theory to evaluate their position in the organization and to assess how their position can be made stronger in the organization. They can get an in-depth understanding of their identity and the way they will affect others in the organization. This theory makes the manager aware of their strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of how they can develop their leadership qualities.

Conclusion

The traits approach gives rise to questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or science. However, these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Leadership may be something of an art; it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. Even if there are certain inborn qualities that make one a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. A person is not born with self-confidence. Self-confidence is developed, honesty and integrity are a matter of personal choice, motivation to lead comes from within the individual, and the knowledge of business can be acquired. While cognitive ability has its origin partly in genes, it still needs to be developed. None of these ingredients are acquired overnight.

Q. What are the different types of Leadership? Explain.

Ans. Leadership is a method through which a person or group influences others to obtain certain goals and objectives, which in turn improves the coherency and efficiency of the group.

Leadership can also be defined as being able to motivate and inspire others.

With the different definitions of leadership, there are different types of leadership too. It can be broadly defined under the following classes:

1. Autocratic or authoritarian style

2. Participative or democratic style3. Delegative/ Laissez-faire or free rein style4. Paternalistic Style

Autocratic or authoritarian style - Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.

Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. It has high degree or dependency on the leader and can create de-motivation and alienation

of staff.

Participative or democratic style - The democratic leadership style favours decision-making by the group. Such a leader gives instructions after consulting the group.

They can win the cooperation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them. It encourages decision making.

Workers feel ownership of the firm and it thus improves the sharing of ideas and experiences within the business. The downfall is it can delay decision making.

Delegative/ Laissez-faire or free rein style - A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself. Such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates; they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.

Paternalistic - Leader acts as a ‘father figure’. Paternalistic leader makes decision but may consult as believes in the need to support staff.

Q. Define Group. Describe the stages in Group formation.

Ans. A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups are those defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. Informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact.

Stages of Group Development/ Formation

Groups generally pass through a standardized sequence in their evolution. It can be defined under the Five-Stage Model:

1. Forming2. Storming3. Norming4. Performing5. Adjourning

Forming - This is the initial stage of putting the team together where individuals learn about each other and the team requirements as well as the challenges, expectations, and the organizational structure of the team. This is also the information gathering and exploratory stage.

Members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behaviour. This is a stage of transition from individual to member status, and of testing the leader's guidance both formally and informally.

Forming includes these feelings and behaviours:

1. Excitement, anticipation, and optimism2. Pride in being chosen for the project3. A tentative attachment to the team4. Suspicion and anxiety about the job5. Defining the tasks and how they will be accomplished6. Determining acceptable group behaviour7. Deciding what information needs to be gathered

Activities include abstract discussions of the concepts and issues; and for some members, impatience with these discussions. There is often difficulty in identifying some of the relevant problems as there is so much going on that members get distracted. The team often accomplishes little concerning its goals.

Storming - This is probably the more tumultuous phase during which the members of the team all have their own ideas and directions that they want to go in. Oftentimes team members’ debate, critique, and confront each other to decide on the best course of action. This phase can be a bit uncomfortable and/or unpleasant but it’s still quite necessarily for the growth and development of the team. Usually companies go through serious problems when they cannot leave this phase thus making the entire relationship very tense and difficult for everyone.

They begin to realize the tasks that are ahead are different and more difficult than they previously imagined. Impatient about the lack of progress, members argue about just what actions the team should take. They try to rely solely on their personal and professional experience, and resist collaborating with most other team members.

Storming includes these feelings and behaviours:

1. Resisting the tasks2. Resisting quality improvement approaches suggested by other members3. Sharp fluctuations in attitude about the team's chance of success4. Arguing among members, even when they agree on the real issues5. Defensiveness, competition, and choosing sides6. Questioning the wisdom of those who selected the project and appointed the members of the team7. Establishing unrealistic goals8. Disunity, increased tension, and jealousy

These pressures mean that team members have little energy to spend on progressing towards the intended goal. But they are beginning to understand each another. This phase can often take 3 or 4 meetings before arriving at the next phase.

Norming - This is the phase where the team really starts to function and work together as a team. Individuals start to understand each other’s work habits and ethic and everything seems much more natural. Responsibility and roles are much more clearly defined, expectations are set, and collaboration is in full swing. Everyone wants to share the newly found focus. Enthusiasm is high, and the team is often tempted to go beyond the original scope of the process. During this stage, members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the team, ground rules, roles, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative.

Norming includes these feelings and behaviours:

1. An ability to express criticism constructively2. Acceptance of membership in the team3. An attempt to achieve harmony by avoiding conflict4. Friendliness, confiding in each other, and sharing of personal problems5. A sense of team cohesion, spirit, and goals6. Establishing and maintaining team ground rules and boundaries

As team members work out their differences, they have more time and energy to spend on the project.

Performing - By now the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin performing by diagnosing, problem solving, and implementing changes. At last, team members have discovered and accepted

other's strengths and weakness. In addition, they have learned what their roles are. Performing includes these feelings and behaviours:

1. Members have insights into personal and group processes2. An understanding of each other's strengths and weakness3. Constructive self-change4. Ability to prevent or work through group problems5. Close attachment to the team

The team is now an effective, cohesive unit. You can tell when your team has reached this stage because you start getting a lot of work done.

Adjourning and Transforming - Adjourning refers to the team breaking up after the task has been completed. The team briefs and shares the improved process during this phase. When the team finally completes that last briefing, there is always a bittersweet sense of accomplishment coupled with the reluctance to say good-bye. Many relationships formed within these teams continue long after the team disbands.

Q. Define Team and different types of Teams. Differentiate between Teams and Groups.

Ans. A team comprises a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks.

A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximise his/her strengths and minimise his/her weaknesses. Team members need to learn how to help one another, help other team members realize their true potential, and create an environment that allows everyone to go beyond their limitations.

The teams can be categorized as follows:

1. Problem-Solving Teams2. Self-Managed Teams3. Cross-Functional Teams4. Virtual Teams

Problem-Solving Teams – Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. In problem-solving teams, members share ideas or offer suggestion on how work process and methods can be improved.

Self-Managed Teams – Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisor. It not only solves problems but also implements the solutions and takes responsibility for outcomes.

Cross-Functional Teams – This team is made of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Cross-functional teams are an effective means for allowing people from diverse areas within an organization to exchange information, develop new ideas and solve problems, and coordinate complex projects.

Virtual Teams – Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.

Difference between Team and Groups

1. Understandings- In a group, members think they are grouped together for administrative purposes only. Individuals sometimes cross purpose with others. In a team, members recognise their independence and understand both personal and team goals are best accomplished with mutual support. Time is not wasted struggling over "Turf" or attempting personal gain at the expense of others.

2. Ownership- In a group, members tend to focus on themselves because they are not sufficiently involved in planning the unit's objectives. They approach their job simply as a hired hand. "Castle Building" is common. In a team, members feel a sense of ownership for their jobs and unit, because they are committed to values-based common goals that they helped establish.

3. Creativity and Contribution- In a group, members are told what to do rather than being asked what the best approach would be. Suggestion and creativity are not encouraged. In a team, members contribute to the organisation's success by applying their unique talents, knowledge and creativity to team objectives.

4. Trust- In a group, members distrust the motives of colleagues because they do not understand the role of other members. Expressions of opinion or disagreement are considered divisive or non-supportive. In a team, members work in a climate of trust and are encouraged to openly express ideas, opinions, disagreements and feelings. Questions are welcomed.

5. Common Understandings- In a group, members are so cautious about what they say, that real understanding is not possible. Game playing may occur and communication traps be set to catch the unwary. In a team, members practice open and honest communication. They make an effort to understand each other's point of view.

6. Personal Development- In a group, members receive good training but are limited in applying it to the job by the manager or other group members. In a team, members are encouraged to continually develop skills and apply what they learn on the job. They perceive they have the support of the team.

7. Conflict Resolution- In a group, members find themselves in conflict situations they do not know how to resolve. Their supervisor/leader may put off intervention until serious damage is done, i.e. a crisis situation. In a team, members realise conflict is a normal aspect of human interaction but they view such situations as an opportunity for new ideas and creativity. They work to resolve conflict quickly and constructively.

8. Participative Decision Making- In a group, members may or may not participate in decisions affecting the team. Conformity often appears more important than positive results. Win/lose situations are common. In a team, members participate in decisions affecting the team but understand their leader must make a final ruling whenever the team cannot decide, or an emergency exists. Positive win/win results are the goal at all times.

9. Clear Leadership- In a group, members tend to work in an unstructured environment with undetermined standards of performance. Leaders do not walk the talk and tend to lead from behind a desk. In a team, members work in a structured environment, they know what boundaries exist and who has final authority. The leader sets agreed high standards of performance and he/she is respected via active, willing participation.

10. Commitment- In a group, members are uncommitted towards excellence and personal pride. Performance levels tend to be mediocre. Staff turnover is high because talented individuals quickly recognise that

(a) personal expectations are not being fulfilled(b) they are not learning and growing from others and(c) they are not working with the best people.

Q. Define Change and the need for Change Management. Give the forces for change and steps to minimize resistance to change.

Ans. Change can be defined as - To make or become different, give or begin to have a different form. OR

Movement from one state of being to another. It need not be voluntary, desired or planned. It need not be physical movement.

Change management is a structured approach to the change in individuals, teams, organizations and societies that enables the transition from a current state to a desired future state. Change management is an aspect of management focusing on ensuring that the firm responds to the ever-dynamic environment in which it operates.

Forces for Change – They can be defined as follows: (please explain the terms)

1. Nature of workforce2. Technology3. Economic and Social Forces4. Competition5. Globalization

6. Political Changes7. Changing Customer Preferences8. Changing demographics9. Organization restructuring

Steps for successful change –

Q. Explain with an example how the study of Psychology and Sociology helps in understanding Organization Behaviour.

Ans. The study of Organizational Behaviour (OB) is very interesting and challenging too. It is related to individuals, group of people working together in teams. The study becomes more challenging when situational factors interact. The study of organizational behaviour relates to the expected behaviour of an individual in the organization. No two individuals are likely to behave in the same manner in a particular work situation. It is the predictability of a manager about the expected behaviour of an individual. There are no absolutes in human behaviour. It is the human factor that is contributory to the productivity hence the study of human behaviour is important.

Managers under whom an individual is working should be able to explain, predict, evaluate and modify human behaviour that will largely depend upon knowledge, skill and experience of the manager in handling large group of people in diverse situations. Pre-emptive actions need to be taken for human behaviour forecasting.

The scope of the organizational behaviour is as under:

1. Impact of personality on performance2. Employee motivation3. Leadership4. How to create effective teams and groups4 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR5. Study of different organizational structures6. Individual behaviour, attitude and learning7. Perception8. Design and development of effective organization

9. Job design10. Impact of culture on organizational behaviour11. Management of change12. Management of conflict and stress13. Organizational development14. Organizational culture15. Transactional analysis16. Group behaviour, power and politics17. Job design18. Study of emotions

The field of the organizational behaviour does not depend upon deductions based on gut feelings but attempts to gather information regarding an issue in a scientific manner under controlled conditions. It uses information and interprets the findings so that the behaviour of an individual and group can be canalized as desired. Large number of psychologists, social scientists and academicians has carried out research on various issues related to organization behaviour. Employee performance and job satisfaction are determinants of accomplishment of individual and organizational goals.

Organizations are composed of number of individuals working independently or collectively in teams, and number of such teams makes a department and number of such departments makes an organization. It is a formal structure and all departments have to function in a coordinated manner to achieve the organizational objective.

“Organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and organizational structure have on behaviour within the organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizational effectiveness”.

The above definition has three main elements; first organizational behaviour is an investigative study of individuals and groups, second, the impact of organizational structure on human behaviour and the third, the application of knowledge to achieve organizational effectiveness. These factors are interactive in nature and the impact of such behaviour is applied to various systems so that the goals are achieved. The nature of study of organizational behaviour is investigative to establish cause and affect relationship.

OB involves integration of studies undertaken relating to behavioural sciences like psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, social psychology and political science.

Psychology: Psychology is an applied science, which attempts to explain human behaviour in a particular situation and predicts actions of individuals. Psychologists have been able to modify individual behaviour largely with the help of various studies. It has contributed towards various theories on learning, motivation, personality, training and development, theories on individual decision making, leadership, job satisfaction, performance appraisal, attitude, ego state, job design, work stress and conflict management. Studies of these theories can improve personal skills, bring change in attitude and develop positive approach to organizational systems. Various psychological tests are conducted in the organizations for selection of employees, measuring personality attributes and aptitude. Various other dimensions of human personality are also measured. These instruments are scientific in nature and have been finalized after a great deal of research. Field of psychology continues to explore new areas applicable to the field of organizational behaviour. Contribution of psychology has enriched the organizational behaviour field.

Sociology: Science of Sociology studies the impact of culture on group behaviour and has contributed to a large extent to the field of group-dynamics, roles that individual plays in the organization, communication, norms, status, power, conflict management, formal organization theory, group processes and group decision-making.

Q. Write Short notes on :

1. Personality – Personality can be defined as” the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.” There are three personality determinants – Heredity, Environment and Situation.

Personality can be broadly categorized under the Big-Five Model-

i. Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

ii. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosaically behaviours.

iii. Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviours. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

iv. Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

v. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

2. Managerial Grid - The managerial grid model is a behavioural leadership model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton. This model originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for production. The optimal leadership style in this model is based on Theory Y.

The model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis; each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The resulting leadership styles are as follows: to 9 (High). The resulting leadership styles are as follows:

The indifferent (previously called impoverished) style (1,1): evade and elude. In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use this style to preserve job and job seniority, protecting themselves by avoiding getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative decisions.

The accommodating (previously, country club) style (1,9): yield and comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very productive.

The dictatorial (previously, produce or perish) style (9,1): control and dominate. With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they provide their employees with money and expect performance in return. Managers

using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This style is often used in cases of crisis management.

The status quo (previously, middle-of-the-road) style (5,5): balance and compromise. Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers' needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that neither production nor people needs are met.

The sound (previously, team style) (9,9): contribute and commit. In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. As suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel themselves to be constructive parts of the company.

The opportunistic style: exploit and manipulate. Individuals using this style, which was added to the grid theory before 1999, do not have a fixed location on the grid. They adopt whichever behaviour offers the greatest personal benefit.

The paternalistic style: prescribe and guide. This style was added to the grid theory before 1999. In The Power to Change, it was redefined to alternate between the (1,9) and (9,1) locations on the grid. Managers using this style praise and support, but discourage challenges to their thinking.

3. Stress – Stress can be defined as:

“An adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological and or behavioural deviations for organizational participants.”

Stress is not simply anxiety, nervous tension or necessarily something damaging or bad to be avoided.

The sources of stress come from both, outside and inside of an organization, from the groups of employees and are influenced by and from employees themselves.

The potential sources of stress can be listed as follows:

i. Extra-organizationalii. Organizational

iii. Group iv. Individual

Stress is the “wear and tear” our bodies experience as we adjust to our continually changing environment. It has physical and emotional effects on us and creates positive or negative feelings.

As a positive influence, stress can help compel us to perform an action which results in new awareness

As a negative influence it can result in feeling of “rejection”, ”anger” and “depression”.

i. Stress can be categorized as:ii. Mental (how the mind works)

iii. Physical (how the body works)iv. Behavioural (the things we do)v. Cognitive (the way we think and concentrate)

When employees of an organization feel stressed then well-being is negatively affected. They don’t feel good this has a direct affect on the organization. It can result into –

1. High absenteeism and staff turnover.2. Interdepartmental conflict3. Deterioration in industrial relations

4. Reduction in long term productivity5. General dissatisfaction, low morale and poor work performance. 6. More subtle and even more damaging effects of long term organizational commitment,

are sabotage and ultimately organizational breakdown

Q. Define Conflict. State the ways to manage Conflict.

Ans. A Process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about. Conflict occurs whenever:

– Disagreements exist in a social situation over issues of substance.

– Emotional antagonisms cause frictions between individuals or groups

There are two types of conflicts –

Substantive conflict- When a fundamental disagreement happens over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment.

Emotional conflict- When interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, etc.

There are a number of different ways of managing organizational conflict –

Change the Structure- When structure is a cause of dysfunctional conflict, structural change can be the solution to resolving the conflict.

Change the Composition of the Team- If the conflict is between team members, the easiest solution may be to change the composition of the team, separating the personalities that were at odds. In instances in which conflict is attributed to the widely different styles, values, and preferences of a small number of members, replacing some of these members may resolve the problem. If that’s not possible because everyone’s skills are needed on the team and substitutes aren’t available, consider a physical layout solution. Research has shown that when known antagonists are seated directly across from each other, the amount of conflict increases. However, when they are seated side by side, the conflict tends to decrease.

Create a Common Opposing Force- Group conflict within an organization can be mitigated by focusing attention on a common enemy such as the competition. For example, two software groups may be vying against each other for marketing dollars, each wanting to maximize advertising money devoted to their product. But, by focusing attention on a competitor company, the groups may decide to work together to enhance the marketing effectiveness for the company as a whole. The “enemy” need not be another company—it could be a concept, such as a recession, that unites previously warring departments to save jobs during a downturn.

Consider Majority Rule- Sometimes a group conflict can be resolved through majority rule. That is, group members take a vote, and the idea with the most votes is the one that gets implemented. The majority rule approach can work if the participants feel that the procedure is fair.

Problem Solve- Problem solving is a common approach to resolving conflict. In problem-solving mode, the individuals or groups in conflict are asked to focus on the problem, not on each other, and to uncover the root cause of the problem. This approach recognizes the rarity of one side being completely right and the other being completely wrong.