DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

online publication of undergraduate studies

SPRING 2010

OPUS was initiated by undergraduate students in NYU Steinhardt’s Department of Applied Psychology. The ideas and opinions contained in this publication solely reflect those of the authors and not New York University. All work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Vanessa Victoria Volpe

EDITORS

Jackson J. Taylor

Sibyl Hayley Holland

STAFF WRITERS

Alyssa Deitchman

Javanna N. Obregon

Justina Passarelli

FACULTY MENTOR

Dr. Gigliana Melzi

CONTRIBUTORS

Maurice Anderson

Don Asher Cohen

Priya Gopalan

Robby D. Harris

Ryann McNeil

Silvia Niño

Neha Sahu

Cristina Tamayo

Jessica Winterstern

GRAPHIC DESIGN & LAYOUT

Jackson J. Taylor

SPECIAL THANKS

NYUSteinhardt

Department of Applied Psychology

Dain Goding

Davel Hamue

Justine M. Kelly-Fierro

E. James Ford

Dalal Katsiaficas

Adina Schick

Arthur Taylor

Dean Lindsey Wright

COVER PHOTO: Sasha Arutyunova (NYU TSOA ‘11)

A LETTER FROM THE EDITOR As psychology students at a large research university in the heart of New York City, we

recognize that psychology does not exist in a vacuum. We are acutely aware of how

context and culture permeate all aspects of our experience, and strive to bring these

considerations back into the psychological equation. We often ask, “Why is this

important? Who are we benefiting? How can we make an impact?” Encouraging us to

consider the application of a psychology saturated with subjectivity is the message of

both NYU’s Applied Psychology program and NYU Applied Psychology OPUS.

Undergraduate researchers rarely have a voice in the larger psychological community,

but this voice is crucial. OPUS was created to encourage and showcase the exemplary

work of NYU undergraduate students in psychology. As an online publication, OPUS is

designed to allow students to reach a wider audience with their work, simultaneously

creating the potential for dialogue both within and beyond NYU. OPUS strives to build a

community of excellence for undergraduates who are not only studying psychology from

a textbook, but becoming actively engaged by asking questions and applying this

knowledge to their world.

Whether you’re interested in language acquisition, the development of treatment

options for psychological disorders, or the portrayal of mental illness in modern cinema,

this publication pushes for a broader, functional definition of psychology. Our inaugural

issue features academic work in all forms, from empirical investigations to review

articles, op-ed pieces, and creative works. These articles present only a few of the

impressive undertakings of undergraduate NYU psychology students and we look

forward to showcasing many, many more.

So welcome to the Spring 2010 issue of NYU Applied Psychology OPUS!

As you read, ask yourself, what is psychology to you?

We hope this issue will get you talking.

Vanessa Victoria Volpe

Editor-in-Chief

contents PREFACE

Dr. Gigliana Melzi | 2

STAFF ARTICLES

Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome: Two Disorders, One Diagnosis | Alyssa Deitchman | 5

Drinking From the Lethe: Memory Erasing is No Longer a Myth | Javanna N. Obregon | 8

A One Way Ticket to Shutter Island | Justina Passarelli | 11

EMPIRICAL ARTICLES

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris | 15

SUBMISSIONS

In Between the Images: The Therapeutic Benefits of Unconscious Exposure | Don Asher Cohen | 31

A Call for the Proper Evaluation of Treatment for Co-Occurring BD and SUD | Priya Gopalan | 34

ABSTRACTS

Loneliness and Depression among Foster Children: The Role of Caregiver Ethnic Match | Maurice Anderson | 38

Father Involvement in Ethnically Diverse Populations | Ryann McNeil | 38

Book Reading Styles in Bilingual Head Start Classrooms | Silvia Niño | 39

Demographic and Relational Predictors of Social Self-Awareness in Urban Elementary Classrooms | Neha Sahu | 39

Language Attitudes of Puerto Ricans toward English and Bilingualism | Cristina Tamayo | 40

The Stories Friends Share: Structural and Thematic Analyses | Jessica Winterstern | 40

STAFF & CONTRIBUTOR BIOS

Staff Bios | 41

Contributor Bios | 32

PREFACE

Welcome to the inaugural issue of the NYU Applied Psychology OPUS!

This student-initiated and student-led online publication represents

the Applied Psychology Undergraduate Program’s commitment to

encourage students to bridge psychological theory with practice in

our ever growing multicultural world. The diverse content covered in

this inaugural issue reflects the breadth of interests our students

have, as well as the strong research skills and hands-on experience

they gain through their coursework and field site placements.

I am often amazed by our students’ devotion and commitment to the

field of psychology despite their youth. Their dedication and

contributions are encapsulated in this first issue. I truly hope you

enjoy reading it!

Gigliana Melzi, Ph.D,

Associate Professor of Applied Psychology

Director of Undergraduate Studies in Applied Psychology

New York University

2

staff

articles

4

Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome:

Two Disorders, One Diagnosis Alyssa Deitchman

Joseph is fascinated with the pull of his

skin and insists it looks like rubber. His palm

faces the ceiling as he stretches his fingers

down toward the floor. I notice that this

repetitive compulsion is interfering with his

focus on the teacher. I try to stop him, but to

no avail. All he can say is “rubber,” while

showing me this motion over and over again.

He keeps looking at me with a troubling,

detached and empty gaze. Joseph is a seven-

year-old child I taught at a summer camp for

mentally disabled children. Joseph is

diagnosed with Autism.

Andrew converses with me about my

day, though his eye contact is similar to that of

Joseph’s. He looks past me as he speaks but

is able to talk to me in a sequential, organized

manner. After a quick pause in conversation,

he resumes his drawing with a fervent

attention to detail. I ask my mentor for

Andrew’s diagnosis, and if I can see his

Individual Education Plan. He seems to be on a

different level than Joseph yet they are

grouped into the same program. Andrew is

diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome.

In the past decade, professionals have

viewed Asperger’s as a high-functioning form

of Autism. Autism and Asperger’s syndrome

have often been considered synonymous in

the eyes of the general public, despite the

distinction set forth by the American

Psychiatric Association's (2000) Diagnostic

and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (text revision; DSM-IV-TR). Though an

undergraduate student is hardly qualified to

diagnose mental illnesses, I found myself

wondering, If the rate at which a child

cognitively develops presents the only

differentiating factor between these two

disorders, why is Joseph so severely detached

and Andrew able to stay on task and talk with

me?

The disparity between the behaviors of

these boys begs many questions in regards to the

recent merge of Asperger’s syndrome under

Autism Spectrum disorders in the new version of

the DSM. According to the American Psychiatric

Association (APA), the differentiating factor

between Asperger’s syndrome and Autism is the

rate at which cognitive milestones are met. The

DSM-IV explains that Asperger’s is absent of

“clinically significant delays in language, cognitive

development, and adaptive functioning” (Lopez-

Duran, 2010). Besides this difference, the APA

maintains that these two disorders are clinically

identical in areas of social interaction and

restricted repetitive patterns of behavior. The APA

argues for the merge of these two similar clinical

profiles, which are currently diagnosed differently

on the sole basis of language and cognitive

development.

While this argument presents a valid

point, that social behavior does seem like a more

clinically significant diagnostic factor than

cognitive development, the distinctions between

the disorders make this merge seem faulty. But in

order to fully comprehend the differences

between the two disorders, we need to

understand the Autism Spectrum. Autism and

Asperger’s Syndrome are classified under a group

of disorders entitled Pervasive Developmental

Disorders (PDD) by the DSM-IV-TR (2000). PDDs

are characterized by impairments in

communication and social deficits, along with

repetitive interests and behaviors.

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As Rosenn (1997) illustrates, autism

disorders were once presented as a spectrum

(Figure 1). In this model, classic autism, also

known as Kanner’s Syndrome, is at the severe

end of the spectrum wherein patients are non-

verbal and severely cognitively disabled. In the

center, the Pervasive Developmental Disorders-

Not Otherwise Specified (PPD-NOS) are listed

under the “moderate” category, as the

presentation of autism takes a greater variety of

forms and may affect individuals in many

different ways, incorporating aspects of both High

Functioning Autism/Asperger’s Syndrome

(HFA/AS) and Kanner’s Syndrome as suggested

by the introduction of more shapes in the cone.

Lastly, the light and highly varied portion of the

spectrum represents HFA/AS, in which there are

only minor motor difficulties and no apparent

delays in emergent cognitive skills.

However, Shore (2003) represents

Asperger’s syndrome as an entirely separate

entity from Autism (Figure 2), though both are

considered to be Pervasive Developmental

Disorders. If Asperger’s disorder was always

simply a “high-functioning” autism, as the APA

suggests, then how can they be represented

separately? From my work at summer camp, I

observed first-hand just how disparate the

difference between these disorders could be.

Since Joseph and Andrew behaved so

differently, I had a hard time understanding why

they were viewed in the same academic, political,

social and clinical contexts. Catherine Lord,

director of the University of Michigan Autism and

Communication Disorders Center, justifies the

merge of these disorders with well-intentioned

explanation, “The intent is to try to make the

diagnosis of autism clearer and to better reflect

the science” (Hamilton, 2010). Despite such

intent, with every redefinition we seem to make

the classifications of autism increasingly unclear.

Michael John Carley, author of Asperger’s From

the Inside Out angrily exclaims, “I personally am

probably going to have a very hard time calling

myself autistic” (Hamilton, 2010).

How can anyone, from clinicians to

summer camp staff, recognize and appropriately

“treat” autism if the opposite ends of the

spectrum are so different? As the APA keeps

broadening the definition, the public is being

further distanced from a concrete understanding

of what Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome are,

and what they are not.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical

manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.

Hamilton, Jon. (2010, February 10). Asperger's officially places inside

autistic spectrum. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/

templates/story/story.php?storyId=123527833

Lopez-Duran, Nestor. (2010, February 15). Autism and asperger's in

the DSM-V: Cognitive utility. Retrieved from http://www.

child-psych. org/2010/02/autism-and-aspergers.html

Rosenn, D. (1997). Autism Spectrum Severity Wedge from Aspergers:

What we have learned in the '90s conference in Westboro, MA.

Shore, S. (2003). Beyond the wall: Personal experiences with Autism

and Aspergers syndrome.(2nd ed.). Shawnee Mission, KS:

Autism Asperger Publishing Company.

Figure 1. The Autism Spectrum.

Figure 2. Pervasive Developmental Disorders.

Austism and Asperger’s Syndrome: Two Disorders, One Diagnosis | Alyssa Deitchman 6

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Looking like Lethe, see! the lake A conscious slumber seems to take,

And would not, for the world, awake. –The Sleeper, Edgar Allen Poe

I l lust rat ion © Davel Hamue 2010

Javanna N. Obregon

Drinking from the Lethe: Memory Erasing is No Longer a Myth

At the beginning of the 20th century,

neurologist Sigmund Freud (1989) developed the

concept of the unconscious, a deeply buried nook

in the brain where memories are stored.

According to Freud (1989), these memories

cannot always be recalled, but can still affect

personality, behavior, and decision-making at a

subconscious level. In fact, psychologists agree

that the repression of negative memories can

lead to the development of neurosis (Weiten,

2007). Freud (1989) believed that by bringing

unconscious memories to the surface, personal

growth and self-actualization could be achieved.

But what if there was a simpler process? What if

these negative memories could be erased? Could

those troubled by painful memories receive a

second chance at happiness, or would a

quintessential aspect of personality be lost?

Recently, a group of scientists from

Brooklyn’s SUNY Downstate Medical Center may

have made the mythical process of memory

erasing a reality (Carey, 2009). According to the

New York Times, a team of researchers, led by Dr.

Todd Sacktor, discovered the function of enzyme

PKMzeta in memory storage against an

antagonist drug called ZIP (Carey, 2009). Joining

forces with Dr. Andre A. Fenton of SUNY

Downstate’s Spatial Memory Department, Dr.

Sacktor’s team found that when they injected lab

rats with ZIP, the drug interfered with memory

recall and consolidation (Carey, 2009; “Erasing

Your Memories”, 2009). Once injected, the rats

could no longer recall memories of learned

behaviors, such as positions of shocking devices

in a maze that they had remembered consistently

throughout a four-month period (Carey, 2009).

Spurring great psychological debate, Dr. Sacktor’s

team believes that this same process can be

duplicated in humans (Carey, 2009).

From further experimentation with rats,

Dr. Sacktor and his team learned that ZIP almost

immediately erases specific memories without

interfering with either short- or long-term memory

construction (“Erasing Your Memories”, 2009).

As an enzyme, PKMzeta “catalyze[s] very specific

chemical reactions and can be rapidly inhibited”

(“Erasing Your Memories”, 2009). With ZIP

creating these very specific reactions of synaptic

proteins, Dr. Sacktor and his team believe they

are capable of using ZIP to inhibit PKMzeta,

thereby erasing precise memories without any

damage to the surrounding cortical areas

(“Erasing Your Memories”, 2009). Impressively,

ZIP also appears to permanently erase memories.

Three months after being injected, Dr. Sacktor’s

rats still cannot recall the correct path through

the maze, even if they are given hints and

reminders (“Erasing Your Memories”, 2009). Dr.

Sacktor suggests a three-month memory lapse in

rats is equivalent to approximately a decade in

human years (Carey, 2009b).

Once the exact process is perfected, Dr.

Sacktor and his team believe that memory

erasing holds many potential benefits for

psychological wellbeing (Dwyer, 2009). They

suggest that better control over memories could

lead to the treatment of addiction, Alzheimer’s

disease, and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

(Carey, 2009) along with a series of other

neurological and mental health disorders

(“Erasing Your Memories,” 2009). This research

may be beneficial in treating addiction and

trauma, as well as improving the ways in which

people learn and remember (“Erasing Your

Memories,” 2009). Through Dr. Sacktor’s

8

research, those afflicted by painful memories can

have a fresh start with a simple injection,

followed by the doctor’s reassuring words: you

won’t feel a thing.

Advocates against memory erasing argue

just that—you won’t feel a thing. According to

Freud (1989), memories are the basis of

individual opinions and preferences, influencing

choices and personality. For instance, someone

who was bitten by a dog as a child might have a

different opinion about dogs than someone who

was rescued by one. Hence, memory erasing has

the potential to change a part of an individual’s

interpretation of the world. It is almost as if a

person is choosing to erase what makes him or

her unique. Researchers agree that people are

different because of the subjectivity of perception

(Weiten, 2007). Even sensory information, such

as color perception and touch sensation, differ

depending on both genetics and experience

(Weiten, 2007). In other words, no two people

experience the world in the same way, and

without the memory of specific life events, a

distinct perspective is lost. After years of

composing a unique identity, the advent of

memory erasing procedures has the potential to

eliminate the product of all those life events.

Furthermore, psychologists suggest that

the ways in which people shape and edit

memories contributes to their individuality. Many

in the scientific community have found that

memory is not as reliable as one may think.

Studies show that memory regularly edits itself in

order to make experiences fit into an individual’s

mental model of the world (Ash, 2009; Choi &

Choi, 2010). Memory is also subject to change as

a result of hindsight bias, the inclination to think

something will happen because it’s happened

before, and the influence of interpersonal

relationships in the form of suggestions from

others (Weiten, 2007). For instance, when a

witness to a car accident is asked to describe the

scene, they may report seeing broken glass

despite its absence. The witness is not

intentionally lying. Through the power of

suggestion and the mind’s editing process to fit

pre-existing models of what should have

happened, the witness believes he or she actually

experienced the event as he or she described.

Based on the subjectivity of memory,

many psychologists see no harm in erasing

memories considering their fallibility. But is it not

subjectivity that creates individuality? The way

people interpret and incorporate events shape

their outlook. Most importantly, it is from

memories, both good and bad, that we learn from

our mistakes and achievements. Freud never

wanted memories erased; he wanted them

brought to the surface, acknowledged, and

worked through, in order to better understand

one’s self and one’s behavior (Weiten, 2007).

Another significant disadvantage of

memory erasing is the possibility that it would

make personal growth more difficult to achieve.

In an interview with Dr. Sacktor, a man only

known as James W. argued just that when he

said, “I’m in general disciplined to promote any

kind of ignorance-even if that ignorance would

make a person happier. We learn from the past

right? Well, we’re suppose to and sometimes it is

learning from painful memories that we become

better people,” (“Erasing Your Memories,” 2009).

Although Dr. Sacktor responded to the statement

by assuring that the process is effective and safe,

he failed to directly address this concern

(“Erasing Your Memories,” 2009, p.2). Learning

and experience are certainly essential to personal

growth. Weiten (2007) claims, “The adaptation

process initiated by stress may lead to personal

changes that are changes for the better.

Confronting and conquering a stressful challenge

may lead to improvements in specific coping

abilities and to an enhanced self concept” (p.

388). Though research has asserted the positive

potential of memories, even negative ones, Dr.

Sacktor fails to acknowledge their importance.

Volume I | Spring 2010

Memory erasing has the potential to

alleviate many psychological disorders such as

trauma, phobias, and addiction. However, as a

society, by erasing memories we would lose that

which allows us to learn, progress, and define

ourselves. Most importantly, memories and

experiences create a basis for each individual’s

worldview interpretation. They shape us into the

people we are today and influence who we will be

in the future. Memory erasing does sound like a

quick fix for psychological issues, but at what

cost? As the saying goes, ignorance is bliss, but

regardless of how “blissful” we feel, that

happiness would be based on a lie. Worst of all,

that lie is one we would have told ourselves, so

can we really call it happiness?

References

Ash, I. K. (2009). Surprise, memory, and retrospective judgment

making: Testing cognitive reconstruction theories of the

hindsight bias effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology:

Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 916-933.

Carey, B. (2009, April 5). Brain researchers open door to editing

memory. The New York Times. Retrieved from

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/06/health/research/06

brain.html?_r=1&scp=2&sq=memory%20erasing&st=cse

Choi, D. W., & Choi, I. (2010). A comparison of hindsight bias in groups

and individuals: The moderating role of plausibility. Journal

of Applied Social Psychology, 40(2), 325-343.

Dwyer, J. (2009, April 8). Memories: Good, bad and erasable. The New

York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/

04/08/nyregion/08about.html?scp=4&sq=memory%20era

sing&st=cse

Erasing your memories. (2009, April 13). The New York Times.

Retrieved from http://consults.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/

04/13/memoryerasing/?scp=1&sq=memory%20erasing&s

t=cse

Freud, S., & Gay, P. (Eds.). (1989). The Freud reader. New York:

Norton.

Poe, E.A. (1985) Edgar Allen Poe: Selected works. New York:

Random House.

Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes and variations (7th ed.).

Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Drinking from the Lethe: Memory Erasing is No Longer a Myth | Javanna N. Obregon 10

A One Way Ticket to

Shutter Island

Psychology as a field is often

misrepresented in modern cinema and Martin

Scorsese’s latest film, Shutter Island, is one

that may leave a negative impression of

psychology on the viewer. In the story, U.S.

Marshall Teddy Daniels (Leonardo Dicaprio)

sets out to find an escaped patient from Ashcliffe

Insane Asylum on Shutter Island. However, in a

radical twist, we find that Teddy is himself a

patient at the asylum. He suffers from Delusional

Disorder, creating a false world to escape the

dark reality of his past. Shutter Island is one of

the many films that present the ethical

considerations of psychological treatment to a

mainstream audience. While it succeeds in

accurately presenting a severe case of mental

illness and the changing treatment options of

the time, it may ultimately fail to shed a much

needed, positive light on the modern field of

psychology.

Was Teddy Delusional or Are We?

Teddy displays features of both

Grandiose and Persecutory Delusional Disorder.

According to the American Psychiatric

Association's (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders (text revision; DSM-

IV-TR), this mixed type is characterized by

feelings of immense importance and feelings of

being watched or victimized. Teddy experiences

both; believing he is on the verge of a grand

discovery and simultaneously is being

conspired against by the doctors at the asylum.

For those with Delusional Disorder, full periods

of remission may be followed by subsequent

relapses, as is Teddy’s case.

Perhaps in response to his experiences

in war and the death of his wife and children,

Teddy creates an entirely different identity,

complete with a new name, profession, past

and present. To prevent the truth of his situation

from shattering his newly constructed sense of

self, Teddy believes any information provided by

his doctors is merely part of the conspiracy to

keep him in the institution. This altered sense of

reality serves as a defense mechanism, a means

by which he protects himself from the pain of his

past experiences. Despite several hints and

associations purposely expressed throughout the

intervention, Teddy’s delusions persist until the

final scene, leaving us with an eerie sense of just

how powerful and complex the mind can be in its

defense.

While the disorder is portrayed in a very

realistic light, it might be hard for a viewer with no

background in psychology to believe the extremity

of Teddy’s Delusional Disorder. This type of

disorder is even difficult for clinical psychologists

to fully understand, so the average viewer may

question Teddy’s delusions, or may even leave

feeling delusional themselves.

The War Between Archaic Methods and

Progressive Treatment

A psychological thriller portraying

psychological treatment in the 1950’s is likely to

leave viewers wary of the state of modern

psychology. As we experience Teddy’s flashbacks

of the war, we are confronted with another conflict

– a psychology in the midst of profound change.

On one hand Shutter Island depicts the traditional

inhumane treatment of patients in an asylum,

evidenced in the harsh militancy of the warden

and his accordance with the archaic treatment of

lobotomy. On the other hand, Shutter Island

depicts advancements in psychoanalysis, as

evidenced by the more progressive standpoint of

Justina Passarelli

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Dr. Cawley, a proponent of a more compassionate

client-centered alternative.

While Shutter Island is a fictional depiction

of patient abuse, it is important to note that it is,

unfortunately, an accurate

one. In the 1950s, lobotomies

were widely practiced as a

way to “tame” or “calm” severely

violent or problematic patients.

However, lobotomies are

rarely practiced today

because a large number of

deaths resulted from the

procedure. Even so, when

necessary, the procedure is

much more advanced than it

was 50 years ago, when, as

the movie showed, doctors used an ice pick to

probe the brain through an individual’s eye. Now,

lobotomies are only an option in the most extreme

of circumstances and as a last resort, after

psychotherapy, medication and all other resources

have failed.

Shutter Island is in fact an accurate

depiction of the changing methodology in clinical

psychology and worthy of praise in that area. But

to those unfamiliar with the history and progression

of psychological treatment, the way this film

portrays psychology in the 1950s might leave

viewers uneasy about its modern practice.

One Flew East, One Flew West

Shutter Island isn’t the only film that skews

audience perceptions of psychological treatment.

Its famous predecessor, One Flew Over the

Cuckoo’s Nest, shares similar misrepresentations

of the field. By presenting lobotomies and

electroshock therapy as dangerous treatment

options, both films portray psychologists’

disregard for the well-being of their patients.

Furthermore, the ending of each film leaves us to

question just how “crazy” the main character was,

reminding us that abnormality is societally

determined and often misunderstood. It is

important to remember that both of these films

occur during the 1950’s, not presently, and while

they do raise necessary concerns about how we

understand the abnormality of mental illness, they

no longer reflect

the treatment

realities of the

modern field of

psychology, which

strives to

rehabilitate

individuals

without violating

their rights as

human beings.

Cinematic diagnosis:

Shutter Island evokes an array of

philosophical questions: What is insanity? How

can psychologists diagnose such an abstract

concept? Can it ever be cured? This film speaks

volumes to society’s conclusions on what is sane

and what is not. And to some effect, calls all

psychological diagnoses into question. Shutter

Island does a great job at depicting Teddy’s

particular case of Delusional Disorder accurately,

but unfortunately, without proper understanding of

the 1950s context, may end up doing more harm

than good to the representation of psychology in

modern film.

Keeping context in mind, Shutter Island

can be a wildly fascinating film, full of action,

mystery and suspense. If you are even remotely

interested in psychology, and especially if you are

in pursuit of a career in this field and you have yet

to see Shutter Island, well, you must be insane.

References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical

manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.

A One Way Ticket to Shutter Island | Justina Passarelli 12

empirical

articles

14

Volume I | Spring 2010

Traditionally, researchers have focused on the

role of mothers in child development, and the

influences that this relationship has on the family.

However, with about twenty percent of all new

marriages ending in divorce or separation within the

first five years of marriage, it is of great value to

examine the distinct influences that each parent has on

a child (National Center for Health Statistics, 2002).

When considering the individual influences that a

mother and a father have on a child, it is possible that

each parent offers very discrete influences that

somehow fit together (Amato, 1994; Black,

Dubowitz, & Starr, 1999; Marsiglio, Amato, Day, &

Lamb, 2000). However, it is also possible that each

parent is separately capable of transmitting the

necessary skills, behaviors, and values to his/her

child. Historically, United States culture has regarded

the mother as the primary caregiver and nurturer, and

the father as the enforcer of authority and provider of

sustenance (Campos, 2008). Yet with changing

family structures and so much ambiguity as to how

parents function in the 21st century, a new and

encompassing approach to understanding modern

parenting that truly fits the

contemporary needs of parents and children alike is

necessary. Thus, this study hopes to add to the

literature, which is already serving to break down such

stereotyped and possibly antiquated notions, and

inspire new pathways of thought that are culturally

relevant and based in understanding of our modern

family structures.

The importance of parent involvement in the

development of children has been studied extensively,

illustrating that high levels of parent involvement are

associated with high and positive levels of academic

achievement (e.g., Flouri & Buchanan, 2004) and

social-emotional competence (e.g., Overbeek et al.,

2007) throughout childhood and adolescence.

However, it is of great importance to consider who is

actually being studied in such work on parenting. Most

research that examines the role of parents or parent

involvement has included mostly mothers or mother

figures, rarely including fathers. Yet, these findings

are generalized and discussed in terms of broader

‚parent‛ involvement. In our times of rapidly

changing family structures, studying mothers alone is

no longer enough. It becomes imperative, now more

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development

New York University | Department of Applied Psychology | Class of 2009

Robby D. Harris

Research on fathers has been burgeoning for the past three decades. However, results from this literature show

conflicting findings and weaken any ability to draw generalizable conclusions on the unique contributions that

fathers provide to their children. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted with 13 articles published between

the years of 1998-2008 to better understand the relationship between father involvement and early childhood

social-emotional development. Tests for the moderating effects of SES, race/ethnicity, and father residential

status were also performed. Father involvement was positively associated with positive social-emotional abilities

and negatively associated with behavior problems. In addition none of the three moderating variables were able to

explain any of the variability in the relationship between father involvement and child outcomes.

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A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

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than ever, to better understand the role of fathers in

child development and child outcomes. Generalizing the

effects of mother involvement as representative of the

effects of overall parent involvement threatens the

veracity of the conclusions that can be drawn from such

work. This tendency also disregards the growing body

of research that demonstrates that fathers uniquely

contribute to their children’s development as distinct

from the contributions of mothers.

Over the past three decades, research on

fathering has gained great momentum (Downer,

Campos, McWayne, & Gartner, 2008; Marsiglio et al.,

2000). Father involvement across the development of a

child has been linked to children’s psychological

adjustment (Flouri, 2008) fewer behavioral problems

(Carlson, 2006), higher educational attainment (Flouri

& Buchanan, 2004), and overall mental health (Boyce

et al., 2006; Dubowitz et al., 2001). The heightened

interest in, and great strides toward learning more about

fathers and father involvement are exemplified by the

creation of a peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the

exploration of this field called Fathering in 2003. Still,

most research on fathers and children’s outcomes has

been limited by its focus on the periods of adolescence,

middle childhood, and infancy. There is much less work

that highlights fathers in relation to children during the

early childhood period who are preschool aged (ages

3-6).

Early childhood is a critical period of

development when children experience a variety of

changes. One of the most significant changes is the

transitioning into the formal schooling environment

(i.e., kindergarten and first grade) from preschool

settings or in-home care. Studying this transition is

important because, traditionally, this is when

children begin to develop independence from their

parents as they spend significantly more time away

from their parents in school with their teachers and

peers (Entwisle & Alexander, 1998). Children

take on the new role of student and are faced with

assessment, comparison, and competition with their

peers on an everyday basis. These new roles are

paired with the rapid development of cognitive and

social abilities (Bates et al., 2006; Entwisle &

Alexander, 1998). Furthermore, children are no

longer able to receive as much one-on-one care,

contact, and encouragement as they might be used

to, and are forced to become more self-reliant in

this larger group setting. The concept of being

equipped or prepared to successfully navigate this

transition into formal schooling has been termed

‚school readiness.‛ Measuring school readiness

assists in our understanding of the necessary tools,

abilities, and skills that young children need to be

successful when they first enter school. School

readiness encompasses children’s development

across multiple domains, including: behavioral,

social, cognitive, language, and physical development.

According to the National Center for

Education Statistics (2000) many children in the

United States, especially those from a lower

socioeconomic status (SES) are entering

kindergarten and the first grade lacking the

‚requisite academic, social, emotional, and

language skills to make use of classroom resources

and successfully adjust to school‛ (Downer et al.,

2008, p. 68). It is clear that more work must be

completed in order to understand what children need

to thrive when they enter this new stage, and how

families, educators, and policy-makers can help

assist the transition. Although cognitive ability is

the area of school readiness that receives the most

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Volume I | Spring 2010

attention, it is equally important that the child’s

social-emotional development be taken into

consideration (Raver & Zigler, 1997). Social-

emotional development in early childhood is

described in terms of self-control, assertion, and

cooperation, social competence, self-concept, self-

esteem, empathy, and emotion and behavior

regulation. The proper acquisition and development

of these abilities plays a major role in a child’s

ability to thrive in kindergarten and the first grade

as an autonomous, social being. Children must learn

how to navigate themselves in this new environment

that is overwhelmed with many other children who

are all seeking the same attention and care. They

must learn how to interact and cooperate with their

peers, but also must learn how to care for and

sustain themselves when necessary. If children do

not gain these necessary skills in early childhood,

they will not be able to effectively communicate and

interact with others, and are likely to have a

difficult time functioning academically in this new

environment. It is clear that social-emotional

development in this period is necessary for children

to continue healthy development, and that this

development has a large influence on children’s

ability to effectively transition to formal schooling.

Research has shown that parent involvement

helps to facilitate social-emotional competence in this

age (e.g., Overbeek et al., 2007). However, with the

changing structure of families in the United States and

because mother involvement is commonly generalized to

represent overall parent involvement, it becomes

increasingly important to understand social-emotional

development of children in this age in relation to their

fathers. Research in the field has begun to investigate

the role that fathers play in children’s development, as

separate from the effects of mothering. Father

involvement has been associated with the same social-

emotional development of preschoolers that research had

previously associated with parent involvement. Fathers

help their children to develop positive self-concept,

self-esteem, social competence, empathetic abilities,

self-confidence, and emotion regulation (Amato,

1994; Biller, 1993; Culp, Schadle, Robinson, & Culp,

2000; Downer & Mendez, 2005; Fagan & Iglesias,

2000). Although minimal research finds results to the

contrary, there is still much work to be completed in

this area as studies note that the role of fathers in

children’s social-emotional development often varies

across specific groups and contexts. Specifically, the

influences of SES, race/ethnicity, and father residential

status have contributed to the contradictory results in

this emergent field. Thus, this study will examine the

moderating effects of these variables on the relationship

between father involvement and social-emotional

abilities in early childhood.

The rationale behind investigating these three

moderators in the meta-analysis was to work toward

establishing a context for the trends that were reported

in the literature. It is extremely important to understand

how each of these moderators influences the

relationship between father involvement and children’s

early social-emotional development so to draw more

accurate, directive, and consistent conclusions about

the state of the literature. The importance of including

these moderating factors is best explained by Coley

(2001) who notes the ‚significant need for further

clarification on the range of normative roles that low-

income, minority, and unmarried fathers fulfill, as well

as on the precursors and effects of their fathering

behaviors‛ (p.743). In this regard, this meta-analysis

hopes to add context to the outcomes that emerge

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

26

within each of these subpopulations, beyond the

overwhelming majority of research on fathers that has

studied white, middle-class, and married men (Coley,

2001).

In terms of SES, comparison studies find that

fathers of higher SES are more likely to have children

with higher academic competence (e.g., Bowey,

1995). Yet there has been limited research on the

implications of SES of fathers on social-emotional

development of children in this age, a critical

component of overall school success (Mitchell,

2008). With an increased focus on the importance of

development in this domain, it is crucial that more

work is completed so to better understand the unique

roles that fathers play in this process (Raver & Zigler,

1997). Previous research has found that family

income level is actually not a significant predictor of

variability in the behavioral-emotional scores of

children (Dooley & Stewart, 2007). However,

research has also shown that higher family income was

associated with greater father involvement with child

socialization (Ahmeduzzaman & Roopnarine, 1992),

and fewer child behavior problems (Black et al.,

1999; Jackson, 1999). Given these mixed findings,

there is a need for a systematic and empirical

investigation of the overall trends that are actually

occurring. Therefore, this review will explore if SES

influences the relationship between father involvement

and early childhood social-emotional development

across multiple studies. It was hypothesized that father

involvement from lower-income families would be

associated with less social-emotional competence

among preschoolers.

Similarly, there has been insufficient research

on the influences of race and ethnicity on father

involvement and social-emotional development in

early childhood. Although emergent literature has

focused on fathers of minority status, such as Latino

and African American fathers, this construct of

minority status is almost always conflated with being

of low SES (Downer et al., 2008). And in this

regard, it is impossible to parse out the different effects

that being a father of either minority status or low SES

may have on children’s social-emotional abilities. In

fact, it is questionable whether the limited research that

has attempted to focus on race/ethnicity as a separate

construct from SES was actually successful in doing

so. For example, Fagan (2000) found that Head Start

teachers rated Puerto Rican American children, whose

fathers were more involved in childcare, as lower in

social competence than children whose fathers were not

involved in childcare. Yet, this finding was not true for

the African American fathers. The current literature on

father involvement provides no indication that

increased father involvement would be associated with

lower social-emotional competence (e.g., Roopnarine,

Krishnakumar, Metindogan, & Evans, 2006).

Therefore, it is likely that the findings reported by

Fagan are confounded by outside variables that are not

accounted for in the measures of father involvement

that were employed. It is possible that these Puerto

Rican American fathers who were involved were

fathers of children who were in greater need, and

therefore were of lower social competence to begin

with (Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994). In addition, it is

also possible that this lower child social competence

was an effect of limited resources that would be

associated with low SES and not necessarily with the

father’s race/ethnicity.

Nonetheless, research has found that more

father involvement was associated with higher levels of

children’s emotion regulation among African American

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Volume I | Spring 2010

families (Downer & Mendez, 2005), just as we

would expect based upon the father involvement

literature as a whole (Downer et al., 2008). Clearly,

there is a demonstrated need to study the two

constructs separately to truly understand how each

relates to father involvement and child outcomes

(Downer et al.). Effective conclusions cannot be

drawn from these studies, as there is no way to

completely detangle the two constructs of

race/ethnicity and SES. That is, there are no means to

distinguish whether an effect size was indicative of low

SES, and not of race/ethnicity, or vice versa.

Therefore, this analysis explored if race/ethnicity

influenced the relationship between father involvement

and early childhood social-emotional development,

across the literature, net of SES characteristics of the

samples. It was hypothesized that race and ethnicity, as

distinct from income level, would have no moderating

effect on the relationship between father involvement

and early childhood social-emotional development.

Finally, research suggests differences in the

relationship between father involvement and early

childhood social-emotional development may exist

depending on the residential status of the father (e.g.,

Black et al., 1999). Typically, father residential status

is measured by whether the father lives at home with

the child or not. Most commonly, nonresidential father

involvement is considered in terms of monetary

support. However, this is only one dimension of father

involvement. Research has expressed a challenge in

measuring nonresidential father involvement in any

other terms, such as closeness, quality of interactions,

and emotional commitment (Coley, 2001). Yet,

researchers have argued that it is these other

dimensions of involvement that measure quality in

addition to quantity, that may be more influential for,

and predictive of, child outcomes (Campos, 2008).

Although involvement by nonresidential fathers has

been associated with higher levels of social and

emotional adjustment and fewer behavior problems

(Greene & Moore, 2000), there has been no research

which explicitly compares how children’s social-

emotional development in families with resident and

nonresident fathers differ.

Even though this area of research is limited, the

findings that do exist are mixed, making unclear

what, if any, effect father residential status has on the

relation between father involvement and social-

emotional development. Some research has shown that

children of nonresident fathers do not display any

differences in behavior outcomes from children whose

fathers did live in residence (Black et al., 1999).

Yet, other research demonstrates that children of

nonresident fathers were less sociable, and expressed

less interest in social relationships (Peretti & di

Vitorrio, 1993). Therefore, in including this

moderating variable, the influences of father

residential status on the relationship between father

involvement and early childhood social-emotional

development will be explored. It was hypothesized

that children of residential fathers will display higher

levels of social and emotional adjustment than those

of nonresidential fathers, across equitable levels of

involvement (Peretti & di Vitorrio, 1993).

It is clear that the literature on all three of these

potentially moderating variables is both limited and

inconclusive. A meta-analysis is ideal for addressing

these contradictory findings and clarifying the

relationships that may exist. The current analysis

hopes to elucidate the work that has been completed

on father involvement and early childhood social-

emotional development, and to also provide guidance

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

26

for the work that should be completed in the future.

The results of this meta-analysis will help to clarify

previous findings and provide innovative and

meaningful directions. It was hypothesized that there

would be a positive association between father

involvement and early childhood social-emotional

outcomes. With the growing variability of what

families in the United States look like, it is

increasingly critical that research on the importance

and influences of fathers continues to strengthen and

grow. In addition, results from this analysis have

practical implications for policy development related

to promoting positive child outcomes by identifying

populations in need (those who display inadequate

social-emotional adjustment) and targeting the fathers

of these children as important contributors to this

development as it relates to school readiness.

Method

Data Collection Method

To collect the studies that were included in

this meta-analysis, a broad keyword search was

performed online, utilizing all of the major social

science databases, totaling 26 databases (e.g.,

PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, International

Bibliography of the Social Sciences, ERIC). The

keywords used in the search included: father,

father involvement, paternal involvement, and

male involvement. Furthermore, these keywords

were also searched in varying combinations with

the keywords: Head Start, Preschool, and Early

Childhood in order to collect articles pertaining to

the age range in investigation. 3,775 titles were

collected from this comprehensive search process

and were compiled into an online bibliographic

program. After eliminating all duplicate citations,

the remaining titles were sorted based upon

several primary inclusion criteria (see below). An

advanced doctoral student and an advanced

undergraduate student completed this sorting

procedure with the ultimate goal of retaining only

the articles that would hold the potential for

analysis.

Articles that were targeted for the current

review had to fulfill the following requirements:

(1) include a measure of father involvement and

school readiness, (2) utilize quantitative

measurement, (3) be published in a professional

journal between the years 1998-2008, and (4)

include data specific to children in early childhood

(ages 3-8). Books, book chapters, literature

reviews, meta-analyses, and strictly qualitative

works were not included in this study. However,

dissertation research was kept in order to include

the greatest breadth of work in the analyses,

which was especially important being that the

study of father involvement is still relatively

young (Downer, Campos, McWayne, & Gartner,

2008). After sorting the articles based upon the

inclusion criteria described above, 120 articles

were then passed along for additional sorting to

determine whether or not it was possible and/or

appropriate to code each article for analysis.

Two investigators further sorted the articles

based upon secondary inclusion criteria regarding

the specific data included in each article. Firstly,

the mean age of the children included in each

sample had to be between three and eight years

old at the time of the father involvement data

collection. For example, an article that collected

data on father involvement when a child was two

years old, but collected child outcome data at age

four did not meet the coding criteria. And

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Volume I | Spring 2010

secondly, the relevant father involvement and

child outcomes data had to expressed in terms of

correlations or regression analyses, the forms

utilized in these analyses. After sorting through

the articles based upon the system described

above, 30 articles were left to be included in the

larger meta-analysis that will evaluate the

association between father involvement and

school readiness of children entering the formal

school environment (i.e., first grade or

kindergarten) from preschool.

The current study examines the moderating

influences of father residential status, socio-economic

status, and race and ethnicity on the association

between father involvement and children’s social-

emotional development during the preschool period.

Social-emotional development is one construct of

school readiness that was measured by the larger

meta-analysis. Therefore, the 30 articles from the

larger meta-analysis were further sorted based upon

relevance to social-emotional development and child

outcomes leaving 13 articles to be included in this

smaller meta-analysis.

Coding Schemes

Two investigators created a coding manual that

was used as a tool to extract and organize all of the

pertinent information and data from each article.

Included in this coding manual was demographic

information about the children and fathers in the

study (including age, race/ethnicity information,

income level, location of study, residential status of

father, relationship of father to child), the sample

size, the measures of school readiness and father

involvement included in the work, study quality

indicators of reliability for each construct (e.g.,

Cronbach’s alpha, Cohen’s kappa coefficient,

Spearman’s rho), and the associations between each

set of constructs. The work of this coding process

was split between two researchers who established

inter-coder reliability on 20% of the articles at 90%

agreement or higher. Once each article was coded,

it was entered into an SPSS database for

organizational purposes.

Organizing Data

Data across measures of father involvement

were organized into two dimensions: active and

passive father involvement. These dimensions arose

from standards established by previous literature but

were ultimately based upon the author’s discretion.

Measures of father involvement that were defined as

‚active‛ included engagement or performing

activities with the child, communication patterns,

attachment styles, and caregiving roles that the

father employed. Measures of father involvement

that were deemed as ‚passive‛ included general

presence of the father in his child’s life, and

financial contributions to the child. Although there

was an inherent value judgment in placing these

labels on the measures of father involvement, this

was not the intention of the author, as any

involvement in a child’s life should be regarded as

valuable.

Data across measures of children’s social-

emotional abilities were also organized into two

dimensions: positive and negative outcomes. Again,

these dimensions arose from standards in the

literature, but each measure was categorized based

upon the author’s judgment. Positive social-

emotional outcomes were regarded as those including

social skills and emotion regulation. Negative social-

emotional outcomes were equated with behavior

problems (including measures of both internalizing

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

26

and externalizing behavior problems). Each measure

included in the 13 articles utilized in these analyses

was organized into one dimension of father

involvement and one dimension of child outcomes,

and effect sizes were calculated at this point.

Calculating Effect Sizes

Each of the 13 articles included in this work

reported data in terms of Pearson’s correlation

coefficient r except for one article (Keown &

Woodward, 2002) for which the data included were

transformed into Pearson’s correlation coefficients. To

avoid problems with overestimation and skewness that

using correlations often induces, the correlations were

converted into a standard unit of analysis, Fisher’s Z

scores, and were ‚weighted by the inverse of the

variance to give greater weight to larger samples than

smaller samples‛ (Sirin, 2005, p. 423). Seventy-

three associations were included in the 13 articles and

the associations that were calculated across these 73

associations are called effect sizes. An effect size is

the standardized measure of association that is

employed in meta-analyses which allows researchers

to compare effects across various studies (Borenstein,

Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009)

These effect sizes were separated in terms of the

two dimensions of father involvement and child

outcomes as outlined above. In theory, four separate

meta-analyses were conducted: one on the

relationship between active father involvement and

positive social-emotional outcomes, one on the

relationship between active father involvement and

negative social-emotional outcomes, one on the

relationship between passive involvement and positive

outcomes, and one on the relationship between

passive involvement and negative outcomes.

However, there were no measures of association

between active father involvement and negative

child outcomes, and consequently no data to

analyze in this regard.

A mean effect size was then calculated for

each study included in these three meta-analyses.

Although this approach allows for the possibility

of overlooking legitimate differences that may

exist across multiple correlations within a study

(i.e., correlations based upon father involvement,

as rated by mothers versus as rated by fathers) it

does avoid giving too much power and

significance to those studies that include multiple

correlations (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). At this

point, each mean effect size was integrated to find

one summary effect size to describe the direction

and strength of the relationship between the

variables of father involvement and social-

emotional outcomes. These statistics were

transformed back to Pearson’s correlation

coefficient r through a z-to-r transformation with

95% confidence intervals to designate the range

where the population mean were most likely to

fall in the observed data (Hedges & Olkin,

1985).

Random Effects Model

With consideration to the generalizability of

meta-analysis effect sizes, there is often debate

over whether a fixed effects model or a random

effects model should be utilized (Cooper & Hedges,

1994; Hedges & Vevea, 1998; Sirin, 2005). A

fixed effects model assumes that the effect sizes

calculated are adequate in estimating the population

effect sizes, and therefore are generalizable (Lipsey

& Wilson, 2001). However, a random effects

model assumes that the included studies do not

embody any ‘identical’ true effect sizes that would

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Volume I | Spring 2010

necessarily be representative of the larger population

(Borenstein et al., 2009). Under a random effects

model, there is no standard for what should be

expected as an outcome of the independent variable

(i.e., father involvement), and therefore

generalizability is low. A random effects model was

utilized in this meta-analysis as there is no standard

for social-emotional outcomes that would be

associated with any level of father involvement, and

under this model, more weight was given to studies

that included more variance and larger sample sizes.

Tests for Heterogeneity among Correlations

Tests for heterogeneity were included to examine

how much of the variation present in the included

studies was real and representative of the larger

population (Borenstein et al., 2009). In other words,

these statistics ensured that the observed findings were

representative of real effects and were not merely

spurious, or based completely in error. In addition,

the I2 statistic indicated what percentage of the

observed variation was real. A large I2 statistic would

warrant further analyses on the influence of possible

moderating variables on the relationship between

father involvement and early childhood social-

emotional development (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins,

& Rothstein).

Publication Bias

Publication bias is another critical aspect of

meta-analyses that was considered. Only articles that

were published in peer-reviewed journals were

utilized in this meta-analysis. However, it is possible

that more work on father involvement and early

childhood social-emotional development was

conducted during the years 1998-2008, but was not

published. This is especially possible if such work

lacked statistical significance and included a small

sample size. Although these features do not discredit

the findings of such work, it certainly might have

impeded the opportunity for publishing. Due to this

fact, it is possible that the trends captured in this

review are only representative of the work that was

published, and not of all of the work that was

actually conducted in this period. Therefore, tests for

publication bias were also included to ensure that the

results accurately captured all work conducted

between the years 1998-2008.

Test for Moderator Effects

To check for the significance of each moderating

variable included in this review (SES, race/ethnicity,

and father residential status), the heterogeneity

analysis delineated by Borenstein Hedges, Higgins,

and Rothstein (2009) was followed. Q statistics

from tests for heterogeneity were analyzed. A

significant Q-between would have signified that the

mean effect sizes across each level of the moderating

variables differed by more than merely sampling

error, and that the moderating variable did have an

effect on the relationship between father involvement

and early childhood social-emotional development.

Results

Overall Effect Sizes

The seven articles (31 effect sizes) that were

included in this work in relation to active father

involvement and positive social-emotional abilities

yielded a summary effect size of .22 (p < .05). The

eight articles (32 effect sizes) of relevance to active

father involvement and negative social-emotional

outcomes yielded a summary effect size of -.13 (p =

.069). And the three articles (10 effect sizes) of

relevance to passive father involvement and negative

social-emotional outcomes yielded a summary effect

size of -.14 (p=.089).

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

26

Tests for Heterogeneity and Publication Bias

In interpreting the Q statistic, we found that it

was significant, meaning that there was heterogeneity

in the observed effects. When looking at the I2

statistic, we found that 60% of the observed variation

was real (which is a medium-large percent for this

statistic), meaning that there was enough variation in

the overall sample to examine what was contributing

to the association (Borenstein et al., 2009). In other

words, we were justified to look at the moderating

variables to see if they could explain any of the

variability. In addition, there was no evidence of

publication bias in the sample.

Moderating Variables

In these analyses, we combined both active and

passive dimensions of father involvement into one

variable, as there were not enough effect sizes from

each dimension to run the analyses separately. Also,

there were only enough data to run moderator

analyses on SES in relation to positive outcomes.

There were, however, enough data to run the

moderator analyses across all three moderators in

relation to negative outcomes. After running the

analyses, we found that, with nonsignificant Q-

between statistics, neither SES, race/ethnicity, nor

father residential status was able to explain any of the

variability in relation to both positive and negative

social-emotional outcomes. In other words, none of

these three variables were found to be significant in

moderating the relationship between father

involvement and social-emotional outcomes.

Discussion

Summary Effect Sizes

There was a significant positive effect

between active father involvement and the

development of positive social-emotional abilities

in early childhood, meaning that more father

involvement was associated with more positive

child outcomes. With an effect size of .22 (p <

.05), this relationship was of a medium size in

terms of the standards for interpreting meta-

analyses (Borenstein et al., 2009). In addition,

there were significant trends between father

involvement (both active and passive dimensions)

and fewer social-emotional problems. In other

words, more father involvement was associated

with less negative child outcomes. However, it is

important to keep in mind that although these

effects were not, in fact, significant, when

working with such a limited number of studies,

significant trends are still impressive. In addition,

when interpreting effect sizes in meta-analyses,

the standard is to examine the strength of the

effect primarily, and to not rely solely on the

significance of the effect, as the significance will

vary based upon many factors and does not

necessarily discredit the presence and strength of

an effect (Borenstein et al., 2009). Therefore,

father involvement was associated with child

outcomes in the expected directions, and

supported the hypothesis that there would be a

positive association between the two variables

(after considering the desired direction of the

effect between father involvement and negative

social-emotional outcomes).

Moderator Variables

Our next finding was that neither SES,

race/ethnicity, or father residential status served as

significant moderators of the relationship between

father involvement and social-emotional outcomes.

These findings ultimately mean this relationship may

be the same across all levels of the moderators. In

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Volume I | Spring 2010

other words, it is possible that the relationship

between father involvement and early childhood

social-emotional abilities may not differ whether the

father were of low SES, minority status, or

nonresidential nor whether the father were of

mid/high SES, non-minority status, or residential.

These findings are consistent with the work by

Dooley and Stewart (2007), which also found that

family income level was not a significant predictor of

variability in the behavioral-emotional scores of

children. Therefore, our hypotheses in relation to SES

and father residential status were incorrect. However,

our hypothesis regarding race/ethnicity was correct in

that we predicted that the minority status of the father

would not have any influence on the relationship

between father involvement and child outcomes.

However, caution should be used in interpreting

these results with the great deal of data missing from

the moderator analyses. Many of the studies did not

include the data necessary to run the moderator

analyses, and in fact, data from only five out of the

13 studies were included in these analyses. Some

articles did not report data on the three variables

whereas others reported mixed samples. With the

minimal number of studies that were able to be

included in the moderator analyses, it is possible that

our results do not fully represent the sample.

Therefore, it is necessary for researchers to study

context more purposefully in relation to father

involvement and child outcomes. Although the

relationship did not vary as a function of the three

variables, it would be injudicious to assume that

father involvement across all of the moderator

variable levels was identical. Recent work on

parenting demonstrates that involvement across

different cultures cannot be measured or interpreted in

one distinct manner (McWayne, Owsianik, Green,

& Fantuzzo, 2008). Therefore, although we can

safely argue that, based upon the findings of this

analysis, father involvement is important, it will be

important for more work to be completed in which

culture and context are explicitly taken into account.

Directionality of Results

Another conclusion to be drawn from this

meta-analysis is that the field presently lacks an

indication of the directionality of the relationship

between father involvement and child outcomes. In

other words, we do not know if father involvement

affects child outcomes, if child behavior affects

father involvement, or if the relationship is

transactional, meaning that it works in both

directions. This point is important to consider so

that future research can identify where possible

interventions and additional supports will be most

beneficial. Recent work suggests that the direction

of this relationship in relation to parent involvement

is transactional in nature (Hoglund, Jones, Brown,

& Aber, 2009). Therefore, it is possible that both

father involvement and child behavior affect each

other. However, only longitudinal data on father

involvement and child outcomes will help us to

address this properly and test for causality.

Nonetheless, engagement of fathers in their

children’s lives is an exciting finding, regardless

of the direction of the relationship, and should be

further supported in various ways.

Conceptions of Father Involvement

This meta-analysis has made clear that the

field needs to develop a more explicit and unified

conception of what father involvement truly is. Is

father involvement how much time a father spends

with his child, how the father communicates with his

A Meta-Analysis on Father Involvement and Early Childhood Social-Emotional Development | Robby D. Harris

26

child, or how much money the father contributes to

his child’s life? When the field measures one concept

in so many diverse ways, the true meaning of the

variable can get lost, and therefore it will be

important for future research to create measures that

more concretely measure father involvement. Before

research on fathers involvement can be employed in

the development of programs and policies that focus

on supporting fathers in raising their children, it will

be necessary for the field to synthesize what father

involvement includes, how to measure this construct,

and what the implications of such involvement are in

the lives of children.

Similarly, measures that directly sample fathers

will be important to develop. Most of the measures on

father involvement included in this project were either

completed by teachers or mothers, and only a few

studies included data on father involvement that were

reported by fathers. There are many extraneous

variables that may make reports by mothers and

teachers inaccurate in obtaining a true measure of a

father’s involvement. For example, the quality of a

relationship that a father has with the mother of his

child may certainly influence how she reports his

involvement regardless of his actual involvement with

the child. A divorced custodial mother who does not

get along with her divorced husband might report

lower father involvement than a divorced custodial

mother who does get along with her divorced

husband, even if both fathers are involved in the same

exact manner. In addition, it is possible that a teacher

who does not witness much father presence during the

school day would rate such a father as low in

involvement. However, it is possible that this father

works during the school day, but is very involved

with his child outside of school, and therefore such a

report might not accurately capture the involvement

of this father. The importance of studying context

and the intersectionality of variables should be taken

into consideration when developing measures of

father involvement and study designs in the future.

It is also important to consider what has

been addressed in the field since Amato and

Gilbreth (1999) conducted the last meta-analysis

on father involvement. One of the most significant

future directions that these authors suggested was

that father involvement should preferably be

measured in an engaged manner rather than in a

more superficial manner (i.e., physical presence

of the father in the child’s life). From examining

the articles included in this meta-analysis, it

would appear that the field of father involvement

has, in fact, taken the directives laid out by

Amato and Gilbreth. The overwhelming majority

of father involvement measures were ‚active‛ in

nature (63 effect sizes) with only ten measuring

father involvement in ‚passive‛ terms. However,

what is important to keep in mind is that the

meta-analysis by Amato and Gilbreth was

conducted on nonresidential fathers, who, as

research demonstrates, are less likely to be

actively engaged with their children due to limited

access (Black et al., 1999). Nonetheless, it is

possible the great deal of active father

involvement measures that were included this

analysis are indicative of a shift in how the field

conceives of fathers and their importance.

School Readiness Meta-Analysis

Finally, this meta-analysis examined one

construct of school readiness. The larger meta-

analysis from which this project is based will

examine all aspects of school readiness in relation to

26 26

Volume I | Spring 2010

father involvement. In addition, the school readiness

meta-analysis will include more studies across all of

the dimensions of school readiness, including social-

emotional development, so to increase the variability

of the data and allow us to draw more generalizable

conclusions.

References

*References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

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being in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031–1042.

Amato, P. R., & Gilbreth, J. G. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children’s well-being: A meta-analysis.

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(3), 557-573.

Bates, M. P., Mastrianni, A., Mintzer, C., Nicholas, W., Furlong, M. J., Simental, J., et al. (2006).

Bridging the transition to kindergarten: School readiness case studies from California's first 5

initiative. California School Psychologist, 11, 41-56.

Biller, H. B. (1993). Fathers and families: Paternal factors in child development. Boston: Auburn House.

Black, M. M., Dubowitz, H., & Starr, R. H. (1999). African American fathers in low income, urban

families: Development, behavior, and home environment of their three-year-old children. Child

Development, 70, 967-978.

Borenstein, M., Hedges, L.V., Higgins, J. P.T., & Rothstein, H.R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis.

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Bowey, J. A. (1995). Socioeconomic status differences in preschool phonological sensitivity and first-

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Boyce, W. T., Essex, M. J., Alkon, A., Goldsmith, H. H., Kraemer, H. C., & Kupfer, D. J. (2006). Early

father involvement moderates biobehavioral susceptibility to mental health problems in middle

childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(12),

1510-1520.

*Burgos, L. (2003). The effect of the father-child relationship on the social conduct of 2 1/2 year old

children in preschool. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(2), 135-155.

Campos, R. (2008). Considerations for studying father involvement in early childhood among Latino

families. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(2), 133-160.

Carlson, M. J. (2006). Family structure, father involvement, and adolescent behavioral outcomes. Journal

of Marriage and Family, 68, 137-154.

Coley, R. L. (2001) (In)visible men: Emerging research on low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers.

American Psychologist, 56(9), 743-753.

Cooper, H. M., & Hedges, L. V. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of research synthesis. New York, NY: Russell

Sage.

*Cugmas, Z. (1998). The correlation between children's personal behavioural characteristics and indicators

of children's attachment to their mother or father, respectively. Early Child Development &Care,

143, 65-78.

*Culp, R. E., Schadle, S., Robinson, L., & Culp. A. M. (2000). Relationships among paternal

involvement and young children’s perceived self-competence and behavioral problems. Journal

of Child and Family Studies, 9, 27-38.

*Denham, S. A., Workman, E., Cole, P. M., Weissbrod, C., Kendziora, K. T., & Zahn-Waxler, C.

(2000). Prediction of externalizing behavior problems from early to middle childhood: The role

of parental socialization and emotion expression. Development & Psychopathology, 12(1), 23-

45.

Department of Health and Human Services. (2002). Cohabitation, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in

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Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Socialization mediators of the relations between

socioeconomic status and child conduct problems. Child Development, 65, 649-665.

Dooley, M., & Steward, J. (2007). Family income, parenting style, and child behavioural-emotional

outcomes. Health Economics, 16(2), 145-162.

Downer, J. T., Campos, R., McWayne, C.M., & Gartner, T. (2008). Father involvement and children’s

early learning: A critical review of published empirical work from the past 15 years. Marriage

& Family Review, 43(1/2), 67-108).

*Downer, J. T., & Mendez, J. L. (2005). African American father involvement and preschool children’s

school readiness. Early Education and Development, 16, 317-340.

Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Cox, C. E., Kerr, M. A., Litrownik, A. J., Radhakrishna, A., English, D. J.,

Schneider, M. W., & Runyan, D. K. (2001). Father involvement and children’s functioning at

age 6 years: A multisite study. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional

Society on the Abuse of Children, 6, 300-309.

Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1998). Facilitating the transition to first grade: The nature of

transition and research on factors affecting it. Elementary School Journal, 98, 351-364.

Fagan, J. (2000). African American and Puerto Rican American parenting styles, paternal involvement,

and Head Start children’s social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 592-612.

Fagan, J., & Iglesias, A. (2000). The relation between fathers’ and children’s communication skills and

children’s behavior problems: A study of Head Start children. Early Education and

Development, 11, 307-320.

Flouri, E. (2008). Fathering and adolescents’ psychological adjustment: The role of fathers’ involvement,

residence and biology status. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34(2), 152-161.

Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2004). Early father’s and mother’s involvement and child’s later educational

outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 141-153.

Greene, A. D. & Moore, K. A. (2000). Nonresident father involvement and child well-being among

young children in families on welfare. Marriage and Family Review, 29, 159-180.

*Hagan, L. K., & Kuebli, J. (2007). Mothers' and fathers' socialization of preschoolers' physical risk

taking. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 2-14.

Hedges, L.V. & Olkin I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press,

Inc.

Hedges, L. V. & Vevea, J. L. (1998). Fixed and random-effects models in meta-analysis.

Psychological Methods, 3, 486–504.

Hoglund, W. L. G., Jones, S. M., Brown, J. L., & Aber, J. L. (2009, April). Family home and school-

based involvement in the inner-city context: Transactions with child school adjustment. Paper

symposium presented at the 2009 biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child

Development, Denver, CO.

*Jackson, A. P. (1999). The effects of nonresident father involvement on single Black mothers and their

young children. Social Work, 44, 156-166.

*Keown, L. J., & Woodward, L. J. (2002). Early parent-child relations and family functioning of

preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(6),

541-553.

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Marsiglio, W., Amato, P., Day, R., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s

and beyond. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1173-1191.

McWayne, C.M., Owsianik, M., Green, L.E., Fantuzzo, J. W. (2008). Parenting behaviors and

preschool children’s social and emotional skills: A question of the consequential validity of

traditional parenting constructs for low-income African Americans. Early Childhood Research

Quarterly, 23, 173-192.

Mitchell, S. J. (2008). Low-income African American fathers’ contributions to toddlers’ social and

emotional development (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 2007).

Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences 69(2-A).

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2000). The kindergarten year. Washington, D.C.: National

Center for Educational Statistics.

Overbeek, G., Stattin, H., Vermulst, A., Ha, T., Engels, & Rutger C. M. E. (2007). Parent–child

relationships, partner relationships, and emotional adjustment: A birth-to-maturity prospective

study. Developmental Psychology, 43(2), 429-437.

*Page, T., & Bretherton, I. (2001). Mother- and father-child attachment themes in the story completions

of pre-schoolers from post-divorce families: Do they predict relationships with peers and

teachers? Attachment & Human Development, 3(1), 1-29.

Peretti, P. O., & di Vitorrio, A. (1993). Effect of loss of father through divorce on personality of a

preschool child. Social Behavior & Personality, 21, 33-38.

*Pettit, G. S., Brown, E. G., Mize, J., & Lindsey, E. (1998). Mothers' and fathers' socializing behaviors

in three contexts: Links with children's peer competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44(2),

173-193.

Raver, C. C., & Zigler, E. F. (1997). Social competence: An untapped dimension in evaluating Head

Start’s success. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 363-385.

*Roopnarine, J. L., Krishnakumar, A., Metindogan, A., & Evans, M. (2006). Links between parenting

styles, parent-child academic interaction, parent-school interaction, and early academic skills

and social behaviors in young children of english-speaking Caribbean immigrants. Early

Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(2), 238-252.

Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research.

Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417-453.

*Stover, C. S., Van Horn, P., Turner, R., Cooper, B., & Lieberman, A. F. (2003). The effects of father

visitation on preschool-aged witnesses of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,

18(10), 1149-1166.

*Verschueren, K., & Marcoen, A. (1999). Representation of self and socioemotional competence in

kindergartners: Differential and combined effects of attachment to mother and to father. Child

Development, 70(1), 183-201.

submissions

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Volume I | Spring 2010

The way psychologists think about and treat

phobias may be facing imminent change. Damour and

Hansell (2008) define a phobia as an intense,

persistent and irrational fear and avoidance of a specific

object or situation. However, recent research suggests

that phobias are more than simply intense fears. In fact,

psychologists have discovered that exposure to phobic-

stimuli (specific object of phobia) activates different

part of the brain than the one which activates when

people are exposed to fearful-stimuli (anything else

someone is afraid of) (Carlsson, Petersson, Lundqvist,

Karlsson, Ingvar & Ohman, 2004). In other words,

phobias may be neurologically different from fears.

Furthermore, when unconsciously exposed to fearful-

stimuli, the brain reacts differently than it reacts when

consciously exposed to fearful stimuli (Morris, Ohman

& Dolan, 1998), suggesting that people use different

parts of their brains to process conscious and

unconscious emotions. Understanding these unique

properties of phobias is instrumental in treating them.

One strategy, exposure therapy, requires that

people face their fears in the most literal sense

(Damour & Hansell, 2008). It has been shown to be

highly effective in the treatment of phobias (Barlow,

Raffa & Cohen, 2002). In exposure therapy, the

eradication of phobias is accomplished by gradually

exposing individuals to the object they are afraid of.

Eventually, individuals come to realize that the feared

object is not intrinsically dangerous, because they are

not harmed by the object itself. When individuals can

reach this conclusion, they are less avoidant of the

feared object. Effective as the treatment may be,

Damour and Hansell (2008) note that exposure therapy

can cause people to experience anxiety during treatment.

However, there may be a way to achieve similar effects

without requiring clients to experience such anxiety.

Carlsson et al. (2004) used backwards masking

to unconsciously expose participants to phobic and fear

relevant stimuli. In backwards masking, people are

shown to an image for a brief period of time before it is

covered up by a different image. This technique exposes

participants to images they are unable to report seeing.

In Carlsson et al.’s (2004) study, half of participants

exhibited arachnophobia (phobia of spiders) and the

other half exhibited ophiophobia (phobia of snakes).

Participants were exposed to six image-mask pairs, each

in randomized order and repeated twice. Images included

two phobic stimuli (spiders and snakes respective to the

participant), fear relevant stimuli (spiders and snakes

respective to the participant) and two mushrooms.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) images showed

that unconscious exposure to phobic stimuli and fear-

relevant stimuli elicit similar responses. However, when

the participants were given time to consciously process

the stimuli being exposed, differences emerged.

Consciously-exposed, phobic stimuli elicited an

affective processing response that fear-relevant stimuli

did not elicit. In other words, on a conscious level,

when people suffering from phobias are exposed to their

phobias, their fear response is different from exposure to

other things of which they are non-pathologically afraid.

Morris et al. (1998) also used backwards

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masking to unconsciously expose people to “fearful

faces” which were later covered up by “neutral faces”.

They measured participants’ fearful responses to these

stimuli with PET scans and magnetic resonance images

(MRI) of brain activity in the amygdala, a region

central to emotional functioning. The images showed

that unconsciously exposed faces elicited a neural

response in the right amygdala without eliciting a

response in the left. When the faces were unmasked, the

amygdala response was different: unmasked faces

elicited neural responses in the left amygdala without

eliciting response in the right amygdala. This

discrepancy shows that the human brain responds to

conscious and unconscious stimuli in different ways.

Understanding these differences may prove useful in

better understanding and treating phobias in the future.

The effect of unconscious exposure to phobic

stimuli was explored by Siegel and Weinberger

(2009), whose work more directly suggests

unconscious exposure may be useful in therapy. Siegel

and Weinberger (2009) conducted three experiments,

one of which tested the effect of unconscious exposure

on behavior. Their first experiment established that,

through backwards masking, participants can be

exposed to stimuli without being able to report

exposure to these stimuli. Their second experiment

showed that when individuals suffering from fear of

spiders were unconsciously exposed to spider images,

they were less behaviorally avoidant of a caged

tarantula than people suffering from a fear of spiders

that were not exposed to those images. In a third

experiment, participants were separated into two

groups. During the first week of their experiment,

participants completed a behavioral approach task,

during which they approached a caged spider. In the

second week, one group of participants was

unconsciously exposed to the phobic stimuli (spider

images), while the other was not. Participants in the

group that was unconsciously exposed to the spider

images were less avoidant of the spider in the second

week, compared to their first week. Participants in the

group that was not exposed to the spider images were

not less avoidant of the spider. Siegel and Weinberger’s

(2009) work suggests that the effect of unconscious

exposure is similar to the effect of current exposure

therapy in that both successfully reduce avoidant

behavior.

Because the highlighted studies only examined

the effects of unconscious exposure in the short-term,

further research is needed to investigate the effectiveness

of unconscious exposure in treating phobias.

Additionally, the aforementioned studies have only

investigated the use of unconscious exposure with two

phobias – arachnophobia and ophidiophobia. If the

effects of unconscious exposure prove to be long lasting

and applicable to a wider range of phobias, unconscious

exposure therapy should be integrated into current

interventions. Because unconscious exposure

circumvents the anxiety conscious exposure causes, it

has the potential to become a preferred treatment option.

References Barlow, D. H., Raffa, S. D., & Cohen, E. M. (2002). Psychosocial treatments for panic

disorders, phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman

(Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (pp. 301-336). New York: Oxford

University Press.

Carlsson, K., Peterson, K. M., Lundqvist, D., Karlsson, A., Ingvar, M., & Öhman, A.

(2004). Fear and the amygdala: Manipulation of awareness generates differential

cerebral responses to phobic and fear-relevant stimuli. Emotion, 4, 340–353.

Damour, L. K., & Hansell, J. H. (2008). Abnormal Psychology (2 ed.). New York, NY:

Wiley.

Morris J.S., Ohman A, & Dolan RJ. (1998). Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in

the human amygdala. Nature, 393, 467– 70.

Siegel, P. & Weinberger, J. (2009). Very brief exposure: The effects of unreportable stimuli

on fearful behavior. Consciousness and Cognition. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.001

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Considerable research in psychology documents

the co-occurrence of addictive behavior and mood

disorders. When a person is diagnosed with both a

mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorder

(SUD), they are considered to have a “dual

diagnosis”. It is crucial for psychologists to concern

themselves with both aspects of this dual diagnosis in

order to research and provide effective, comprehensive,

and sustainable treatment for clients. Bipolar disorder

(BD), in particular, has a very high rate of dual

diagnosis. Sasson, Chopra, Harrari, Amitai, and Zohar

(2003) report that 60% of individuals diagnosed with

bipolar disorder also exhibit symptoms of other

disorders, and more than 40% report simultaneous drug

use, posing a unique challenge to clinicians and

researchers. For these dually diagnosed patients,

response to medication is often altered by their drug

habit, their symptoms are harder to detect, and they

have higher rates of relapse, hospitalization, and suicide

attempts (Xie, McHugo & Drake, 2009).

There is a crucial need to identify the best

treatment option for those who suffer from the

combined effects of BD and SUD. Substantive data

collected by the National Comorbidity Survey supports

such necessity, suggesting psychologists need to

increase outreach for patients who are dually diagnosed

(Kessler et al., 1996). Although many epidemiological

and descriptive studies describe the severity of the

issue, very few empirical studies have evaluated

possible treatment options. It is difficult to design

randomized controlled experiments for this population

due to ethical concerns with placing individuals in

treatment groups and the breadth of potential confounding

factors, such as individual differences in genetic makeup,

level of drug use, and self-esteem. In the few empirical

studies on aspects of treatment for individuals dually

diagnosed with BD and SUD, researchers investigated the

effectiveness of three aspects of dually diagnosed

patients’ treatment – the way their case is managed,

(Drake, Xie, McHugo, & Shumway, 2004), the training

of their therapist (Grella & Stein, 2006), and the type of

treatment they receive, specifically the effectiveness of

medication alone versus medication paired with CBT

(Schmitz et al., 2002) - on their treatment outcomes.

Even in these few empirical studies that are meant to

provide us with greater understanding of how to treat this

dual diagnosis, flaws in their very research designs have

left the psychological community unable to draw any

concrete conclusions. This review hopes to shed light on

the methodological flaws of these studies in order to

further demonstrate the need for more conclusive research

to assess treatment options for this population.

Drake, Xie, McHugo, and Shumway (2004; based

on The New Hampshire Dual Diagnosis Study)

empirically investigated the longitudinal (1989-1992)

treatment outcomes of bipolar outpatients (N=51) based

on the way their case was managed. The sample

consisted of mostly White (98% White) and male (65%

male) patients dually diagnosed with BD and co-

occurring SUD. The sample, especially in terms of race,

is not representative of the general population and leaves

an enormous gap in the lack of generalizability of its

A Call for the Proper Evaluation of Treatment for Co-Occurring BD and SUD

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findings. In this randomized controlled trial, participants

were randomly assigned to receive either assertive

community treatment or standard case management

(Drake et al., 2004). Though the article noted that both

conditions provided integrated services to address dual

diagnosis, the authors failed to provide operational

descriptions of either condition, making it impossible to

account for any resulting significant difference in

outcome as a result of management group. Though it

failed to find a significant association between outcomes

and case management strategy, one value of this study

lies in its presentation of the success of treatment for

dually diagnosed patients that integrates both aspects of

their diagnoses, evident in patients’ improvement in

multiple domains (e.g., employment, behavior,

functionality) throughout the study.

Grella and Stein (2006) investigated the role of

psychologist training and use of on-site dual diagnosis

services in patients’ outcomes. Using a sample of 351

patients from 11 residential programs, researchers sought

to identify which type of program had the best treatment

outcome for dually diagnosed patients. The sample was

evenly distributed between males and females (53% male

and 47% female) and included a larger proportion of

African Americans (35%) than Drake et al.’s (2004)

study. It also sought to represent some of the concerns of

the African American population - of the 123 African

Americans patients who took part in this study, 82% had

been homeless and 59% had previously been in trouble

with the law. Grella and Stein (2006) found that better

training for psychologists and their increased utilization

of on-site dual diagnosis services in their treatment

improved patients’ outcomes. The study also found

higher rates of psychological distress for African

Americans, both before and after treatment, as well as a

reduced access to healthcare for this population. A major

setback of this study is its investigation of co-morbidity

in general, rather than BD and SUD specifically (only

65% of the sample suffered from a mood disorder),

which means that the results may not acknowledge the

unique considerations in the co-morbidity of mood

disorders. Though it certainly seeks to present a case for

increased dual diagnosis services, this study does not

provide clinicians with a concrete idea of what these dual

diagnosis services entail and which of their features are

really making the difference.

Schmitz et al. (2002) investigated the role of the

type of treatment dually diagnosed patients receive on

their treatment outcome. In order to test the effectiveness

of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in treating co-

occurring BD and SUD, 46 patients (80% white, 47.8%

male) were randomly assigned to a treatment group with

either medication intervention alone or medication

intervention with CBT. The medically managed group

had 4 clinic visits in three months to monitor their

compliance, drug-use, and mood. The CBT group had

these clinic visits supplemented with 16 individual

sessions of CBT. The results supported the hypothesis

that CBT fostered patients’ compliance with medication

and improved their mood. However, both groups showed

lower rates of substance abuse at the end of the 12

weeks, leading us to believe that CBT did not create any

significant difference in addictive behavior between

groups. On the other hand, members of the CBT group

were found to be more regular in their attendance and

showed more satisfaction with their prognosis. How do

we make sense of these results? Staying in treatment is

linked to more positive treatment outcomes and

perception of recovery, as evidenced by patients’ self-

reports, so why do these encouraging outcomes not

translate into a difference in behavior? Schmitz et al.

(2002) acknowledged that the way in which substance

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Volume I | Spring 2010

use was measured and coded as well as high levels of

attrition could have skewed their results. In the face of

these methodological concerns, it is difficult to draw any

appropriate conclusions from this study.

The review of these articles provides a small sample

of the literature that is currently available on treatments

for co-occurring BD and SUD. All three studies offer

support for the growing consensus that dually diagnosed

patients find it much more difficult than patients with a

single diagnosis to recover. However, studies often

present inconsistent findings and limitations imposed by

biased samples, lack of operationalization, and

confounding variables. It is apparent that there are not

enough soundly designed experimental studies to examine

the effects of different aspects of treatment on the co-

morbidity of BD and SUD. Therefore, there is an urgent

need to properly evaluate new treatment options available

to this unique population. Further investigation using

experimental techniques needs to help clarify the best

aspects of treatment plans for people suffering from co-

occurring BD and SUD, rather than lead us further

astray.

References Drake, R.E., Xie, H., McHugo, G.J., & Shumway, M. (2004). Three-year outcomes of

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Grella, C. E., & Stein, J. A. (2006). Impact of program services on treatment outcomes of

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Schmitz, J. M., Averill, P., Sayre, S., McCleary, P., Moeller, F. G., & Swann, A. (2002).

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abstracts The following abstracts highlight the research of members of

the Applied Psychology Honors Program.

The authors will present their projects at the Undergraduate

Research Conference on April 30, 2010.

Look for their complete theses in the Fall 2010 issue of OPUS.

Father Involvement in Ethnically Diverse Populations

Ryann McNeil

Researchers, practitioners, and policy makers recognize the early influential role of fathers in their infants’ socio-emotional

and cognitive development, and recognize the cultural embeddedness of father involvement. Nonetheless, little research has

examined father involvement across ethnically diverse groups in early infancy. The current study uses a time-diary approach

coupled with surveys to explore how fathers engage with their 14 month infants, how demographic and social factors affect

the quality of the father-infant relationship, and how the child’s gender influences these interactions. Mothers of African

American, Dominican, and Mexican backgrounds were recruited from 3 New York City hospitals. When infants were 1, 6,

14, and 24 months mothers were interviewed for an hour using a time-diary approach in which they reported infants’

activities during the prior day (24 hours) based on what infants were doing and who was engaged in those activities. They

also reported on their relationship to father, education, etc. This study reports on the 14-month interviews of 168 mothers.

From the diary data, infants’ time spent with fathers was coded into eight categories: care-giving, toy play, unstructured,

literacy, television, child outings, general outings, and childcare. Various differences emerged by ethnicity and child gender.

Mexican fathers spent the most time in care-giving activities, whereas African American and Dominican fathers spent more

time in unstructured play and television activities. Fathers spent significantly more time engaged in book-reading activities

with their daughters, and typically spent more time watching television with their sons. Aspects of the mother-father

relationship related to father time with infants. The activities infants share with their fathers are shaped by child gender, family

cultural practices, and the mother-father relationship. Discussion focuses on the challenges to studying father involvement in

infancy, and the value of diary approaches in developmental research.

Abstracts

Loneliness and Depression among Foster Children: The Role of Caregiver Ethnic Match

Maurice Anderson

Nearly 500,000 children are in foster care. More than 20% of them are transethnically (with ethnically dissimilar

families) placed following the Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994. Many exhibit internalizing behaviors (e.g.

depression, loneliness). This study investigated whether transethnic foster placement is associated with variation in

mental health outcomes of foster children. It was hypothesized that, the degree of ethnic matching between foster child

and caregiver, and the incidence of internalizing behaviors, would be negatively related. To test this hypothesis, a

secondary analysis was conducted on a sample (N=106) of mostly African-American and Hispanic (69%) boys

(N=58) and girls (N=48) between the ages of 7 and 15 (M=10.47; SD=1.89) in foster care. A continuous measure

of ethnic match, Total Match Index (TMI), was created (based on ethnic self-identification, country of origin, and

language), and regressed on child internalizing symptoms, controlling for several confounding covariates. TMI trended

towards significant prediction of childhood depression even after controlling for potential confounds (t=-1.93; p=.06;

R2=.15). Correlational analyses identified specific variables that may have moderated the influence of ethnic match on

the mental health outcomes of transethnically placed foster children. Suggestions for future research and potential policy

implications are discussed.

38

Demographic and Relational Predictors of Social Self-Awareness in Urban Elementary Classrooms

Neha Sahu

Elementary school classroom interactions with peers and individual student social competence are important to children’s

success in school. A key component of social competence is social self-awareness - awareness of one’s own behaviors in

social interactions. Research has focused on the intra-individual processes predicting social self-awareness. However, as

children grow older, peers become increasingly influential in their social development. This study moves beyond the

individual, examining the primary peer environment in middle childhood as it relates to social self-awareness. Using social

network and peer sociometric methods, the study examined the level of congruence between self-and peer-nominations of

prosocial and aggressive behaviors (social self-awareness) as predicted by individual-level social factors (peer network

centrality) over and above demographic factors (age and gender). Participants included 418 2nd

to 4th grade African-

American students facing heightened risk for school disengagement and social problems, from 33 classrooms in 5 Chicago

elementary schools, located in high poverty urban neighborhoods. Analyses revealed that increasing age and network

centrality predicted increasing levels of social self-awareness. Contrary to expectations, gender normative social behaviors

failed to match predictions. Discussion focused on how social contexts facilitate or inhibit internal processes

(Bronfenbrennerian approach). Future studies should examine classroom-level predictors, beyond individual-level

predictors.

Book Reading Styles in Bilingual Head Start Classrooms

Silvia Niño

Early narratives shared between children and adults are crucial for children’s linguistic and cognitive development. Most

research on narrative development has focused on parent-child conversations and book-reading interactions. However,

parent-child interactions are only one context through which children develop narrative skills. Because preschoolers spend

a significant part of their day in preschool, interactions between children and their preschool-teachers also plays a

formative role for children’s narrative competency. Nevertheless, only a handful studies have examined the book-sharing

styles used by preschool teachers, and little is known about how teachers adapt their book-sharing approach to bilingual

environments. The present study examined the book-sharing styles of teachers in 12 bilingual (Spanish-English) Head

Start classrooms as they shared wordless and text-based books with their class. Preliminary results suggest that there are

individual differences in teachers' book-sharing styles, with some teachers focusing closely on the storyline, whereas

others encourage their students to think analytically and make predictions about the plot. Interestingly, though, all teachers

tend to include more meta-literacy talk and offer richer language lessons when sharing the wordless book. Results are

discussed in relation to the role of teacher-class book-sharing on children's language development.

Volume I | Spring 2010

Language Attitudes of Puerto Ricans toward English and Bilingualism

Cristina Tamayo

Language learning and attitudes are often implicitly influenced by larger social, economic, and political factors. The Puerto

Rican experience is a perfect case study as the teaching and learning of English on the island is linked to historical events

that have led Puerto Ricans to resist becoming bilingual. However, research on Puerto Ricans’ attitudes towards English was

conducted in decades before English became the lingua franca of a globalized world. These global cultural changes might

have led to significant revisions in the language attitudes of Puerto Ricans, especially among the youth. The purpose of the

current study was to examine the language attitudes of young Puerto Ricans. Nine participants (ages 18-23) were

interviewed about their beliefs, attitudes and perceptions towards languages spoken in the island. Using a grounded theory

approach, data were coded and analyzed looking for recurring themes and patterns across and within cases. Preliminary

results suggest that attitudes have positively changed and that young Puerto Ricans are not resisting becoming bilinguals as

did youth of earlier generations. Results are discussed in relation to the potential impact of globalization in shaping modern

Puerto Rican’s language and cultural ideologies.

The Stories Friends Share: Structural and Thematic Analyses

Jessica Winterstern

Narratives are essential in a child’s life promoting growth in socio-emotional and cognitive areas. Yet, the current research

does not sufficiently investigate all critical contributors who influence children’s narrative development, such as peers.

Storytelling interactions influence the development of children’s unique narrative styles and the bonds that develop between

peers. However, there exist gaps in our understanding of how peer interactions support the development of children’s

storytelling abilities, in particular how this relationship develops with age and the role gender plays in such development.

The present study examined the personal narratives shared between friends across age groups and gender. Forty-eight

children between the ages of 5 and 10 were asked to share stories with a same-sex friend. Stories were audio-recorded,

videotaped and transcribed. Narrative interactions were coded for interactional features and themes. Interactional and

thematic features were submitted to analyses of variance determining gender and age-group differences. Preliminary results

showed that children told more elaborative narratives with age. Boys utilized agency themes whereas girls highlighted

communion themes. Finally, girls overlapped and interrupted more so than did boys. Results are discussed in relation to the

role peers and friendship play in language development.

Abstracts 40

Vanessa Victoria Volpe, editor-in-chief

of OPUS, is a junior in the Applied

Psychology program, with a minor in

Creative Writing. As a Research

Assistant in Dr. Selcuk Sirin's lab, she

researches identity negotiation and

psychological outcomes for urban

immigrant youth. She is also a

Research Assistant at St. Luke's -

Roosevelt Hospital's adolescent

outpatient substance abuse program,

where she researches the influence of

gender and social support on HIV risk

behavior, and serves as a Co-

Investigator on a study of the use of

text messaging to enhance the efficacy

of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Upon

graduation, she hopes to pursue a

Ph.D. in Developmental or Clinical

Psychology.

Jackson J. Taylor, editor of OPUS, is a

junior in the Applied Psychology

program. He is a member of Dr. Melzi’s

Child Language research team and the

NYU Latino Family Involvement Project.

He also interns for Dr. Jacqueline

Carleton, editor-in-chief of the United

States Association for Body

Psychotherapy Journal. His research

interests include socio-cultural influences

on interpersonal communication, the

influence of emerging technologies,

attachment theory, and advances in

experiential therapy. He plans to pursue

a Ph.D in Clinical Psychology after he

graduates, and live happily ever after in

New York. In the meantime, he keeps

himself occupied with independent

research, his unpackedbox, and

shameless self-promotions.

Alyssa Deichtman, a staff writer for

OPUS, is a sophomore in the Applied

Psychology program. Her research

interests include Autism research,

industrial/organizational psychology, and

adolescent mental health. She dreams of

dual-degrees in Psychology and Business

Administration.

Sibyl Hayley Holland, editor of OPUS, is a

junior in the Applied Psychology program.

She is a member of Elise Cappella’s

research team and an America Reads

literacy tutor. Her research interests

include child development and

educational psychology. Upon graduation,

she hopes to pursue a Masters in School

Counseling and work in the New York City

public school system as an elementary

school counselor.

Javanna N. Obregon, a staff writer for

OPUS, is a sophomore in the Applied

Psychology program. She is mainly

interested in women's mental health, and

she hopes to pursue a Ph.D. in Clinical

Psychology.

Justina Passarelli, a staff writer for OPUS,

is a freshman in the Applied Psychology

program. Her research interests include

adolescent depression, the feminist

perspective, and the dynamics of sexual

psychology. She hopes to pursue a

doctorate in clinical or counseling

psychology, and practice in NYC.

Cristina Tamayo is a senior in the Applied Psychology honors program. She thanks Dr. Gigliana Melzi, Adina Schick, Joy Kennedy and the Child Research Language research team for their support throughout the course of her project. Her main research interests include language ideologies, language attitudes and the Puerto Rican experience with bilingualism and English. After graduating, she plans to attend law school in Puerto Rico.

Neha Sahu is a senior Applied Psychology major, with a minor in Media, Culture, and Communications. Her research interests include educational psychology, as well as child and adolescent development. She is grateful for her mentor, Dr. Elise Cappella, for all of her help with her honors project. Upon graduation, she will be working as a Teach for India Fellow for two years.

Priya Gopalan is a junior in the Applied Psychology program, and a member of the Community College Transfer Opportunity Program (CCTOP). As a research assistant in Dr. Selcuk Sirin’s lab, she studies the educational experience of immigrants in the NY metropolitan area. Her main research interests include immigrant populations and substance abuse.

Robby D. Harris graduated from NYU in 2009 with a B.S. in Applied Psychology. He is currently working with Dr. Stephen Russell as a doctoral student in the Family Studies and Human Development program at the University of Arizona. Robby's research interests include gender identity development, masculinity, father involvement with adolescent sons, and schools as contexts for healthful identity development. He would like to extend great thanks to Onnie Rogers and Drs. Christine McWayne, Rodrigo Campos, and Gigliana Melzi for their help preparing his manuscript.

Jessica Winterstern is a senior in the Applied Psychology honor's program. She thanks Dr. Melzi for her unconditional support throughout the course of her project. She is also grateful for the opportunity to work with Adina Schick and the members of the Child Language and LFIP research teams. After graduating, she plans to present her research at the 2010 Stanford Undergraduate Psychology Conference, prepare to apply to law school, and take a much needed break.

Don Asher Cohen is a junior in the Applied Psychology program. His main research interests include non-conscious processes in phobias and trauma. After graduating, he plans to pursue a doctorate in psychology and eventually practice as a psychotherapist.

Maurice Anderson is a senior in the Applied Psychology honors program, with a minor in Sociology. As a proud member of the NYU community, he serves as president of the Applied Psychology Undergraduate (APUG) Club, and was inducted into Psi Chi as well as the Golden Key International Honor Society. He is a research assistant at the NYU Child Study Center investigating sibling interactions in foster care. He has previously worked at the Door, a youth community center, performing brief psychosocial intake assessments. He will be presenting his work at the 38th Annual Hunter College Psychology Convention, and Stanford’s 2010 Undergraduate Psychology Conference. He considers graduation his biggest accomplishment to date.

32

Silvia Niño is a senior in the Applied Psychology honors program. She thanks Dr. Gigliana Melzi, Adina Schick, and the members of the Child Language research team for their unwavering support and guidance throughout the course of her project.

Ryann McNeil is a senior in Applied Psychology honors program. She thanks Dr. Catherine Tamis-LeMonda and Dr. Gigliana Melzi for their support throughout the course of her project. Her main research interests include father involvement, gender socialization, and children’s developmental outcomes. She will begin NYU's Counseling Mental Health and Wellness masters program in Fall 2010.

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