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Organizational behaviour

Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact of

individuals, groups and structures upon behavior within an organization. It is an

interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication, and

management; and it complements the academic studies of organizational theory

(which is focused on organizational and intra-organizational topics) and human

resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented). It may also be

referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its

roots in industrial and organizational psychology.

Methods used in organizational studies

A variety of methods are used in organizational studies, many of which are found

in other social sciences.

Quantitative methods

Further information: Quantitative research

multiple regression non-parametric statistics time series analysis Meta-analysis ANOVA

Computer simulation

Computer simulation is a prominent method in organizational studies and strategic

management. While there are many uses for computer simulation (including the

development of engineering systems inside high-technology firms), most

academics in the fields of strategic management and organizational studies have

used computer simulation to understand how organizations or firms operate. More

recently, however, researchers have also started to apply computer simulation to

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understand organizational behaviour at a more micro-level, focusing on individual

and interpersonal cognition and behavior such as team working.

While the strategy researchers have tended to focus on testing theories of firm

performance, many organizational theorists are focused on more descriptive

theories, the one uniting theme has been the use of computational models to either

verify or extend theories. It is perhaps no accident that those researchers using

computational simulation have been inspired by ideas from biological modeling,

ecology, theoretical physics and thermodynamics, chaos theory, complexity theory

and organization studies since these methods have also been fruitfully used in

those areas.

Qualitative methods

ethnography, which involves direct participant observation single and multiple case analysis grounded theory approaches other historical methods

Theories

Systems theory

The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as

organizations are complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early

thinkers in the field was Alexander Bogdanov, who developed his Tectology, a

theory widely considered a precursor of Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory,

aiming to model and design human organizations. Kurt Lewin was particularly

influential in developing the systems perspective within organizational theory and

coined the term "systems of ideology", from his frustration with behavioural

psychologies that became an obstacle to sustainable work in psychology (see Ash

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1992: 198-207). The complexity theory perspective on organizations is another

systems view of organizations. German sociologist Niklas Luhmann (1927 - 1998)

developed a sociological system theory and describes organisations - alongside

interactions and society - as one of three main entities.

The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative

entropy through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is

transdisciplinary and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of

individual disciplines, integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more

exactly, on the basis of the formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The

systems approach gives primacy to the interrelationships, not to the elements of the

system. It is from these dynamic interrelationships that new properties of the

system emerge. In recent years, systems thinking has been developed to provide

techniques for studying systems in holistic ways to supplement traditional

reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory in

organizational studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the

natural sciences.

Decision making

Rational Decision-Making Model Garbage can model

Theories of decision making can be subdivided into three categories

Normative (concentrates on how decision should be made) Descriptive (concerned with how the thinker came up with their judgement) Prescripted (aim to improve decision making)

Managerial roles

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In the late 1960s Henry Mintzberg, a graduate student at MIT undertook a careful

study of five executives to determine what those managers did on their jobs. On the

basis of his observations, Mintzberg classifies managerial roles into 3 categories 1.

Interpersonal Roles 2. Decisional Roles 3. Informational Roles

Scientific managementOrganization structures and dynamics

Incentive theory is a concept ofhuman resources or management theory. Inthe corporate sense, it states that firm owners should structure employee

compensation in such a way that the employees' goals are aligned with

owners' goals. As it applies to the operations of firms, it is more accurately

called the principalagent problem.

Bureaucracy Complexity theory and organizations Contingency theory Evolutionary Theory and organizations French & Raven's Five bases of Power Hybrid organisation Informal Organization Institutional theory Merger integration Organizational ecology Model ofOrganizational Citizenship behaviour Model ofOrganizational justice Model ofOrganizational Misbehavior Resource dependence theory Transaction cost Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Cultures

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Mintzberg's OrganigraphPersonality traits theories

Big Five personality traits Holland's Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Control and stress modelling

Herzberg's Two factor theory Theory X and Theory Y

Motivation in organizations

Motivation the forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm

and resistance to pursue a certain course of action. According to Baron et al.

(2008):[11]

"Although motivation is a broad and complex concept, organizational

scientists have agreed on its basic characteristics. Drawing from various social

sciences, we define motivation as the set of processes that arouse, direct, and

maintain human behavior toward attaining some goal"

There are many different motivation theories such as:

Attribution theory Equity theory Maslow's hierarchy of needs Incentive theory (psychology) Model ofemotional labor in organizations Frederick Herzberg two-factor theory Expectancy theory

.

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Personality development

An individual's personality is an aggregate conglomeration of the decisions they

have made throughout their life and the memory of the experiences to which these

decisions led. There are inherent natural, genetic, and environmental factors that

contribute to the development of our personality. According to process of

socialization, "personality also colors our values, beliefs, and expectations ...

Hereditary factors that contribute to personality development do so as a result of

interactions with the particular social environment in which people live." There are

several personality types as Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers

illustrated in several personalities typology tests, which are based on Carl Jung's

school ofAnalytical psychology. However, these tests only provide enlightenment

based on the preliminary insight scored according to the answers judged by the

parameters of the test.

Other theories on personality development include Jean Piaget's stages of

development, Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, and personality

development in Sigmund Freud's theory being formed through the interaction ofid,

ego, and super-ego.

Personality is defined as the enduring personal characteristics of individuals.

Although some psychologists frown on the premise, a commonly used explanation

for personality development is the psychodynamic approach. The term ambot

describes any theory that emphasizes the constant change and development of the

individual. Perhaps the best known of the psychodynamic theories is Freudian

psychoanalysis.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Drives

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Freud believed that two basic drivessex and aggressionmotivate all our

thoughts and behaviour. He referred to these as Eros (love) and Thanatos. Eros

represents the life instinct, sex being the major driving force. Thanatos represents

the death instinct (characterised by aggression), which, according to Freud,

allowed the human race to both procreate and eliminate its enemies.

Structure of personality

Freud conceived the mind as only having a fixed amount of psychic energy

(libido). The outcome of the interaction between the id, ego and the superego,

(each contending for as much libidinal energy as possible) determines our adult

personality.

Tripartite personality

Freud believed that personality had three partsthe id, ego, and super-ego

referring to this as the tripartite personality. The id allows us to get our basic needs

met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure principle, i.e. it wants

immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation.

As a child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego's job

is to meet the needs of the id by taking into account the constraints of reality. The

ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id

must be constrained. The superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of

the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a

strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id (resulting in a

high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression

(resulting in a low level of guilt).

Defense mechanisms

The ego, having a difficult time trying to satisfy both the needs of the id and the

superego, employs defense mechanisms. Repression is perhaps the most powerful

of these. Repression is the act by which unacceptable id impulses (most of which

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are sexually related) are "pushed" out of awareness and into the unconscious mind.

Another example of a defense mechanism is projection. This is the mechanism that

Freud used to explain Little Hans' complex. Little Hans is said to have projected

his fear for his father onto horses, which is why he was afraid of them.

Psychosexual stages

Freud believed that at particular points in the child's development, a single part of

the body is particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation. These erogenous zones are

the mouth, anus and the genital region. At any given time, the child's libido is

focused on the primary erogenous zone for that age. As a result, the child has

certain needs and demands that are related to the erogenous zones for that stage.

Frustration occurs if these needs are not met, but, a child may also become

overindulged, and so may be reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both

frustration and overindulgence may lead to fixationsome of the child's libido

remains locked into that stage. If a child is fixated at a particular stage, the method

of obtaining satisfaction that characterised that stage will dominate their adult

personality.

Although many people view Freud's descriptions of personality development as

pure fantasy, his ideas have endured and have had far reaching influences both in

and outside psychology. Freud has changed the way we think about the importance

of childhood, and also made us aware of the unconscious elements of our psyche

that are essential for development.

Developmental stage theories

Developmental stage theories are theories that divide child development into

distinct stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behaviour.

There are a number of different views about the way in which psychological and

physical development proceed throughout the life span. In addition to individual

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differences in development, developmental psychologists generally agree that

development occurs in an orderly way and in different areas simultaneously.

Continuous versus discontinuous development

One of the major controversies in developmental psychology centres whether

development is continuous or discontinuous.

Those psychologists who support the continuous view of development suggest that

development involves gradual and ongoing changes throughout the life span, with

behaviour in the earlier stages of development providing the basis of skills and

abilities required for the next stages.

Not all psychologists, however, agree that development is a continuous process.

Some view development as a discontinuous process. They believe development

involves distinct and separate stages with different kinds of behaviour occurring in

each stage. This suggests that the development of certain abilities in each stage,

such as specific emotions or ways of thinking, have a definite starting and ending

point. However, there is no exact time at which an ability suddenly appears or

disappears. Although some types of thinking, feeling or behaving may seem to

appear suddenly, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for

some time.

Stage theories of development rest on the assumption that development is a

discontinuous process involving distinct stages which are characterized by

qualitative differences in behaviour. They also assume that the structure of the

stages is not variable according to each individual, however the time of each stage

may vary individually. Stage theories can be contrasted with continuous theories,

which posit that development is an incremental process.

Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple

viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook[1]

divides

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these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and

postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in American

academia, is between the study of "micro" organizational behaviour which

refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting

and

"macro" strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole

organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and

contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an

interest in "meso" scale structures - power, culture, and the networks of individuals

and i.e. ronit units in organizations and "field" level analysis which study how

whole populations of organizations interact.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern

organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all

modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and

explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers'

behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see Taylor's

scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the

1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial

psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the

powerful.[citation needed]

Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role

in organizational development, enhancing organizational performance, as well as

individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment.

One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994) "to

revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of

organizational life."[2]

An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels

assumptions being made in theory,[3]

and is concerned to help managers and

administrators.[4]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_%28management%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behaviour#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_%28management%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics