SI-R1sS 163 EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC NOTES VOLUME 38 NUMBER 3(U) OFFICE i/i

OF NAVAL RESEARCH LONDON (ENGLAND) L E SHAFFER MAR 84

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March 1984

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7 (ABSTRACT (Contltwu an rovoree side It nceeoo and Identify by block malbor)43.iropean Scientific Notes (ESN) is a monthly publication with brief articleson recent developments in European scientific research. The publication isnot intended to be part of the scientific literature. The value of EsNarticles to Americans is to call attention to current developments in Europeanscience and technology and to the institutions and people responsible forthese efforts. ESM authors are primar.ly CNRL staff members. Occasionallyarticles are prepared by or in cooperation with staff mebers of the USAFD FORM 1473 EOITION oF 1NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE

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EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC NOTESOIFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCHLONOON

Commanding Officer ...... CAPT M.A. Howard, USN March 1984Scientific Director ..... James W. Daniel Volume 38Editor .................. Larry E. Shaffer Number 3

BEHAVIORALSCIENCES I

Evaluation of Medical Education--Limburg Style ......................................... Richard E. Snow 115

The medical faculty at Maastricht, The Netherlands, has built aninnovative educational and evaluation system.

I BIOLOGICALSCIENCES

A New Method of Assessing Biocompatibilityof Materials ........................................ Thomas C. Rozzell 118

A new method that uses the platelet-release reaction to determinethe biocompatibility of several polymers, glass, and rubber has beendeveloped by Scottish researchers.

Bioelectromagnetics at Millimeter-WaveFrequencies ......................................... Thomas C. Rozzell 119

European researchers are doing pacesetting work on the effects ofmillimeter waves on yeast, E. coti, and other systems.

COMPUTERSCIENCES 7

Design of a Multiprocessor RelationalData-Base System ....................................... J.F. Blackburn 124

France's Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et enAutomatique has developed a first-generation, portable, data-managementsystem.

French Develop Plans for Fifth GenerationComputer Systems ....................................... J.F. Blackburn 125

France's research in fifth generation computers depends both on theCentre National de Recherche Scientifique and on the National Projectsconcept, which came into use in mid-1982 as a direct result of Japan'sfifth generation computing program.

Progress Toward Real-Time Distributed Computing .......... J.F. Blackburn 127

France's Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et enAutomatique has taken major steps forward in the development of real-timedistributed computing.

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M~E~iAL

Dislocations and Electron Microscopyat the University of Oslo .............................. R.W. Armstrong 129

Dislocation physics, surface waves on solids, and electron micro-scopy for atomic scattering, diffraction theory, lattice defect struc-tures, weld-cracking, rapid solidification, and health physics areresearch topics at the Institute of Physics, University of Oslo.

Education and Research at Universit~tGesamthochschule, Siegen ............................... R.W. Armstrong 131

A new engineering program geared to an increased number of studentsand a choice of a practical or academic diploma is being tried at Siegen.Materials research topics include weld-properties-related studies onauitenitic steels, crack closure measurements in fracture-mechanicsfatigue testing of AlMgSi alloy, thermomechanical working of structuralsteels, and abrasive wear studies for a broad range of materials, includ-ing amorphous metals.

OCEAN

SCIENCES

The Geology and Biology of Coral Reefs ..................... Robert Dolan 133

A meeting of the International Society for Coral Reef Studiesfocused on the state of the world's reefs. Of particular concern werediseases affecting coral reefs.

Oil Spills: Can Sonar Help Investigators? ............. Chester McKinney 134

High-resolution, side-scan, bottom-mapping sonars may be useful forinvestigating oil and other pollution materials that settle on the oceanbottom.

The Marginal Ice Zone Experiment ......... Robert Dolan and Robert Booker 135

In the Marginal Ice Zone Experiment (MIZEX), international teams ofscientists are studying the processes that control the location andbehavior of the MIZ.

SpH Y3 'CS I

A 50-Picosecond Gated X-Ral Intensifier .................... David Mosher 140

British researchers have developed a gated x-ray intensifier withthe high spatial and temporal resolution required for the diagnosis oflaser-driven plasmas and pulsed-power x-ray sources.

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Material-Response Research With High-Power Gas Lasers ......................................... David Hosher 142

Work at the University of DUsseldorf is devoted to the refinement ofhigh-power, continuous-wave lasers for materials research and processingand to the interaction of such lasers with matter. Although not theintent, some research results address issues important to directed energyapplications.

SCIENCE POLICY

European Community Stimulates Research .................. James W. Daniel 146

The European Economic Community has started a 2-year program to makeEuropean R&D more effective by stimulating multinational research ef-forts. In the first phase of the progrdm, funds were awardeo for 34projects involving 88 laboratories.

Belgian R&D ............................................. James W. Daniel 148

In spite of traditiondl national tensions, Belgium has a centralizedR&D policy that appears to be stimulating good research.

German Research Foundation: Funding Patterns ........... James W. Daniel 150

Officials of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft are optimisticabout their funding--projected 2- to 3-percent inflation with 7-percentcash increases means growth in real terms.

Organization of Research in Norway ............................ D.R. Barr 152

Norwegian R&D is organized into a system of councils attached togovernment ministries.

SPACE SCIENCE

Industrialization of Space is Distant Goal ............. R.L. Carovillano 153

Although many countries are interested in the commercial exploita-tion of space, funding problems may make industrialization a distantgoal.

STATISTICS

The Norwegian Computing Center ................................ D.R. Barr 157

The Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research spon-sors a variety of computing and statistics-related research at theNorwegian Computing Center. One particularly interesting project in-volves development of a cartographic work station.

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INEWS & NOTE-iS1 159

UK drops ADA, by D.R. Barr; psychological associations, by RichardE. Snow; solar physics meeting, by R.L. Carovillano.

ONRL Cosponsored Conterences.................................................. 160

Science bewsbriefa............................................................ 160

M~ilitary Applications Summary Bulletins...................................... 161

Visiting Scientists Program.................................................. 161

European Seientific Notes is a Class I Periodical prepared and dis-tributed by the Office of Naval Research, London, in accordance withNAVEXOS-P-35.

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IME AVIORALI organized also to provide problem-based,SCIENCES self-directed learning programs.

In medicine, each year of the cur-EVALUATION OF MEDICAL EDUCATION--LIMBURG riculum is organized into blocks con-STYLE sisting of one or more carefully select-

ed health care problems. Students areby Richard E. Snow. Dr. Snow is the randomly assigned to small-group tuto-Liaison Scientist for Psychology in rials to work through the problems pre-Europe and the Middle East for the sented to them in each block; they areOffice of Naval Research's London Branch rerandomized to other groups for theOffice. He is on leave until September next block. In each group, a faculty198.5 from Stanford University, where he tutor facilitates problem-solving byis Professor of Education and Psycho- questioning and reasoning but provideslogy. no lectures. Students analyze the prob-

lems presented, allocate subtasks amongthemselves as needed, and pursue both

In the early 1970s, a bold experi- common and individual learning goalsment in medical education was formulated with respect to the problem at hand.in The Netherlands. The new medical The aim is to achieve group and individ-faculty at Maastricht, in the southern- ual problem solution if possible, but tomost province of Limburg, would be dedi- promote the acquisition of problem-solv-cated to two innovative propositions. ing and reasoning skills and a greatFirst was the view that the training of deal of problem-relevant medical knowl-primary-care physicians should be prob- edge in any event. For each block, alem-based rather than discipline-based-- library of printed and audiovisualas in traditional, departmentally organ- learning resources is available, andized medical schools--and should provide content experts representing the rele-for a substantial degree of self-direct- vant medical science disciplines can beed learning by students rather than contacted for consultation at any point.teacher-controlled instruction. Second, Students can also pursue individual pro-it was believed that institutions of jects at certain points and, of course,higher education, and particularly those as the program proceeds there is in-engaged in medical training, ought to be creasing emphasis on the development ofdesigned to provide continuous longitud- individual clinical skills.inal evaluations of their own perform- The evaluation system is designedance; in traditional medical schools, ultimately to assess five kinds of out-performance data are typically collected comes of the educational program: medi-only to make evaluative decisions about cal knowledge, clinical skills, problem-students--not to provide evaluations of solving ability, attitudes and valuesinstitutional effectiveness on the basis related to community health care andof student performance. primary practice, and the overall impact

A few other medical schools around of the institution on community healththe world, notably McMaster in Canada in the Limburg region. The first fourand Beersheba in Israel, share with outcomes involve direct assessments ofMaastricht the goal of developing and students, both to provide feedback andimproving problem-oriented instructional counseling to students and to serve in-programs. These now form a network of stitutional decisions regarding programinstitutions watched closely by the improvements. The fifth outcome in-United Nations' World Health Organiza- volves data collection at the level oftion in Geneva as examples of what might the regional health care system, as wellwork best for primary-care training in as follow-up of students after gradua-developing countries. However, only in tion. Research and development support-Maastricht has the second goal--of lon- ing the first three kinds of measure-gitudinal institutional evaluation--been ments are well along at the time of thispursued and realized, writing. Work focused on the fourth and

Maastricht received its first class fifth objectives is now under way.of 50 medical students in September Measures of medical knowledge der-1974. Since then, 10 other classes have ive from short objective tests givenbeen enrolled for the 6-year program, after each program block and more exten-with an increasing number of students sive progress tests given four times perper class up to the maximum of 150 yea.r each year throughout a student'sstudents per class, reached in September program. The shorter, Block Tests pro-1982. The medical program served as the vide immediate feedback to st4dents andcenterpiece for Rijksuniversiteit Lim- to faculty committees responsible forburg, founded in 1975, which now in- problem block revision. The longer,cludes faculties in law and economics Progress Tests yield longitudinal

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Figure 1. Progress test means for the first eight classes of Maastrichtmedical students (curves 1 through 8, with classes 1, 2, and 3beginning study in 1974, 1975, and 1976, respectively) andreference groups of resident physicians (R).

assessments of individual student kind of standard or ceiling' towardgrowth, class-by-class comparisons, and which each class progresses. In sucha basis for comparisons with students at data also, the internal consistencyother universities, and with groups of reliabilities of the Progress Tests arepracticing physicians. The 250 items of shown to be high (alpha ranges from 0.85each Progress Test are a representative to 0.98), as are the interrelationssample from an item bank of over 10,000 among adjacent tests (r ranges from 0.70questions designed to measure the factu- to 0.85); the complete correlational knowledge in all areas of medical matrix shows the typicil simplex patternscience considered appropriate for a for measures in a time series. It isfinal graduate in medicine. Such tests also clear that the Progress Tests doare thus administrable to any student or not correlate substantially with intel-physician at any time. Since the tests ligence measures (r ranges from 0.15 toare comparable (though strictly speaking 0.20).they are not psychometrically parallel), Figure 2 provides a comparison inthey provide a rough means of tracing which volunteer students from two morestudent growth curves over 6 years of traditional medical schools in Theeducation. Furthermore, since the tests Netherlands also responded to samples ofare samples from a system of content- Progress Test items. At the tine thisknowledge areas, they allow separate cross-sectional study was conducted, nogrowth assessments for content areas sixth year group yet existed atsuch as *respiratory tract,' 'digestive Maastricht; A reference group of resi-tract,' and 'nervous system." dent physicians is also shown. Other

Figure 1 shows a summary of Pro- comparison studies have been conductedgress Test data from the first such test using tests designed by other medicalin 1977 through the 1981-82 academic faculties. These, too, show theyear. Each data point is a class mean Maastricht students to be competitive.for a particular test administration. Another interfaculty comparison isThe class beginning the program in 1974 shown in Figure 3 for subsets of itemsis shown as a curve separately from the concerned only with knowledge of anato-class beginning the program in 1975, my. In this study, the students frometc. Of particular interest, in addi- the traditional medical school weretion to the class-growth curves them- chosen randomly. The marked increase inselves, is the comparison with the test knowledge in the third year of theresults obtained from groups of resident traditional program reflects the posi-physicians practicing in local hospitals tion of traditional anatomy courses inelsewhere in The Netherlands (the heavy this curriculum; thereafter there issolid curve). This curve indicates a some slight decline. The Maastricht

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curve, in contrast, shows a gradual andthen a substantial persistent growth inknowledge of anatomy through the moreclinical years of the program. The

....... d school of Mastricht curve exceeds the average for residentS .. Trsitiial mdical schoo' A physicians. There is no mcoursew in

........ Trafttoal mdical schol B anatomy at Maastricht, but facultye flferce grup 0 members report observing persistent

interest in the subject among students.throughout their problem-based experi-

ence and especially in their clinicalrotations. -Thus with such data theinnovative program at Maastricht appears

.. y .,"to be allaying initial fears on the partof the medical education community that

/X it would emphasize problem-solving atthe expense of medical knowledge.

Other data also confirm that. .. Maastricht is equal to or ahead of other

Dutch medical faculties. By the fall of• '1981, for example, 88 percent of the

Maastricht class of 1974 had receiveddiplomas, and only 2 percent had droppedout; the remaining 10 percent were stillin their studies. At other Dutchuniversities, only 21 percent of the

a medical students starting in 1974 hadyeargroup completed their programs, 18 percent had

dropped out, and 61 percent were stillFigure 2. Progress test means for stu- in studies. Figures for other years aredents in their first through sixth year comparable. Because in The Netherlandsof study at each of three medical medical school admissions and assign-schools and a reference group of resi- ments are determined by a centralizeddent physicians. weighted lottery, students in the eight

different medical schools representessentially the same statistical popula-

2 tion. These and other comparisonsbetween medical schools planned by the

I .,Maastricht Evaluation group may thus bemore sensitive to program variations, asopposed to other population factors,

* than would similar comparisons betweenUS premedical or medical education

iprograms.The training of clinical skills at

U Maastricht occurs in a skills laboratorycontaining a variety of written proto-

I cols, audio-visual aids, dummies, andsimulated patients. For assessmentpurposes, skills tests have been devel-

[oped using a series of stations throughI/rwhich students rotate to perform a

•9 variety of skills. At any given sta-tion, they may be required, for example,

" 1 '1 to give first aid, interview a simulatedpatient, test a urine sample, or perform

4 a neurological examination. Performance"ME or Xis rated by trained observers on stan-

dardized checklists. The possibility ofFigure 3. Progr- , test means and building a longitudinal assessment instandard 6 'atic in anatomy for stu- the skills domain comparable to thedents in thexr fILat through sixth year Progress Tests is now being studied.of study (te - time points 3, 7, 11, 15, In the problem-solving domain,19, 23) in a problem-based (dashed several assessment techniques have beencurve) or a traditional (dotted curve) investigated. There are structured oralmedical education program and a refer- examinations and simulated patientence group of resident physicians" (R). encounters in which student and examiner

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E 4role-play structured simulations of case be faced each day as a student pro-4'. histories. The results of examiner gresses through clinical training and

interrogations can be scored. Critical- into primary practice. The structure ofaction checklists and rating scales are a particular discipline may not providealso used to register student perform- a ftamework for knowledge organizationance with respect to each problem as lasting as that provided by thepresented. A start has been made to structure of a particular kind ofcompare Maastricht and other students on problem. Knowledge retention shouldsuch measures, but it is too early to thus be stronger and more functionalreport clear results. Other self- with problem organization than withassessment instrument t problem-solv- discipline organization, and the data ofing have also been uaveloped for student Figure 3, especially, support thisuse. There are patient-management hypothesis.problems, in which students choose from Second, the psychology and thelists of possible actions those to be mathematics of student learning curvestaken at each step in a case, and over 6 years of development can bemo ed essay questions also connected analyzed to yield new insights into thetv tayes in developing biomedical processes of complex knowledge acquisi-pr b- is and cases. Portable patient- tion. Little is now known about studentp, ,nlem packs, in which students sort trajectories across this substantial acaLds to indicate actions to take in cognitive and time frame because a datarelation to cases, and problem boxes base of this sort has neve-r before beencontaining realistic presentations of available. The models the Maastrichtinformation about cases are also used. group is now experimenting with may thusSo-called Triple Jump Exercises provide identify quantitative and qualitativesimilar assessments at the level of changes in cognitive growth not beforeclinical clerkships. A combination of captured empirically.these techniques seems to provide a Third is the potential of thepromising approach to the complex Maastricht research for unraveling someproblem of analyzing and measuring the of the complexities of problem-solvingimportant aspects of medical problem- ability as seen in the context of real-solving processes and skills, world rather than laboratory tasks.

Still ahead at Maastricht lie the Knowledge acquisition, problem-solvingadditional complex problems of assessing processes, and motivational and otherstudent attitude development and insti- affective sides of performance are heretutional impact with respect to commun- seen in interaction. And the humanity health in the region. But the idiosyncrasies known to abound in con-educational evaluation group at the structive thought are evident. TheUniversity of Limburg, headed by Prof. multivariate assessments being built inDr. Wynand Wijnen, seems equal to these this work should provide richer descrip-tasks. It has become one of the most tions of these phenomena than those nowproductive and successful educational in hand.research and evaluation groups working Beyond these contributions, theredirectly in the context of an ongoing is the idea in Maastricht that an insti-medical education program. tution of higher education may actually

It is worth noting also some be able to chart its course throughfuncamental contributions to cognitive history in terms of empirical data onpsychology that seem derivable from this its effects on students and on thework. Though suggested by the social systems it serves. This is anMastricht data, they will demand much ideal rarely imagined and never yetmore intensive research therein as the realized.evaluation proceeds.

. First, the problem-based instruc-tional program would be expected toproduce an organization of knowledge in 12/14/83the student's cognitive system ratherdifferent from the organization producedby discipline-defined courses. Because BIOLOGICALknowledge derived from different disci- SCIENCESplines is connected directly to problemsto which it is relevant, knowledgeorganization should be interdisciplinary A NEW METHOD OF ASSESSING BIOCOMPATIBIL-in a fundamental sense. This organiza- ITY OF MATERIALStion can be expected to be strengthenedeach time it is retrieved from memory in by Thomas C. RozeZZ. Dr. Rozzell isthe face of related practical problems, the Liaison Scientist for BioZogicaZAnd it is practical problems that must Sciences in Europe and the MiddZe East

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for the Office of Naval Research's held a small symposium entitled "Tech-London Branch Office. He is on reas- niques in Studies of Biological Effectssignment until August 1985 from the of Low-Level Millimeter-Waves." TheOffice of Naval Research, Arlington, primary sponsor of the symposium, heldwhere he is Program Manager for Cellular near Munich, Federal Republic of Ger-Bioseystems. many, was the URSI Working Group on

Measurements Related to the InteractionMany types of new. materials, espe- of Electromagnetic Fields With Biologi-

cially polymers, are being studied for cal Systems. Other groups cooperatinguse as biomaterials. These are quite in the sponsorship of the symposium wereoften used in hematological situations the Bioelectromagnetics Society (BEMS),bringing them in contact with blood. Gesellschaft fir Strahlen und Umweltfor-When blood contacts an artificial -sur- schung (GSF), and the Max-Planck-Insti-face, the primary reaction is adhesion tute fir Festkorperforschung (MPIF).and aggregation of platelets, leading to This article analyzes a few keythrombus formation (clotting). Al- research projects reported at the sym-though, theoretically, several assays posium or recently published. I havecan be carried out to study clotting, a not tried to discuss the entire symposi-single, reliable, and rather rapid test um, but have chosen projects that quitehas been needed in material assessment clearly are pacesetters or that demon-

* and development, strate some of the problems the experi-S.K. Bowry and J.M. Courtney of the mentalist faces in conducting research

Bioengineering Unit at the University of at frequencies in the range between 30Strathclyde, and coworkers at the Royal and 100 GHz.Infirmary, Glasgow, will soon publish According to Saul Rosenthal, Chair-their results on a new method that uses man of the Working Group, the symposiumthe platelet release reaction (PRRx) to "grew out of the frustration experienceddetermine the biocompatibility of sever- by a number of researchers over the pastal polymers, glass, and rubber. Their few years who have attempted the repli-

" investigation examined the release reac- cation of theF exciting experimentstion from the alpha granules of plate- reported from the USSR nearly a decadelets after the blood contacted the poly- ago [Smolyanskaya and Vilenskaya, 19741.mer or other material. They used a rad- Despite the efforts of a number ofioimmunoassay technique to measure the experimental groups, consistent andplatelet-specific protein, beta throm- reproducible results have not emerged toboglobulin (BTG). elucidate the effects of millimeter-

* The PRRx is an essential part of waves on cells and subcellular struc-the process of platelet aggregation dur- tures." Much controversy has revolved

. ing hemostasis, and clotting is believed around several experiments that purport-to involve cellular secretory activity ed to show a resonant response of yeast,from the storage granules of platelets. E. coli, and other systems to appliedBTG is one of the most abundant proteins microwave energy between about 40 and 60released when blood platelets cone in GHz. In other words, the observedcontact with foreign surfaces. A meas- effects varied distinctly with smallure of this protein, as an indicator of changes in the exposure frequency. Thethe rate of the overall PRRX, is rele- important question that has arisen isvant to an understanding of thrombus whether this "resonant' behavior isformation on synthetic surfaces, inherent in the biological system or

It was found that polypropylene whether it only reflects a resonanttubes caused less release of BTG than phenomenon or instability in the expo-thpse of siliconized glass, and silicone sure system (Keilmann, 1983). With therubber induced less BTG release than attention being paid to the exposure

. poly(vinyl chloride). A paper has been systems today, it seems that the latter* submitted to Biomateriale. can now be ruled out.

It has generally been accepted thatthe best explanation for frequency-dependent effects at millimeter-wave

12/9/83 (and other) frequencies lies in theconcept of long-range coherence inmacromolecules as put forth by Fr6hlich

BIOELECTROMAGNETICS AT MILLIMETER-WAVE (1968). Frahlich suggested that criti-FREQUENCIES cal oscillations exist in macrqmolecules

that determine activity and function ofby Thomas C. RoszelZ. the organism. It is believed that the

frequencies of these oscillations lieIn September 1983 the Union de roughly between 100 and 1000 GHz. It

Radio Scientific Internationale (URSI) seems reasonable to conjecture that

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functional activities occurring at the Yeast cells have produced the mostmacromolecular level depend on critical, consistent findings of nonthermal, reso-and perhaps matching, oscillations being nant responses, and the most experiencedpresent at the right place and time for researchers have been the German workersa given reaction to occur. Such oscil- led by Werner Grundler at GFS in Neuher-lations might be finely tuned and *meta- berg and Fritz Keilmann at MPIF instable,O in which case small inputs of Stuttgart. Essentially, their researchenergy to one or both halves could cause used diploid, homozygot, and isogenedisruption in the progress of the func- wild type Saccharomycea cerevisiae growntion or reaction. Frdhlich and others on agar plates for 3 days at 300C, thenactually postulate that there is a type stored at 40C. Cells for exposure (pow-of threshold or limit cycle in metabolic er input from 10 to 25 mW) were takenexcitation of large-amplitude vibrations from these plates after 10 to 16 days(Fr6hlich, 1980; Adey, 1981; Kaiser, and placed in liquid growth medium in1981). Kaiser (1983) has used a rather small glass cuvettes equipped both withsimple model to explain how a free in- mechanical stirrers and with submersibleternal oscillation, of frequency w0, can Teflon antennae for coupling in the

be perturbed ad, in fact, entrained by microwaves. The simultaneous growth of

an external f ield of intensity F and two yeast cultures (one control and one0 eexposed) was measured in a double-beam

frequency X (sic). Using an oscillation spectrometer. When they reported theirdiagram, he shows graphically how, with first experiments, they obtained theA,o' competition between slow external curve shown in Figure la (Grundler and

to Keilmann, 1978). They recently publish-and fast internal oscillation leads to ed the results obtained during the last

entrainment of wo through a series of

quasi-periodic and irregular states.The process is both frequency- and in-tens ity-dependent and could account forthe Owindowsm that have been observed by t Ra number of investigators.

Unlike bioelectromagnetics research 12-at lower frequencies (e.g., 2450 MHz),millimeter-wave research did not grow I ,,directly out of a need to assess haz- -::: - .

ards. Rather, this research has beenaimed primarily at the fundamental in- 09 1,teractions that occur in cells, mem- (a)branes, and macromolecules. Thus, in U G8 athe research discussed below, the micro- swave &nergy might be viewed as a tool to 0 3'probe cellular and macromolecular func- 4tion and the general nature of electro- I 6magnetic field interactions, both In- itrinsie and extrinsic. .9 5

Experiments With Yeast Cells 12,Like E. cot, yeast cells are ex- [

tremely popular among biologists and t lothers seeking information on cellular tI-functions such as metabolism, differen- Vition, and growth and development. Webb 0iv v i (b)and Dodds (1968) were the first todefinitively show in 9. co i frequency- ,

specific or resonant effects of milli-meter-wave energy. Since then, a number 1.2-: I I Iof studies have been attempted using F'several different systems. Roughly halfof these have failed to demonstrate the t A tka A 1 \Aresonance phenomenon, particularly at .Ilow intensity levels where thermal ef- (C)fects could be ruled out. In retro- __ _ _ _ _ _spect, we may now be able to speculate 4170 41750 '1800on some of the reasons these experiments Frequency (MHz)have Ofailedg; a list of *do's* andOdon'tsa that were developed at thesymposium is given at the end of this Figure 1. Effects of frequency onarticle, growth rate of yeast.

120

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2 years; they used the same yeast sys- Saccharomcee cerevisiae (Fr6hlich,tem, but with two different antennae 1983). Oscillations of this type are(Grundler and Keilmann, 1983). One was long range and give rise to frequency-the aforko-shaped antenna used in the selective interactions in and betweenearlier experiments and the other was a systems (or parts of systems) with equalsimpler, cylindrical, 'tube'-shaped an- excitation frequencies. It seems likelytenna. The results of these experiments that we are dealing here with a membraneare shown in Figures lb and lc. phenomenon wherein access of the cell to

The most obvious differences be- the nutrient molecules is the key step.tween the 1978 and 1983 studies are the One must remember that the membrane hasapparent increase in resolution, the a high electric field, and it followsdifferences in the degree of change, that the higher the inherent electricboth positive and negative, and the field, the closer polarizable moleculesdisplacements in frequency for some of will be toward their metastable state.the peaks. A cross-correlation test was For most large macromolecules--such asused to compare the present results proteins, liposomes, or even hemoglobin(Figures lb and lc) with those obtained molecules--the amount of energy neces-originally (Figure la). They found that sary to reorient the entire molecule atmaximum correlation is obtained only at environmental temperatures is verya nonzero frequency shift, Af - -11 MHz. large. However, intramolecular rear-This indicates that a systematic cali- rangement of charge is quite likely,bration correction of +11 MHz has to be especially as the amount of associatedapplied to the previous study--assuming water is varied.both spectra probed a common feature, If we assume that scme 'breakdown*i.e., a frequency selective response in may be occurring in the cell membranethe yeast cells. Keilmann and Grundler (or polarization of internal structuresfeel that this correction would be of membrane proteins), it would be wellreasonable since it is within the t20 to gather some information about the

* MHz systematic error margin originally membrane capacitance. The capacitanceN6 estimated. The reality is that there would determine, for example, the

was a quantum increase in the ability to charging time of the membrane.control the frequency of the microwave Now that the effect has been wellsource and in the environmental control established with the yeast cell culture,of the samples. In addition1, whereas in it is necessary to take a closer look.the original study the controls and Grundler reported at the symposium thatexperimentals were done on different he has set up a microscopic arrangementdays, the recent study used two spec- that allows him to view single cellstrometers and both sets of samples were that are locally fixed but in a growthrun on the same days. Further, tempera- medium. He hopes to be able to defineture was measured and controlled better the distribution of the generation timein the 1983 study. for cell divisions and analyze the

There is another difference between effect of the millimeter-waves onthe spectra of the two types of antennae different phases of the cell cycle. Hisin the 1983 study. With the eforkw an- system uses a moving stage of a com-tenna, there was almost an equal number puter-controlled scanning microscopeof. positive and negative growth rate with a flexible antenna that allowspeaks (Figure lb). With the *tube* an- continuous exposure directly to the celltenna (Figure 1c), almost all of the chamber on the microscope stage. Such apeaks occur above the "normal" line, study leads in the proper direction towith very few real negative-growth rates solve the mechanism question. Inshown. However, there is excellent cor- addition, experiments are planned atrelation between the two sets of curves lower temperatures: 290C instead ofin terms of the major peaks, and Keil- 30.70C.mann does not know why they did notobserve the same degree of growth-rate Experiments With Drosophiladecrease with the atube" configuration. Just as yeast and E. ooZi areThis study, in which 331 growth experi- favorite one-cell organisms for biologi-ments were conducted, seems to demon- cal study, the fruit fly, Droeophiastrate unequivocally that low-level melanogaete, is by far the most studiedmicrowaves in the frequency range of 41 insect, representing a highly differen-to 42 GHz affect yeast growth rate with- tiated species that is especially wellin resonant bands of only 8 MHz, or a suited as a model for studies concernedtotal offset of about 16 MHz. with effects of various agents on

Fr8hlich's "Type A* coherent exci- genetic material. It is thus surprisingtation of a single polar mode may ex- that there have been relatively fewplain the effect on the growth rate of millimeter-wave investigations using

121

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this insect. Because of its size, it is Other Experimentsparticularly well suited for high- Several research groups havefrequency, short-wavelength studies, chased resonant effects in E. coli.However, just as with the yeast, there (S. Motzkin [Polytechnic Institute ofare some apparent conflicts in the New York] discussed this at the symposi-reported results of the work that has um; see also Motzkin et al., 1983;been done. For example, Zalyubovskaya Blackman et al., 1975; and Swicord et(1974) reported decreased fertility (37 al, 1978). The researchers have used asto 55 GHz, 10 mW/cm 2, adult insects), indicators such things as production ofwhile Dardallhon et al. (1977) found an colicin, changes in mitochrondrialincrease (17 GHz, 60 mW/cm2, adult calcium transport, and adenosine tri-females only). No evidence has been phosphate (ATP) production in oxidativefound for a mutagenic effect of milli- phosphorylation. To date, no one hasmeter-waves in the fruit fly. found significant modification of any of

The most recent study of milli- these cellular processes at exposuremeter-wave effects in Drosophila, levels that did not cause major tempera-conducted by Gunter Nimtz at the Univer- ture excursions. On the other hand,sity of Cologne, is yet to be published. Poglitsch (MPIF, Stuttgart), who hasHe did publish the results of a 2-year been studying the growth rate of cressstudy in which pupae were exposed to 120 roots at 56 GHz, said at the meetinghours at an intensity of 10 VW/cm 2 and a that he has found a decline in this ratefrequency of 40 GHz (Nimtz, 1983). A at exposure levels as low- as 1 mW/cm2.few hours after becoming adults, one Most important, he observed that thefemale and two males were crossed to effect was highly dependent on thestart a family. Up to 15 such families polarization of the field and nqt to anwere started from both control and induced temperature increase. Theexperimental groups, and their offspring greatest effect occurred when thewere counted. The number of offspring E-field was parallel to the long axis ofin the first generation represented the the root. At the symposium, 0. Gandhifertility of the parent (P) generation. (University of Utah) said that this mayThe fertility of two successive genera- be an antenna effect due to the shape oftions, F and F2, were similarly deter- the root. A paper on this research hasmined. Analysis of the results led to been submitteo for publication.the conclusion that the fertility of the Yet another interesting example ofP generation was strongly enhanced in a nonthermal, frequency-specific effectthe exposed insects, while their off- of millimeter-waves has been found byspring appeared not to be affected. The the group at MPIF headed by Kremer. Atfertility of the wgrandchildren, the F the meeting Kremer commented that whengeneration, appeared to drop by about 16 his researchers swept frequencies in thepercent compared with the controls. range between 64.1 and 69.1 GHz and used

After completing two additional stabilized frequencies* of 67.200 ±0.001experiments under the same conditions, and 68.200 ±0.001 GHz (power densities

Nimtz recompiled and reanalyzed his <<5 MW/CM2), they observed a reductiondata. Applying more rigorous and in the size of the puffing of giantrevealing statistical tests, he found, chromosomes of the midge Acricotopuin fact, that in this series of six Wucide (see also Kremer et al., 1983).experiments with over 82,900 flies, While this experiment is too involved to

millimeter-waves had no apparent effect. address adequately here, it should beOne of the major reasons for the ulti- pointed out that the puffing phenomenonmate conclusion had to do with the is a highly complex process that doesmat cncusonnot depend solely on transcriptional

.. extreme variability in the number of actvdepe e ny tractional

offspring per family--under all experi- A otivity--i.e., enzymatic activity ofmenal ondtios. heobserved range RNA polymerases. The process comprises, mental conditions. The obevdrne interactions between transcription,

was from 0 to 669 for one family. Infact, of 360 families, 13.3 percent had RNA-processing, packaging of RNA withno offspring at all and 18 percent had distinct nuclear proteins and storage orbetween 0 and 50 offspring. On the transport of ribonucleoprotein-products.other end of the spectrum, 4.4 percent It was concluded that the coherence ofof the families had between 551 and 669 the radiant energy is decisive inoffspring. There were several other causing the effects because the photon

analytical and statistical anomalies energy (about 2.9x0 -4 eV) of milli-that a less careful and less astute meter-waves is less than 1/200 of theinvestigator than Nimtz might have thermal energy kT. It was further con-overlooked in the zeal to find a result. cluded that the observed effects mightAs mentioned earlier, these new find- be explained by Fr6hlich's theories ofings, which negate the previous ones, coherent electric vibrations in biologi-will be published soon. cal macromolecules--i.e., the externally

122

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applied radiation field influences the Referencesexcitations within the biologicalsystem. Adey, W.R., Physiological Review, 61

One point made by Kremer et al. (1981), 435.(1983) may be questioned by some. One Blackman, C., et al., Annals, New Yorkof their conclusions was that their Academy of Science, 247 (1975),*result could be of importance in the 352.discussion of safety standards with Dardal'hon, M., A.J. Berteaud, and D.regard to possible hazards from milli- Averback, International Symposiummeter wave radiation." This conclusion on Biological Effects (URSI)was reached because their exposure (Airlie, VA, October 1977).levels were below the safety standards Fr6hlich, H., in Advances in Electronicsof most European countries and thd US. and Electron Physics, Vol 53, ed.However, it must be remembered that at Marton and Marton (New York:millimeter-wave frequencies, absorption Academic Press, 1980), 85.of energy by genetically important Fr6hlich, H., in Coherent Excitations in

. material is essentially precluded due to Biological Systems, ed. H. Fr6hlichthe very shallow depth of penetration. and F. Kremer (Berlin and Heidel-

berg: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 1.What Has Been Learned Fr6hlich, H., 'Long Range Coherence and

Collectively, those working with Energy Storage in Biologicalmillimeter-wave effects seem to agree Systems," International Journal ofthat there are more than the usual Quantum Chemistry, 2 (1968), 641.number of experimental pitfalls in the Grundler, W., and F. Keilmann, Physicalresearch at these high frequencies. Review Letters, Vol 51, No. 13Gandhi suggested at the symposium that (1983), 1214.all well-designed systems should: (1) Grundler, W., and F. Keilmann, Zeit-be broad banded and tunable, in order to schrift fiir Naturforschung, 33Clook for frequency effects; (2) possess (1978), 15,high coupling to the sample: and (3) Kaiser, F., American Chemical Societyhave good frequency control and, above Symposium Series 257 (1981), 219.all, good stability. The need to Kaiser, F., in Coherent Excitations inprovide a good heat sink is absolutely Biological Systems, ed. H. Fr6hlichessential when studying cellular and and F. Kremer, (Berlin and Heidel-other preparations at millimeter-wave berg: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 128.frequencies. The leading investigators Keilmann, F., *Experimental RF and MWare now using several materials as heat Resonant Nonthermal Effects,' insinks in fabricating their sample Biological Effects and Dosimetry ofchambers; gold, sapphire, glass, and Nonionising Radiation, ed. Grandol-quartz are good choices. Since tempera- fo, Michaelson, and Rindi (Plenumture measurement is more difficult at Publishing Corp., 1983).these wavelengths due to the physical Kremer, F., et al., in Coherent Excita-size of the sample containers, one must tione in Biological Systems, ed. H.often devise exotic methods to measure Fr6hlich and F. Kremer (Berlin andthe temperature in real time. Interest- Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1983),ed readers are urged to examine the 10.laser interferometric technique outlined Motzkin, S., et al., in Coherent Excita-by Grundler et al. (1983). It is tions in Biological Systems, ed. H.absolutely essential to know the funda- Fr6hlich and F. Kremer (Berlin andmental temperature response of the Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1983),system under study, and the temperature 47.profile and effectiveness of the heat Nimtz, G., in Coherent Excitations insink during the course of the exposure. BiologicaZ Systems, ed. H. Fr6hlich

Finally, at the symposium Kremer and F. Kremer (Berlin and Heidel-provided a few more important "do's' and berg: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 38.one 'don't.' Do: Smolyanskaya, A.Z., and R.L. Vilenskaya,

"Effects of Millimeter-Band Radia-Conduct sham-exposure experiments tion on the Functional Activity of(not simply econtrols') Certain Genetic Elements of Bacter-

, carry out the experiments blindly ial Cells,' Soviet Physioa-Uspekhi,* Look for a frequency dependence 16 (1974), 571.* Look for a power dependence Siod . ta rceigUSO Simulate the microwave-induced tem- wicord, N., et al., Proceedings, VRSI

perature increase. Symposium on Biological Effects ofer EN Waves (Helsinki, Finland, August

Then, don't forget that a nonthermal 1978).bioeffect is an utterly remarkable Webb, S.J., and A.D. Booth, Nature, 222phenomenon. (1969), 1199.

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Webb, S.J., and D.D. Dodds, Nature, 3. To allow various views of the218 (1968), 374. data base to be defined and queried by

Zalyubovskaya, N.P., Soviet Physics- different groups of users.1Iapelkhi (1974), 574. 4. To guarantee data-base integri-

ty when data are updated simultaneouslyby concurrent transactions or whenerroneous updates occur.

12/14/83 5. To obtain a slow degradation ofsystem performance without loss offunction when a component of the system

COMPUTER fails.ISCIENCES I

Functional Architecture of SABREDESIGN OF A MULTIPROCESSOR RELATIONAL The functional architecture ofDATA-BASE SYSTEM SABRE is composed of a set of successive

Vlayers from the user to the disk units;by J.F. Blackburn. Dr. Blackburn is the each layer manipulates successivelyLiaison Scientist for Computer Science simpler objects.in Europe and the Middle East for the The user interface is supplied byOffice of Naval Research's London Branch the first layer. Its role is to enterOffice. He is on leave until September the queries or updates on a data-base1984 from the National Academy of view, then to pass the requests and sendSciences, where he is Executive Direc- them to the next layer. (A view is ator, Computer Sciences Board. set of relations which may be derived

from existing relations and is associat-ed with a group of end-users having

The Institut National de Recherche rights on certain relations in theen Informatique et en Automatique view). The first layer also presents(INRIA, Le Chesnay, France) has devel- results to the user. The external lan-oped a first-generation, portable, data- guage is flexible and provides the usermanagement system. The Syst&me d'Acc~s several types of queries similar, fora des Bases Relationelles (SABRE) is now example, to Structured Query Language,operational; it is designed for a introduced by IBM.multi-microprocessor configuration and The next layer of the functionalis based on a relational model (Gardarin architecture manages the views. Itet al., 1983). SABRE is a software- mainly maps requests on views into re-oriented system; this means that most of quests on relations of one or more un-the data-base management functions are derlying bases. This layer also per-done .in software, although a small forms authorization checking and integ-amount of special-purpose hardware may rity controls. The external interfacebe used. of this layer is the data manipulation

The principal aim of the SABRE protocol.project is to improve the performance The base layer receives requests onand fUnctions of systems that manage base relations, transforms them into alarge relational data bases. The tree of extended relational algebra op-control concepts employed are parallel- erations, and performs the optimizationism, filtering of data, cache memory, of this tree. The tree leading to themultidimensional clustering of data, and minimum input-output time is selected.concurrent execution of transactions. The relational algebra operations of theIn order to be portable, the system is chosen tree are requested by the subse-written in Pascal language. quent layer.

The objectives of the SABRE project The relation layer performs algebraare: operations on relations. It manages ac-

cess paths to relations in order to de-l. To develop an oxtensible and termine the parts of one or two rela-

portable French relational data-base tions which must be accessed to performmanager where data are viewed as tables single or binary operations. The otherand which will be a basic tool to build task of this layer is to perform someintegrated data-base systems, and dis- specific functions on parts of rela-tributed data-base systems. tions, mainly the join or sort opera-

2. To improve response time in tions.comparison with existing relational Tuples, collections of related ele-data-base systems. This will include ments, are stored inside associativeinvestigation of parallelism, reduction partitions generally of the size of aof input-output time, and the management disk track. The addressing inside aof efficient access paths to relations, partition is done by content using

124

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

Boolean expressions. (A Boolean expres- are being implemented. In the firstsion is composed of elementary predi- generation, all the virtual processorscates involving alpha-numerical or are implemented on one real processor.textual data.) The partition layer This system is currently working withperforms the selections on a list of the operating system MULTICS at INRIA.partitions identified by a logical All the virtual processors are writtenaddress. It also performs insertions of in Pascal, and are easily transportablenew tuples in a partition and deletions to other systems.of selected tuples. And it provides The second generation is a trueconcurrency control and commitment of multi-microprocessor data-base computer.updates at the end of a transaction. It will include three parallel proces-

The INRIA researchers introduced sors, and two users will be able toparallelism in the query execution in a operate it simultaneously in the firstvertical manner by assigning a different version. The software will be the sameprocessor to each layer, and in a as in the first generation's system.horizontal manner by assigning several Implementation of this version is underprocessors to each layer. way. The hardware to be used in the

Operational Architectures of SABRE second generation SABRE has been devel-The SABRE machine is composed of oped by the French Centre National

the following: d'Etudes des Telecommunications and iscalled SM90. It is composed of three

* The view and integrity processor Motorola 68000's and an input-outputworks on a data-base view. Its role processor. Each 68000 will run the UNIXis first to translate the request operating system, and each can address aexpressed on virtual relations private memory, a local memory, and adescribed in the view into a request common memory through mapping facili-expressed on real relations imple- ties.mented on disks. Another role is toperform some integrity control at Referenceeach update. Gardarin, G., P. Bernadat, N. Temmerman,

* The authorization control process P. Valduriez, and Y. Viemont,controls the user's rights on the wDesign of a Multiprocessor Rela-views. tional Database System," in Infor-

* The request evaluation processor mation Processing '83, ed. R.E.A.works on a set of implemented rela- Mason (Elsevier Science Publisherstions (a real data base) and performs B.V., 1983).the request decomposition and optimi-zation.

" The relation access processor (RAP)works on an implemented relation and 11/17/83manages access paths. When aninsertion of tuples is performed, theRAP determines the partitions wherethe tuples are to be inserted, and FRENCH DEVELOP PLANS FOR FIFTH GENERA-manages the predicate trees associat- TION COMPUTING SYSTEMSed with relations. When a restric-tion is performed, the RAP determines by J.F. BZackburn.which partitions should be scanned.

" The join, sort, and aggregate proces-sors perform join, sort, and compute During the Fifth Generation Worldaggregate functions on partitions. Conference--held in London from 27

. The concurrency control and recovery through 29 September 1983--Jean-Claudeprocessor is responsible for allocat- Rault (Agency for Information Techno-ing secondary and cache memories. It logy, France) gave a report on relevantalso replaces cache memory pages into current work and French plans forpartitions when the cache memory is developing fifth generation computingsaturated. systems. (For other articles about this

" The filtering processor performs conference, see ESN 37-12 and 38-1.)selection, insertion, and deletion of The First International Conference ontuples in a partition. Fifth Generation Computing Systems had

been held in Tokyo from 19 through 22A real operational architecture is October 1981. Computer scientists in

associated with each version of SABRE. Japan announced the design of a 10-yearIt is composed of one or more real research plan to develop prototypes ofprocessors supporting a set of virtual new computing systems to meet the needsI processors. Two generations of SABRE of society in the 1990s. These systems

125

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must be easy to use, flexible in appli- the CNRS program: Compagnie Bull,cation, and very fast. Application Compagnie General Electrique (CGE), andprograms using sophisticated techniques Thompson-CSF.of artificial intelligence would enable In GRECO the main research topicsthe machine to receive and process that are relevant to fifth generationnatural language and even perform trans- computing are languages, translations,lation from one language to another, specifications, proof of correctness,The computer systems would be made up of and transformations. Among the readilycommunicating machines with special available tools are a Digital Equipmentprocessing functions, including handling Corporation VAX system in Bordeauxrelational data bases and performing running the operating system MULTICS,logical inferences. To perform effi- and an SM90 multiprocessor system openciently, each machine would be made up to research groups. The SM90 systemof many processors operating in paral- uses Motorola 68000 microprocessors aslel. components. The coordinator is R. Cori

Although there is no overall plan of the University of Bordeaux.in France that corresponds exactly to GRECO 'PAROLE" is a speech synthe-Japan's, parts of the French effort sis and recognition program, coordinatedcorrespond to the Japanese program. In by J.-P. Hatton (University of Nancy).his report, Rault differentiated between GRECO wCalcul Formel" is a program ofexisting research under the management research on symbolic manipulationof the Centre National de Recherche coordinated by D. Lazard-(University ofScientifique (CNRS) and the National Poitiers). GRECO C3 is a militaryProjects Concept, which came into use in program on communication, cooperation,mid-1982 as a direct result of the and control coordinated by Messers G.Japanese Fifth Generation Computer Roucairol and M. Nivat in the MinistryProgram. Therefore, we will first of Defense. A program on advanceddiscuss the CNRS programs that existed robotics is coordinated by G. Giralt,before mid-1982 and then national Laboratoire d'Automatique et d'Analyseprojects. There is some overlap between des Systemes (LAAS, Toulouse) andthem. includes participation from many otherS CNRS locations (see ESN 36-11, 37-1,5CNRS Programs 3-,ad3-)

The main funding sources for the 37-3, and 37-5).CNRSprogams re:Other CNRS programs include a

CNRS programs are: data-base management system for thirdgeneration computers. This effort deals

. The Ministry of Industry and Re- with new applications and functions andsearch, including its Research is done in collaboration with CGE andand Technology Budget and Agence Comptoir d'Etudes Radio Techniques.National pour la Valorization Relational data bases are not properlyde la Recherche (ANVAR). organized to handle varied information

* French Telecom, including Centre such as graphics and documents. ANational dEtudes de Telecommunica- project to identify the needs of data

9 tion (CNET). bases for these new applications began* Agence de l'Informatique, in January 1982. CNRS has had an* The Ministry of Defense, including i aur 92 NShshda

Tartificial intelligence program sinceDirection de Recherche d'Etude et 1979. Its application in robotics isTechnique (DRET), somewhat similar to under way at INRIA, LAAS, Laboratoirethe Defense Advanced Research Pro- d'Informatique pour Mechanique et lesjects Agency (DARPA) in the US. Sciences de l'Ingenieur (LIMSI), and

IRISA (ESN 36-11, 37-1, 37-3, and 37-5).The Groupe de Recherche Co6rdonn The use of artificial intelligence in

(GRECO) is made up of cooperative groups designing programming langlages--includ-under the management of CNRS. This ing logic and functional programming--isgroup coordinates advanced research in especially active at INRIA, Rocquen-computer science. The participants in courtthe GRECO program are the CNRS labora- "

tories, CNET, Institut National de National ProjectsRecherche en Informatique et en Automa- The fiZi~ree (sector) concept wastique (INRIA), Institut de Recherche en initiated in May 1981; the objective wasInformatique et Syst~mes Aleatoire to leave no areas uncovered in the(IRISA), and the following universities: French research and development program.Paris 6, 7, 8, and 11; Grenoble; Nancy; The fiZliree cover vertical chains ofRennes; Toulouse; Bordeaux; Poitiers; production from raw materials to finish-Metz; and Strasbourg. Also, several ed products in sectors including energy,industrial firms have research and biotechnology, and electronics. Thedevelopment programs that are a nart of government attempts to coordinate the

,1 * 126

ESN 38-3 11984)

overall technical direction of the PROGkESS TOWARD REAL-TIME DISTRIBUTEDfiliaree by promoting joint research COMPUTINGactivities linking industry with largeresearch organizations and universities. by J.F. BZackburn.Since mid-1982 the National Projectsconcept has been used. During the firsthalf of 1983, specifications and plans A project called SIRIUS was estab-were made and a request for proposals lished in 1977 at the Institut Nationalwas issued. Assessments of the responses de Recherche en Informatique et enwere completed in the spring of 1983, Automatique (INRIA, Rocquencourt,and recommendations on awarding con- France) to design programming systems totracts were made. However, as of 1 manage distributed data bases. TheNovember 1983 the recommendations had objectives were: (1) to set up researchnot been made public. It is neverthe- on distributed data management in Frenchless expected that there will be nation- universities, (2) to promote knowledgeal projects in computer-aided design for of the domain within the computervery large scale integration, design and industry and among potential users, andcomputer-aided manufacturing, software (3) to design prototypes of distributedengineering (including a new version of data-base management systems (DDBMS)ALGOL), computer-assisted translation, a that would be sufficiently operationalharlware display system, minicomputers for pre-industrial or research andand work stations, computer-assisted development use.instruction, a supercomputer (for the By 1981, French universities--inmilitary, no details are available), and response to proposals from INRIA--hadhome electronics. developed six prototype DDBMs. Begin-

Thus far, the following themes of ning in 1979, work increased at INRIA;national projects have been defined: the main pre-industrial prototype

developed there was the SIRIUS-DELTA1. Man-machine interface research system. SIRIUS-DELTA has the following

a. Natural languages features: the user is not aware of theb. Speech recognition and synthesis data distribution; various types of datac. Vision distribution can be processed; the

2. Intelligent knowledge-based systems system is reliable, and heterogeneity ina. Knowledge representation hardware and software is allowed. Theb. Reasoning prototype SIRIUS-DELTA is operationalc. Proof techniques and has proven the feasibility of thed. Knowledge-based management approach taken. Such systems should be

systems useful for many applications.e. Expert systems Following the development of

3. Basic tools and techniques SIRIUS-DELTA, INRIA designed a system toa. Languages (PROLOG, LISP, func- implement a multi-data-base approach.

tional programming) Any data base is defined according tob. Engineering of artificial intel- some data model. For example, the

ligence software relational data model ponsiders that ac. Specialized processors data base is a set of relations. Other

models may consider that elements of aAbout 150 professionals from aca- data base are record types, entity

demia and public research are involved types, or components. The implicitin the national projects; about 60 principle of all these data models isprofessionals from industry are partici- that the elements of a data base are notpating. Rault said these figures themselves data bases. A data baserepresent a conservative estimate of the constituted from such elements may beactual numbers. More than 20 companies called a loqically centralized data basewill participate in national projects. or a singlb data base. A multi-datahAlso, more than a dozen departments of base is a set of data bases or ofthe governmentan a dozen univer- multi-data bases having the followingsities will be involved, properties: (1) lauguage to express

The French program is indeed manipulation of data that are not withincomprehensive; like the British Alvey the same data base; (2) a language toProgram (ES? 37-12:447-450 [1983]) and define data within the multi-data basethe German program (ESN 38-1:17-18 and its structure and the dependencies11984]) the French program is complemen- between data bases and multi-data bases.tary to the EEC program, ESPRIT (ESN The .fundamental principle of the38-2:69-71 (19841). SIRIUS-DELTA approach is that a universe

or collection of related elements ofinformation is modeled with a single

22//8 data base, whether distributed or not.

127

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These cannot be data that model some and monitoring the evaluation of theseuniverse and are in more than one data attributes is to constrain them to takebase. their values in a specific domain so

The fundamental principle of the that the resulting overall physicalmulti-data-base approach is that a process has specific properties. Thisuniverse is typically modeled with should mean that it behaves as expectedseveral data bases. Some of the data in agreement with some specifications.bases model sub-universes that are ReStricting acceptable values to arather distinct--e.g., a universe of specific domain usually is a well-per-cinemas or a universe of restaurants. ceived necessity for all possibleOthers may model differently the same attributes ex:cept time.universe--e.g., different restaurant Some examples of real-time applica-guides. Some data bases may be derived tions are: (1) flexible manufacturing,from others--also including data on where each manufacturing machine can betheir own. adapted instantaneously to continuously

In a logically centralized data changing working conditions; and (2)base, the user considers the data base automatic flight control which willthat he manipulates to be a single data maintain aerodynamic stability andbase, and he is not concerned about reduce peak local pressure loads on anwhether it is distributed. However, the aircraft's structure by controlling thegen-,al case should be one in which the surface of the aircraft body and wings--user knows that he manipulates several i.e., automatic manipulation of flapsdata bases. The goal of the multi-data- and rudders.base approach is to make these manipula- Modeling of a real-time applicationtions easy. The specific goals are the requires enumeration of the objectsfollowing: which are part of the physical process,

description of the set of states that1. One should include all the can be taken by each object, and enumer-

possibilities that may result from the ation of operations that cause objectsconcept of a distributed data management to change state. An object has a designsystem (DDMS), extended to the case of a interface with the external environment,collection of data bases, defined by its sets of possible states

2. Multi-data-base manipulations and associated operations. A protocolshould be expressible in a data manipu- enforces legal sequences only--that is,lation language. The goal of this operations causing state changes whichlanguage should be one assertion (com- express the invariant properties to bemand) per manipulation. satisfied by the object.

3. One should be able to formulate The interactions that non-real-timeconstraints preserving integrity and computing systems have with the socialprivacy of data that are not within the or physical process with which they aresame data base. interfaced are logical, partial, and

recoverable; most control functions areAt INRIA two versions of distribut- implemented outside the systems. On the

ea data management have been developed other hand, the interactions a real-timein the SIRIUS-DELTA and in the multi- system has with an external physicaldata-base approaches. The former process are physical, global, and notprovides tools to constitute and manage transparently recoverable; most controla single data base, while the latter systems are implemented inside theprovides tools to constitute and manage system. Clearly, a real-time system hasa multi-data base. Prototypes have been to perform a number of tasks underdeveloped that prove the feasibility of specific timing constraints; further-both approaches. more, a real-time system must produce

According to Gerard Le Lann, head only accurate output states. Otherof the distributed computing project, characteristics of a real-time systemthe next logical step at INRIA was to include high reliability, and availa-introduce the concept of real-time bility and flexibility in function,distributed computing systems. Such a implementation, geography, and computa-system controls (via actuators) and tion.monitors (via sensors) a physical A real-time computing system shouldprocess that is governed by a given set produce good output when given good in-of internal laws. These laws, which put and should be able to isolate ex-define the behavior of the physical ceptions and catastrophes in one systemprocess, are functions of physical time. from others operating concurrently.It is assumed that the evaluation of the This is called atomicity. Maintainingphysical process attributes such as the atomicity of concurrently executingtemperature, color, and volume can be operations requires some form of syn-determined. The purpose of controlling chronization. If assumptions about

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factors such as operation durations and Referencesfrequencies can be made and reflected Litwin, W., J. Boudenant, C. Esculier,safely and accurately in an implementa- A. Ferrier, A.M. Glorieux, J. Lation, physical time can be used. This Chimia, K. Kabbaj, C. Moulinoux,approach may conflict with requirements P. Rolin, and C. Stangret, "Siriusfor reliability, availability, and Systems for Distributed Dataflexibility. Another approach is to Management,' in Distributed Dataensure that operations are mutually Bases, ed. H.-J. Schneider (North-exclusive through some centralized or Holland Publishing Company, 1982).distributed algorithm. At INRIA the Le Lann, G., 6On Real Time Distributedassumption has been made that atomic Computing," in Information Procee-operations are obtained out of sub-oper- sing '83, ed. R.E.A. Mason (Elsevi-ations that are themselves atomic. er Science Publishers B.V., 1983).

On the subject of real-time commun-ications, Le Lann commented that the as-sumption made was that resources needed 11/10/83by the various processes were available.Real-time communications require that adestination buffer, or computing cycle MATERIAlavailability, or both, are always pres- SCIENCESent. Destination scheduling is largelyneglected or superficially examined in DISLOCATIONS AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ATmany systems. Designers of real-time THE UNIVERSITY OF OSLOcommunication systems have quite a dif-ferent problem from that of, for exam- by R.W. Armstrong. Dr. Armstrong,ple, designers of public telecommunica- formerly at ONR, London, is on sabbati-tion systems. Real-time communications cal leave from the University of Mary-cannot be achieved by protocols ordinar- land for the 1984 spring term as Visit-ily designed for wide or local area net- ing FeZlow, Clare Ball, University ofworks. For example, resource management Cambridge, UK.at some destination which communicateswith a number of message sources isunder the control of the sources in a Prof. Jens Lothe is pursuingreal-time system and is not the sole research on dislocation theory and Prof.responsibility of the destination. This Jon GjOnnes is working on electronaffects the nature of the protocols microscopy at the Institute of Physics,needed. With real-time applications one University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo 3,is dealing with distributed computing Norway. The electron microscopy re-systems, not with networks of more or search is connected also with activitiesless autonomous computers. at the Central Institute of Industrial

There is a debate about whether Research, nearby in Blindern.carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) Lothe's research interests includeprotocols or zoken-passing (TP) proto- anisotropic elasticity theory forcols are best suited for real-time dislocation properties and surface wavescommunications. CSMA algorithms . are on solids. Belov, Chamrov, Indenbom,designed to prohibit transmissions, if and Lothe (1983) have determined thenecessary, to reduce the number of elastic field equations for a straightcollisions, not guaranteeing that every dislocation line piercing the interfacemessage eventually gets transmitted. of an anisotropic bicrystal. TheCSMA protocols usually are considered formulas are proposed to be amenable tonondeterministic, whereas TP protocols numerical calculations for real bicrys-are considered deterministic, (determin- tal results. Alshits and Lothe (1981)ism means guaranteed promptness). How- have extended earlier work done by Lotheever, promptness requirements must be and D.M. Barnett (Department of Materi-quantified. INRIA has developed a mul- als Science and Engineering, Stanfordtiple access protocol which is described University, Stanford, CA 94305) on thefully by Le Lann (1983). existence and formalism for describing

INRIA'S three projects described subsonic surface waves in piezoelectrichere represent major steps forward in crystals. The newer work covers theo-the development of real-time distributed retical aspects of reflection phenomenacomputing. The first two, SIRIUS-DELTA and 'leaky' surface waves in the firstand the multi-data base approaches, have transsonic range of velocities.been fully implemented in pre-industrial Lothe has completed with Prof. Johnor laboratory form--showing the feasi- P. Hirth (Department of Metallurgicalbility of the approaches taken. The Engineering, Ohio State University) thethird, a real-time system, is being second edition of their book Theory ofimplemented at INRIA. Dislocations (John Wiley and Sons

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Publishers, New York, 1982). The very and 0.23- to 9.71-um length) occurringcreditable job was done with support in *pot-rooms" during the production ofprovided by the US National Science primary aluminum from reacted aluminaFoundation, the US Office of Naval and cryolite. Another cooperative pro-Research, and the Norwegian Council for ject involved H. HerO and R. JirgensenIndustrial and Scientific Research. (Scandinavian Institute of Dental Hater-With V.L. Indenbom (Institute of Crys- ials, Oslo), E. S1rbriden (Institute oftallography, Leningrad 194021, USSR), Physics, University of Oslo) and E.Lothe is now contributing to and co- Suoninen (University of Turku, Finland)editing another book: EZastic Strain on revealing extremely fine microstruc-Fields and Dislocation Mobility (North tures of face-centered tetragonal rod-Holland Publishers, Amsterdam, 1984). like particles of about 0.05-um diameterSome chapter titles are: "Uniformly indicated to be PdCu in a dentalMoving Dislocations, Surface Waves'; Ag -Pd-Cu-Au alloy."Dislocations Interacting with Surfaces, With B. Andersson and A.R. Forouhi,Interfaces or Cracks'; and "Dislocation Gjlnnes did a TEM study of the orderingMotion over the Peierls Barrier." This of interstitial-metal vacancy tetrahed-book is to appear in the series Modern ron defect clusters in oxygen-rich vana-Problems in Solid State Physics, co- dium monoxide as compared with the or-edited by A. Maraduden (Department of dering of 11i oxygen vacancy sheets inPhysics, University of California, the substoichiometric oxide. TheIrvine CA 92717) and V.M. Agranovich 1.0-MeV Japan Electron Optics Laboratory(Institute of Spectroscopy, USSR Academy Co. electron microscope at the Swedishof Science, Troitsk, Moscow 142092). Institute for Metal Research was used

Gjlnnes has been involved over the for the study. Andersson is now manageryears in a wide assortment of transmis- of metalworking and physical metallurgysion electron microscopy (TEM) studies, at the Central Institute for Industrialranging from basic atomic scattering Research, Oslo 3. H. Mathiesen, J.E.phenomena in semiconductors to current Tibballs, and Andersson (1983) have re-interest in weld-cracking of steels and ported preliminary results on the me-the microstructures of rapidly solidi- chanical properties of a Norsk Hydro 303fied Mg-2%tln metal alloys. The Insti- aluminum alloy containing 1.23 (weight

4', tute of Physics has a JEM 200CX electron percent) Mn-0.59Fe-0.25Si-0.24Mg-0.OlCumicroscope, which is operated as a subjected to various processing and in-central facility for various research termediate annealing treatme'ts. Inprojects in other institutes, addition to the reported varlations in

Gj~nnes has spent study periods in particle volume fraction, particle size,the physics departments at the Universi- and grain size in the AlMn(Mg) alloy,ty of Melbourne (Australia) and Tohoku consideration is being given now to theUniversity (Sendai Japan). His early importance of particlq spacing in deter-work involved, for example, structure mining dislocation subcell structuresfactor determinations for Si and GaAs by within the material and consequentan intersecting-Kikuchi-line method that strength properties. The work is beinghe invented at Oslo with R. Hiier and supported by agencies with interests incarried to the 1.0-MeV microscope labor- Norwegian aluminum: the Royal Norwegianatory at Tohoku University. Other work Council for Scientific and Industrialhas included electron channelling Research; Mosel Aluminium; Lista Alumin-

4' effects associated with induced x-ray iumsverk; Norsk Hydro, Karm6y; and RSV-emission from diatomic ZnS, ZnSe, and Nordisk Aluminium.FeS2 crystals (with J. Taft,); diffusescattering in dark field images of Cu Referencesprecipitates in Si (with J.K. Solberg); Alshits, V.I., and J. Lothe, *Commentsand the TEM observation of Cu precipi- on the Relation between Surfacetate-dragging by dislocations climbing Wave Theory and the Theory ofin Si crystals. Gjonnes has contributed Reflection," Wave Motion, 3 (1981),a chapter on structure determination by 297-310.electron diffraction to the book: 50 Belov, A.Y., V.A. Chamrov, V. L. Inden-Yeare of Electron Diffraction (Reidel bom, and J. Lothe, "Elastic FieldsPublishers, Berlin, 1981), edited by of Dislocations Piercing theP. Goodman. Interface of an Anisotropic Bictys-

In cooperation with B. Gylseth tal," Physica Status Solidi (B),(Institute of Occupational Health, Oslo, 119 (1983), 565-578.Norway) and 0. Bjlrseth and 0. Dugstad Hero, H., R. J6rgensen, E. Sirbriden,(Norwegian Institute of Technology, and E. Suoninen, "Precipitations inTrondheim), a TEM study was done to a Dental Ag-Pd-Cu-Au Alloy,"identify NaAlF 4 fibrous particles (in Journal of Dental Research, 61

, the range of 0.027 to 0.114-pm diameter (1982), 673-677.

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Mathiesen, H., J.E. Tibballs, and B. route I for engineering practice.Andersson, "Work-Hardening and Experience has produced reversed studentMicrostructure in a Strip-Cast numbers along the two branches, and thisAlMn(Mg) Alloy," Deformation of is straining university resources.MuZti-Phaae and ParticZe Containing Detert has the impression that mostMaterials, ed. J.B. Bilde-S~rensen, engineering students among the greaterN. Hansen, A. Horsewell, T. Lef- number now accepted want to follow thefers, and h. Lilholt (RisO National traditional diploma path mostly becauseLaboratory, 1983); 429-434. they perceive the financial rewards will

be greater upon graduation--even extend-ing to increased rewards after furthergraduate work. The students apparently

12 9/83 are unsure about available jobs and jobrewards for the diploma I path. Notenough graduates have been produced norhas an established record of employment

EDUCATION AND RESEARCH AT UNIVERSITAT been achieved to make route I as attrac-GESAMTHOCHSCHULE, SIEGEN tive as the planners wanted. To some

extent, routes I and II might be matchedby R.W. Armstrong. with bachelor's and master's degree

levels of achievement, respectively, inthe US universities--particularly when

This article covers a visit spent one considers that German students spendwith Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. Detert, Institut 13 years in primary and secondary schoolfUr Werkstoffkunde, currently Dean of before entering the university, general-the Institute des Fachbereichs Machinen- ly at the age of 19. interestinglytechnik, Universit~t Gesamthochschule, enough, the job situation in the US isSiegen. In addition to materials sci- completely reversed--the job marketence and engineering, six other univer- there is so favorable for bachelor'ssity institutes--mechanics and controls, degree graduates that most graduateconstruction, fluids and thermodynamics, engineering programs necessarily containmanufacturing, energy, and systems a large number of foreign students inengineering--are included under the order to have viable courses, and

' dean's responsibilities. Universit~t especially to sustain on-going researchGesamthochschule is a relatively new programs.institution, founded in 1970.

ResearchEducation Detert, H. Kanbach, M. Pohl, and E.

The combined engineering institutes Schmidtmann (1982) have investigated thehave 800 students in a rather new type hot tensile test, creep, and simulatedof integrated curriculum that began in weld properties of CrNi austenitic1974. A Y-model path was developed at steels alloyed with N, Mo, Mn, Nb, Ti,that time to accommodate more students and/or V. Excellent electron microscopyalong a branched course leading either results were reported. Detert andto a practical or an academic diploma. Kanbach (1983) have followed up the workPreviously, about 5 percent of students with a later report relating the weldin the nation would enter the university properties to the composition-dependentsystem and obtain an academically transformation structures obtained inoriented engineering diploma after 4 the different alloy systems. With R.years of study. The model system was Scheffel, U. Mittag, and R. Stunkel,proposed to lead eventually to perhaps Detert has been studying fatigue crack25 to 30 percent of potential students growth in fracture mechanics testing ofin the nation being able to obtain a AlMgSil alloy (containing about 1.0university diploma, weight percent each of Mg and Si). The

In the Y-model for engineering at hysteresis behavior of the applied modeSiegen, the first 2 years (or four I cyclic stress intensity (AK) is beingsemesters) are common for both degree matched with microscopic surface observa-paths, except for a few courses. At the tions of the crack closure behavior. Anbeginning of the third year, the student example of partially closed crack facesmay choose to spend another 1 years on is shown in Figure 1. Grain-sizea practically oriented diploma of engi- effects are indicated to be importantneering (diploma I), or another 2h for the alloy.years--the previous standard period--on Besides Detert, J. Kurzeja and K.H.an academically oriented diploma II. It Zum Gahr are professors in the Institutewas imagined that about one-third of the of Materials Science. Kurzeja is headstudents would proceed along the tradi- of the institute and is interested intional route II and two-thirds along thermomechanical working of steels to

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Figure 1. Partially closed crack in AlMgSil alloy showing several regionsof contact between the matching faces.

achieve optimum properties for practical work-hardening, ductility, homogeneityuses such as offshore engineering of strain distribution, crystal aniso-structures. At Ruhr-Universitit Bochum, tropy, and mechanical instability.Zum Gahr had previously done direct Excellent scanning electron microscopyelectron microscope observations of observations have been made ofcrack propagation in thin metal foils of hard-particle gouging or continuousFeNiAl and AlZnMgl alloys and had filaments produced by micro-machininginvestigated the Hall-Petch grain-size during abrasive wear. Tapereddependence of the yield stress, fracture sections of wear tracks have beenstress and elongation to tracture of an metallographically polished andFe-36 (atomic percent) Ni-12A1 precipi- etched in 70-30 brass to show thetation-hardenable austenitic steel, extent of localized deformation.With C. Verpoort at Bochum, Zum Gahr Deformation was measured by using ameasured fatigue crack growth rates for recrystallization method. The effectthe same austenitic steel material at of polycrystal grain size on weardifferent grain sizes. It was found properties is being investigated.fro scanning and transmission electronmicroscopy observations that the varyingmicrostructures of precipitates at grain Referencesboundaries in differently treated Detert, K., and H. Kanbach, "Warmver-specimens had a controlling influence on sprcden beim Schweissen austenitis-the resultant fatigue cracking. cher StAhle lTsst sich weitgehend

Zum Gahr is currently concerned vermeiden," Maechinenmarkt, 89with the abrasive wear behavior of (1983), 246-248.materials--particularly ductile metals. Detert, K., H. Kanbach, M. Pohl, and E.He has summarized experimental results Schmidtmann, *Untersuchungen zurobtained on the wear properties of pure Warmversprodung in der wirmebeein-metals and alloys, including amorphous flussten Zone von Schweissverbin-Fe4 0Ni40P1 4B6 and Fe40Ni3 8Mo4B1 8 dungen austenitischer StShle,"HNetglas" and Fe No20 materials (Zum Archiv fir das Eieenhittenwen, 53

78M 2 20(1982), 239-244.Gahr, 1982). Previous work dealt with a Zum Gahr, K.H., "Furchungsverschleisscomparison of the pin abrasion test wear duktiler Metalle," Zeitachrift firproperties of the metallic glasses in NetaZZkund, 73 (1982), 267-276.the amorphous state and when partially Zuu Gahr, K.H., and H. Nbcker, "Abrasiv-or almost completely crystallized (Zum verschleiss metallischer Glfser,*Gahr and Ncker, 1981). Lower abrasive AataZ, 35 (1981), 988-996.wear resistance than expected on thebasis of their hardness properties wasfound for the amorphous materials. Thelater work has dealt with analyzing wearproperties in terms of the material's 12/12/85

132

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.... _ _ _ _ _ meeting used remote sensing data; andOCEAN SCIENCES the one paper that did described thepotential application ot remote sensing

THE GEOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF CORAL REEFS generated little discussion. There wastalk in the halls of a forthcoming paper

By Robert Dolan. Dr. Dolan is the that includes a "computer model of aLiaison Scientist for Geology and coral reef," but I was unable to findOceanography in Europe and the Middle specifics.East for the Office of Naval Research's The theme that I found most inter-London Branch Office. He is on leave esting among the papers was "what'suntil September 1984 from the Univ.rsity happening to the world's reefs?" In theof Virginia, where he is Professor of Middle East and along the coast ofEnvironmental Sciences. Africa and Southeast Asia the answer to

this question is rather simple--we'rekilling them at an alarming rate. The

The International Society for Coral methods of extermination range fromReef Studies was formed in 1979 by a massive siltation associated with landsmall group of reef specialists led by clearing (especially of rain forests) toDr. David Stoddard of Cambridge Univer- physical destruction as a by-product ofsity. The Society held its third annual Africans using dynamite for fishing.meeting from 8 through 10 December 1983 Among the most alarming and seeminglyin Nice, France. About 80 people unnecessary is the widespread oilattended the conference (four from the pollution in the Red Sea and PersianUS); roughly two-thirds were biologists, Gulf. Apparently the environmentaland one-third were geologists. The So- controls in the Middle East are modest,ciety began publishing its own refereed at best. Therefore, oil spills arejournal, Coral Reefs, in 1982--it's a common, and dredging and constructionSpringer-Verlag publication. The projects pay little heed to the factmembership fee, including Coral Reefs that some of the most productive coraland the society's Newsletter, is $50 or reef systems in the world fringe thoseL30 (a bargain at today's exchange water bodies. There are, of course,rates). exceptions--but few it seems. Oil

The program at Nice consisted of production is the highest priority.simultaneous sessions of papers on The other puzzling fact thatgeology and biology of coral reefs. I reappeared throughout the 3-day meetingattended most of the biology papers and was evidence of widespread disease amonga few of the geology sessions. My the coral reefs of the world. Threeoverall impression of the state of the diseases, in particular, were reportedart of coral research, based on the from sites throughout the tropical seas.papers presented, is that it is still The most prevalent is "bleaching": themostly an observational or descriptive coral simply dies over a relativelyscience. This is not to suggest that short period of time, leaving behindthe papers were not interesting or coral forms that look as if they haveimportant, but rather that only two of been bleached dead white with chemicals.the 50 or so papers set out a clear All species seem to be affected, includ-design for laboratory or field work, ing atolls, fringing reefs, and barrierkollowed by a discussion of the data reefs. In some areas 60 to 80 percentanalyses and results. The data sets of the reefs have died. Some investiga-are for the most part, relatively small tors believe siltation is the problem,and usually seasonal. I did hear that yet the same disease is reported on

" the Australian reef specialists are remote Pacific islands where there is nousing a wide range of analytical methods construction. Also, bleaching doesn'tin analyzing data for the Great Barrier. seem to occur below a water depth of 25

It's also my impression from casual m. The society has decided to look intoconversations at the meeting that the distribution of bleaching and reportinstitutional support for reef research the results in their Newsletter.is modest, so that the reef specialists Equally puzzling are the two "bandspend a great deal of their time locat- diseases," or plagues. Black-banding funding for field trips and in disease is a coral killer that occurs incarrying out the field work. One other most tropical waters. It has beengeneral observation: few of the coral definitely associated with a new speciesbiologists and geologists investigate of blue-green algae that thrives onreefs as large-scale biophysical sys- reefs. How long it will spread and howtems. The scale of the research is soon the reefs will recover are unans-mostly detailed site-level, resulting in wered questions.few overall generalizations. Not a White-band disease is sweepingsingle investigation summarized at the through the coral reefs of the Caribbean

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and South America. Biologists don't biophysical scientists. It was refresh-

know what's causing this plague--unlike ing to hear open, discussions amongthe situation with black band. In white geologists, biologists, and oceanograph-band a small (2-cm wide) band of diseas- ers. Cooperation and data exchange wereed coral forms as a ring around the the rule, not the exception. This maycoral structure. The branching corals, be a product of tight budgets; butsuch as staghorn and elk horn, seem whatever the reason, it seems to be con-particularly susceptible. White band tributing to important interdisciplinaryfeeds on or dissolves the coral colony, research. The 1985 meeting of theleaving behind a dead grey-white skele- society will be held in Miami, Florida,ton that is easily destroyed by waves, in early winter, and i.j Tahiti in theIn the Virgin Islands, for example, as summer of 1985 (they work in exoticmuch as 80 percent of the branching places). Anyone inte.ested in futurecorals have been destroyed by white-band meetings or membership should contact P.disease. Spencer Davies, Department of Zoology,

The geologists tend to believe the University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 800,problem is related to the biology of the Scotland.reefs, perhaps an exotic virus. Thebiologists think it may be related tosediment or pollution, but none arecertain. In a few cases recovery is 12/14/83under way, though it is not widespread.If the branching corals make a generalrecovery, the reefs will progressrapidly because some species grow atrates of up to 10 cm a year. OIL SPILLS: CAN SONAR HELP INVESTIGA-

Finally, I was impressed with a TORS?presentation made by M.L. Harmelin-Viven(Station Marine d' Endoume, Marseille) By Cheater McKinney. Dr. McKinney ison the impact of Pacific hurricanes on the Liaison Scientist for Underwaterthe reefs of Tikehau Island, French Acoustics in Europe and the Middle Eas.Polynesia. In this case the investiga- for the Office of Naval Research'stor had the good fortune of having London Branch Office, Be is on Zeaveinventoried and photographed the reefs a until September 1984 The 5 7iersityfew months before the storms struck. On of Texas at Austin, Ahere he is Seniorouter reef slopes coral destruction, Research Scientist at Applied Researchvarying from 50 to 100 percent, was a Laboratorics.function of depth. Upper-slope coralcommunities composed of small colonieswell adapted to high-energy-level In the spring of 1980 I visited theenvironments suffered less. Coral office of the French navy at Brest whichdestruction was spectacular at depths is responsible for the preparation ofabove 12 m, 60 percent between 12 m and shallow-water, ocean-bottom sonar maps.30 m, and 100 percent beyond 35 m; In an offhand manner my host showed meearliez living coral coverage ranged some sonar records in which large areasfrom 60 to 75 percent. The outer slope were devoid of any topographic reliefwas transformed into a "scree" zone detail, such as sand ripples. He saidcovered with coarse sand and dead coral that these unusual areas were where therubble. residue of an oil spill had settled to

The return interval for hurricanes the ocean floor and acoustically maskedof major magnitude in this part of the the normal bottom reverberation.Pacific is about once every 100 years, Subsequently I asked several users ofso periodic destruction doesn't seem to high-resolution bottom-mapping sonar ifresult in permanent damage to the coral they had made similar observations ofsystem. The reefs fully recover from oil-spill residues on the bottom sedi-these pulses of energy. However, this ment; no one knew about such observa-is not unusual in natural systems; for tions.example, forest fires are now considered My interest in the subject wasbeneficial by most ecologists, and rekindled by a recent Science articlefrequent storm surges along the low- about the Amoco Cadiz oil spill of Marchlying Atlantic Coast barrier islands 1978 off the coast of Brittany (Grund-provide beneficial stress to the coastal lach et al., 1983). The article dis-ecosystems. cusses the mixture of oil residue with

My overall impression is that the the sediments but makes no mention ofInternational Society for Coral Reef the use of side-scan sonar to detect,Studies is made up of a small, measure, and track the patches ofdedicated, and enthusiastic group of bottom-resting oil.

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In November 1983 I paid another ly reflected by the oil layer. I be-visit to the French navy office and lieve that French navy aivers obtainedasked if they had publisheu any of the samples of the oil patches, but I wasoil-spill data that they had collected, not able to obtain any details.They advised me that they had not issued The purpose of this article is toany reports on the subject and had no suggest that some of the modern (andplans to do so, but that I was free to readily available) high-resolution,write about their work. Evidently they side-scan, bottom-mapping sonars may beobserved the patches for a year or more, useful tools for investigating oiltracked the movements, the eventual spills and other forms of pollutionbreakup of the patches, and the gradual materials for which at least some compo-reduction of patch thickness. They have nent settles to the ocean floor. Per-a considerable body of data. haps (unknown to me) these sonars are

The sonar used by the French navy already being used for this purpose.for their bottom surveys is the DUBM- Reference41b, developed by Thomson-CSF, Brest, Gundlach, Erich R., Paul D. Bochum,for the navy. This instrument is proba- Michel Marchand, Ronald M. Atlas,bly the best of the modern side-scan David K. Ward, and Douglas A.sonars in terms of resolution and signal Wolfe, "The Fate of Amoco Cadizprocessing. It has a range resolution Oil," Science, 221 (8 July 1983),of 8.0 cm, a cross-range resolution of 122-129.12.0 cm, and a range of 50 m. Thetransducers are mounted in a body whichnormally is towed 6.5 m above the bottom 12/13/83at a speed of 4 kn. The towing ship isan ex-US Navy minesweeper. A completesystem consists of two towed bodies, a THE MARGINAL ICE ZONE EXPERIMENTmagnetic tape recorder, and a preciseradio navigation system. Bottom sonar by Robert Dolan and Robert Booker. LCDRsurveys are normally made in water Booker is the NavaZ AppZications Officerdepths of 100 m or less. for Environmental Systems and Military

The sonar records show a lack of Oceanography at the Office of Navalbottom backscattering. This feature Research's London Branch Office.probably means that the high-frequencysound is largely absorbed, but it alsocould, at least in part, be due to the The marginal ice zones (MIZs) ofoil residue forming a plane surface over the Arctic and Antarctic vary seasonallythe normal sand ripple relief, resulting over an area of about 25 million km2 , orin strong specular reflection. Most of 7 percent of the world's ocean areas.the cargo of the Amoco Cadiz was light The processes that control the locationArabian oil, but some bunker fuel C was and behavior of the MIZ are of fundamen-spilled as well. In March 1980 the tal importance to meteorologists andtanker Tanio spilled some 7000 tons of oceanographers. In addit-ion, understand-oil in the same general area. The sonar ing the processes that determine the MIZmaps I saw could have been from either is important in ocean transport, navalof the two spills, or they might have operations, and the development of fish-been of the heavy crude only. eries. Sea-ice movement is also a major

The oil patches were observed for a factor in almost all aspects of Arcticyear during routine surveys. The patch- offshore oil field development. The dy-es drifted some and eventually began to namic nature of pack-ice must be design-break up into smaller patches. At the ed into the location of exploration rigssame time the sonar operators began to and production platforms, logistics, andobserve faint traces of sand ripples transportation and construction methods.showing through the oil, indicating a Consequently, a large-scale fieldslow dissipation of the oil. The oil investigation, known as MIZEX (Marginalpatches presented an unexpected opera- Ice Zone Experiment), was initiated lasttional problem. The towed body has a summer, with a second phase scheduledbuilt-in, high-frequency depth sounder, for the summer of 1984 (MIZEX 84). Thethe output signal being used to automat- MIZEX program--which is primarilyically control the body to operate at a sponsored by Norway, the Federal Repub-constant height above the bottom. When lic of Germany (FRG, or West 4ermany),the body was towed over the oil patches, France, Denmark, and the US--involvesthe bottom echo was reduced to such a more than 300 scientists and staff. Thelow level that automatic height control scientific teams are divided into sevenwas not possible. This result seems to subgroups: remote sensing, meteorology,provide strong evidence that the sound biology, ice dynamics, acoustics,was being absorbed rather than specular- oceanography, and modeling.

135

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Figur 1 .Sie0f IZX

~PERMAFROST

CONTINUOUS

Sae GDISCONTINUOUS 2W"

18V- Sea 25"

Figure 1. Site of MIZEX.

SMIZEX is being carried out in Fram tic aperture radar (SAR), microwave sen-Strait, between Greenland and Spitsberg- sots, and photography. Some of theseen (Figure 1). This area was selected data will be made available on virtuallybecause the Fram Strait is the primqry a real-time basis to the field investi-opening between the Arctic Ocean and the gators.Atlantic. Most of the heat and water From 14 through 22 November 1983exchange between the Arctic Ocean and the Alfred-Wegener Institute tor Polarareas to the south occurs through this Research (Bremerhaven, FRG) hosted areach. The Bering Sea, which is also a meeting to review the preliminary re-MIZ, is responsible for only a small sults of MIZEX 83 and to finalize thepercentage of the Arctic Ocean's heat design of MIZEX 84. The presentations,and water exchange. programmed according to the seven sub-

MIZEX 84 is a "drifting" experi- groups, were generally excellent. Onment, covering an area of about 200 km2 . the whole, the investigators are young,During the experiments, one of the five dedicated, and enthusiastic about theiroceanographic ships involved will be work. We are particularly impressedmoored to the ice in the middle of the with their cooperative attitude, and weurea, 30 to 50 km inside the ice edge. believe the program will become even

0This ship will serve as the base sta- more "interdisciplinary" after MIZEX 84tion. Another ship will penetrate has been carried out and the researchfurther into the ice pack, while one teams have had an opportunity to analyzeship will be stationed at the actual their data and exchange results.edge of the ice, and two ships willoperate in the open water outside the Ice Dynamicsice edge. In addition, almost daily The MIZEX ice studies are dividedremote-sensing overflights will map the into those concerned with the growth,drifting experimental site with a full decay, and internal properties of therange of instruments, including synthe- ice and those concerned with the

136

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

dynamics of the ice in response to at- zone of the ice front. This upwellingmospheric and oceanographic processes. is believed to be caused by changes inSeveral investigators at the Bremerhaven the wind stress across the ice edge duemeeting reported on the characteristics to the variation of the air drag betweenof the MIZ from the edge through the open water, broken ice floes, andtransition zone to the interior pack, smoother ice, and to stability varia-some 50 km from the edge. Ocean waves tions in the atmospheric/surface bound-are an important contributor to the ary layer.fracturing processes and the maintenance Meteorologyof the broken pack-ice form. Evidence The MIZEX meteorologists believeof gravity waves, although greatly at- the most important processes along aid

tenuated, can be detected up to 30 km the os rethose atontrolinto the pack ice. The ice in the MIZ across the MIZ are those that controlis significantly different from that of the ice edge by exchanges between the

the interior pack. In the MIZ the ice atmosphere and the ocean or the ice.

is subject tc, higher energy wave action Wind stress at the surface contributes

(large waves), which can cause it to genera-break up into smaller floes. The floes tion, and mixing. The magnitude and

become larger and less mobile deeper direction of the stress are a function

into the pack. mainly of the pressure gradients and theAlong the MIZ the greater number Of stratification and shear in the atmos-

floes produce air-ice and ice-water drag pheric surface layers and the planetary

coefficients that are different from boundary layer. Wind stresses are also

those of the ice found further in the related to the changing surface rough-

interior. This in turn has significant ness of both the ice and the ocean. The

bearing on floe dynamics. Floe move- MIZEX 84 meteorologists are planning ex-

ment, incidently, has been tracked for periments to determine wind stress under

up to several kilometers per day. Mea- several of these conditions.

surements made during MIZEX 83 and Heat exchanges to and from the at-planned for MIZEX 84 include changes in mosphere strongly influence ice growth,ice mass, floe concentrations, floe the temperature of the ocean surface,

sizes, and the "energy budget" along the and convection processes in the upper

ice edge. In addition, a team is using ocean. Determining the roles of these

cores and in-situ measurements to exam- processes and atmospheric states is fun-ine the properties of the ice itself. damental to understanding how the ice

The overall kinematics of the ice drift and underlying water respond to the

will be monitored by radar positioning wind.and satellite navigation. The ice-dy- The MIZEX 84 meteorologists willnamics team will also measure wave and use a variety of instruments for surface

collision processes, ablation, and ocearn layer studies from ships and ice floes--currents at the ice edge. along with aircraft boundary-layer meas-

urements, radiosonde launchings, acous-Oceanography tic sounders, closely spaced surface-

Oceanographic conditions along and pressure arrays, and buoy-mounted weath-across the MIZ are as complex as those er statio:js. They will have a modelingin any zone of comparable size. Last effort too.summer the oceanographers found perma-nefit and transient frontal systems, Biologylarge and small eddies, and upwelling. The 15 MIZEX biologists will meas-These range in size from tens of meters ure phytoplankton biomass, phytoplanktonto kilometers; and to complicate the species, nutrients, zooplankton biomasspicture, the MIZ corresponds with a per- and diversity, and a variety of chemicalmanent oceanic front, the East Greenland parameters. At the Bremerhaven meetingPolar Front, which separates the cold, there was some question about the actuallow-salinity, southward-flowing East productivity within the MIZ of the

- Greenland current from the more saline Greenland Sea. Apparently, the highwater of the Greenland Sea. In addi- levels of primary productivity found intion, the oceanographic team found large the Bering Sea are not present in themeanders along the ice edge, 20 to 40 km Greenland Sea. One of the biologistsin wavelength, who participated in MIZEX 83 reported

SAR has shown evidence of eddies that few fish and birds and virtually nothat are 50 km in diameter and larger mammals were sighted during last sum-along the ice front. These may have mer's field experiments. A possiblewarm-water cores down to at least 600 m. explanation is that the Greenland SeaUpwelling along the front is less com- and the Fram Strait are deep, with steepmon, but the 1983 field investigators continental shelves--whereas the Beringfound evidence of upwelling from a depth Sea is shallow continental shelf. Theof 150 m to the surface along a 10-km shallow-water environment, along with

..-.

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

high levels of nutrients, contributes to Modelinghigh productivity in the Bering Sea MIZ. Although the. modeling team forA mixed layer is stabilized by melt MIZEX is a separate group, and it ap-water from the ice pack, and high nutri- pears to be functioning somewhat iznd4

ent levels are associated with ice-edge pendently of the other teams, the gcalupwelling. These conditions are not of MIZEX is to have geophysical modelsprevalent within the Greenland Sea. developed that will simulate or predict

the processes along and across the MIZ.These models will be tested and cali-

Acoustics brated with the data collected duringThere are few places in the ocean MIZEX 83 and 84. The modeling elfort

as "noisy" as the MIZ. To begin with, includes: sea-ice radiation, thermody-the ice itself is noisy, especially namics, ridging, breaking, and rheology;along the edge, where waves and currents atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers;move and fracture the ice floes. The eddy generation; frontogenesis and main-sound-speed profile is also subject to tenance of fronts; quasisteady, meso-significant variations due to the fron- scale circulations in the atmosphere andtal and eddy structures. These varia- ocean; fine structure and cross-frontaltions degrade horizontal coherence of mixing; biological processes; internalacoustical wave fronts, which can affect waves; sound path and acoustic tomo-the efficiency of directional acoustic graphy; and many others.arrays. In addition to being considered the

Acoustical experiments to be car- main goal of MIZEX, modeling is beingried out during MIZEX 84 include moni- used before the 1984 experiment to upti-toring of fixed and drifting sonobuoys, mize sampling strategies. However,measurements of ambient noise (including there have been some heated discussionsdirectional information), seismic re- within the modeling team and between theflection and refraction experiments, and team and the observationists. There arepossibly an investigation into the po- some distinct communication gaps intential of acoustical tomography. MIZEX, as one might expect within a pro-

ject this complex; but the gaps do notappear to be insurmountable--the MIZEX

Remote Sensing teams do talk with each other. KlausIn MIZEX, remote sensing is used as Hasselman (Max-Plank-Institute, Hamburg)

a measurement technique not only for expressed some concern about the dis-supporting the field investigations, but crepancy between the quest'ions beingalso for a separate series ot experi- considered in the modeling versus thements. It was stressed at the Bremer- dimensions of the field data. That is,haven meeting that it is inevitable that the modelers may be attempting to modelsooner or latet the MIZ research commun- large-scale processes with small-scale

ity would b°:come dependent on remote data. We believe MIZEX 84 will helpsensing, because of the limited time close the gaps--espectally if the remotescales and heavy costs of large field sensing is successful.experiments like MIZEX. Thus, it is es-sential for the remote sensing data and The Field Program for MIZEX 84techniques to be integrated with all as- As mentioned earlier, the MIZEXpects of MIZEX. So far, this goal is program is a drift experiment with onenot fully apparent in the program and ship moored within the moving ice-packelsewhere, but MIZEX 84 offers a superb and the four other ships sampling otheropportunity. environments. In addition, the field

The objective of the MIZEX remote work will be supported with live heli-sensing program is to provide the inves- copters and several aircraft. Thetigators with SAR, side-looking airborne moored ship in the ice-pack is expectedradar, passive imagery, and aerial pho- to drift about 10 km per day, or 400 totography. The facilities being assem- 500 km over the 6-week period.bled will permit almost real-time data; Oceanographic, meteorological, andi the investigators will help with practi- ice mapping will be carried out on fixedcal interpretation. In addition, the geographical grids. The region of in-remote sensing data will be evaluated tense mapping will cover about 100 tofor future geophysical monitoring, 200 km of the ice edge, starting 40 toincluding data from satellites, several 50 km outside the ice margin and extend-aircraft, and devices placed on the ice ing 40 to 50 km into the pack. Thepacks. This evaluation will be carried drifting ship, the new German researchout simultaneously with the main field icebreaker Polaretern, and the open-experiments in order to maximize the water ship with the ice-breaking capa-potential of remote sensing via verifi- bility will drift throughout the regioncation with ground-level measurements, and provide observations of ice drift

138

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

and oceanographic and meteorological 1. Atmosphere: standard ship me-processes. Other ice-strengthened and teorological instruments. Eddy flux,the open-water ships will follow paral- profile and dissipation sensors, aerosollel tracks. The grid lines will be di- counters, radiometers, acoustic sound-rected perpendicular to the ice edge and ers, radiosondes, and pressure sensorsspread 5 to 10 km apart, with stations on ships and buoys. Gust probes, drop-spaced at 2- to 4-km intervals in order sondes, scatterometers, and other remoteto measure the small eddies with a diam- sensors from aircraft.

." eter of 10 to 15 km. The MIZEX 84 pro- 2. Ocean: CTD, batfish, freefall-- gram calls for the remote sensing and ing velocity probes, current profiling

meteorological aircraft to fly over the systems, Argos-tracked drifters andarea at least every 1 to 2 days. An ODAR radar for surface current, and ex-aircraft staging site at the Tromso Sat- pendable probes for temperature and sa-ellite Station in northern Norway will linity profiles.coordinate all aircraft flights and 3. Ice: deformation array, floetransmit information to the scientific collision sensors, directional waveteams on the ships. buoys, upward-looking ice profilometer,

Table 1 shows the ships and air- sonic ablation detector, and parachute-craft and their measurement responsibil- dropped buoys tracked by Argos.ities. The following is a listing of 4. Remote sensing: X-, C-, L-bandthe major measuring systems that will be airborne SARs, Kaband imaging radars,used in MIZEX 84: multifrequency microwave radiometers and

N

Table 1

Measurement Responsibility

Platform copters Work Days

Icebreaker 2 Synoptic CTD mapping in ice 22Deploy and retrieve met-ocean array in ice 5Deploy and retrieve four Cyclesondes 3Help ice-engthened ship in heavy ice conditions 6

Microwave Properties of sea ice and CODAR 6

Meteorological observations. radiosondes, acoustic sounderBiological measurements

Drifting ship 2 Ice deformation and dynamicsin ice Ice structure studies 42

Ice thermodynamicsCyclesonde deployment and retrievalMicrowave properties of sea iceHourly meteorological observations, radiosondesAcoustic sounder, flux profilers 4Atmospheric boundary layer studiesSwallow float tracking

Ice-strengthened I Synoptic CTD mapping Sship Eddy CTD mapping 15-20

Upwelling 5Bands and streamers SDetailed examination of ice front 5-10Deploy and retrieve directional wave buoy 2Hourly meteorological observations, radiosondesAtmospheric flux profilers 4

.-4 CODAR. swallow float tracking

Open-water ships Synoptic CTD mapping in open ocean (each) 23Eddy CTD mapping-fronts and upwelling 14Deploy and retrieve met-ocean arrays 5Hourly meteorological observationsRadiosondes, acoustic sounderAtmospheric boundary fluxesAerosol size distribution

Submarine Sonar profiling-20 transects with longitudinal ties 10(if available) Sound velocity profiling across fronts

XBTs. CTD profiling across fronts

Aircraft SAR mapping-long-range aircraft 20 flightsCorrelative passive-active microwave data under different environ- 15 flights

mental conditionsCombined meteorolookcalremote sensing aircraft for wind stress 20 flightsBoundary layer studies, surface temperature, albedo. rough- 20 flights

ness, ice distribution, photography.Marine winds from scatterometer 20 flightsAXBT flights 10 flights

139

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

M $ 1 GRO. IMINTE N RU S FlUATNAL

*CNANW"~~~~ ~ ~ ~ GA -NANSI ------ MC ADVISORY

l. .~n EXECUTIVE: OFFIGIER"€

* LOGISTICS MAMAGEI W* PEIMAGT G AD

DICPIECRATRS AIL11=1 r ADVISORY

EXECTIV COMMITTE A. AS. OWNl 5ROUIP

I ' ATIAlI .11.11. I-I--RO-

Figure 2. MIZEX organization.

scatterometers, portable i0n-.iu ice dO- RICHYSICS

electri.c system, in-saitu multifrequency Iscatterometers and multi frequency paE-sive microwave array, and raft-mounted A 50-PICOSECOND GATED XRAY INTENSIFIERLunenberg target calibration lenses. b ai ahr r ahri h

b ONOO 11.i Ao.er NOR W.e GERMANY

Coordination Liaison Scientist for Physics in EuropeManagement of a complex research and the Middle East for the Office of

program such as MIZEX is a major Naval Research 's London Branch Office.responsibility, and competition for re- He ie on reassignment until JulH 19B4sources and ship space is keen. There- from the Naval Research Laboatory,

fore, an international MIZEX organiza- k here he is Supervisoi Research Phyaii-• tion has been established to provide cist.

overall coordination and arbitration ofconflicts (Figure 2). Many aspects of plasma physics re-

The US Office of Naa eerh search require x-ray images which are

Iaa IResearch

(ONR) considers the MIZ to be a high highly resolved in both time and space.priority area and has made a major in- In inertial confinement fusion studies,v~stment in the MIZEX program. Many of x-rays emitted from laser or particle-the scientists and staff are supported beam heated surfaces provide informationdirectly or indirectly by ONR. The ONR on the density, temperature, and dynam-branch office in London provides a di- ics of ablating plasmas. Similar x-rayrect liaison with the European partici- sources are used to back-light sphericalpants and amuistance to the MIZEX orga- targets to study the quality of theirnization, implosion, and planar targets to study

the growth of instabilities and inhomo-geneities produced by nonuniform irradi-ation. Time-resolved x-ray imaging is

12/12/85 also important to the study of intense

140

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

radiation sources produced by the elec- electrons emitted by the photocathode.tromagnetic implosion of annular z-pinch Photoelectrons produced by pinhole imag-plasmas. These sources were developed ing of the x-ray source onto the photo-within US. Department of Defense programs cathode pass through the mesh to afor nuclear weapons vulnerability test- Varian 8900Y microchannel plate (MCP).ing and are currently being applied to A DC voltage is applied to the MCPmalithography, science, semiconductor-circuits. Good di- operating at a gain of about 2x10 . Theaglithogr p axay lasers God - MCP output strikes an aluminized P1agnosis of plasma conditions is espe- phosphor layered onto a fiber-optic

cially important for x-ray laser re-

search because precise density and ter- output window. The initensifier operatesserarh distributions are needed to in the vacuum of the laser-targetperature ditation ae stated chamber, and the fiber-optic windowachieve excitation of lasing states. tasesteiaet imds

All of the above studies require transfers the image to a film disk

x-ray source temporal resolution of at

least 1 ns and spatial resolution of Fast gating is achieved by propa-about 100 um. The most severe resolu- gating a short voltage pulse across thetion requirements arise in the study of photocathode. The gate pulse is pro-laser-driven fusion targets, where 10 um duced with a photo-conductive switchand 100 ps are useful. J.D. Kilkenny (Auston, 1975) using a chromium-doped

* and coworkers at the blackett Laboratory GaAs element bonded conductively to theof Imperial College, London, have devel- transmission line. The Auston switchoped a gated x-ray intensifier which produces a fast rising pulse but a slow-promises to meet these performance ly falling one. The fast fall requiredstandards tor experiments to be conduct- for crisp turn-off of the intensifier ised at the UK's two major centers for la- produced by forming the transmissionser-produced plasma research: the Ruth- line loop shown in Figure 1. The posi-erford Appleton Laboratory and the Atom- tive and negative pulses from the switchic Weapons Research Establishment. The propagate in opposite directions. Thedevice tests the principle of fast gat- cable lengths are adjusted so that theing an image tube photocathode to obtain negative pulse arrives at the photocath-time-resolved images. Initial measure- ode about 100 ps before the positivements described below show that the gat- one. A DC bias of 100 V is applied toing time is about 50 ps and that con- the photocathode to suppress electrontrast ratios of about 100 to 1 can be transmission to the MCP when the 2-kVachieved ior soft x-ray sources, gate pulse is absent.

To achieve the high performance, a Several plasma x-ray sources wereCsI photocathode is vacuum deposited on- produced from one laser pulse to testto an aluminum substrate that is the the intensifier. A 5-J, 100-ps, 1.06-umlive conductor of a 50-ohm microstrip pulse was split with an angled reflec-transmission line with a low-loss sub- tion etalon to produce three focal spotsstrate. The ground electrode is a copper on a copper target. The spots were sep-mesh that is 71D percent transparent to arated by 400 Um in space and 200 ps in

PNOTOCATMO AND $00 STRIPLINEGROUND PLANE MESH LOW LOSS

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% 141

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

improved by going to a single-ended lineconfiguration and using a commercially

f1 available -triggered-pulse generator in

a. place of the Auston switch. The new de-vice is currently under testing at the

Awu apm'1mm Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, and50-um spatial resolution has beendemonstrated.References

3 ,5 Auston, D.H., Applied Physics Letters,26 (1975), 101.

Berg, A.D., R.W. Smish, and R.D.'.0 Prosser, Advances in EZectronics

and Electron Physics (1966), 969.

A. 2121/83

SKITNSHZ 140 "OT 749 MATERIAL-RESPONSE RESEARCH WITH HIGH-LODW Gd?9 PUL55 loo.. Gorn PWA

"to T.0 wiA T .Np POWER GAS LASERS

By David Mosher.

Figure 2. Microdensitometer traces The development of powerful, con-across gated x-ray images. tinuous wave (cw) gas lasers in the mid-

1960s has led to industrial applicationstime. Part of the same pulse was used for a variety of material processes (ESNto drive the Auston switch. The x-ray 36-11:303-308 [1982]). The heavy indus-sources were imaged onto the photocath- trial processes--such as cutting, drill-ode with l-to-I magnification using a ing, and welding of metals--require cw50-um-diameter pinhole, powers above 1 kW, focused power densi-

The Cu x-ray spectrum consisted of ties in the 107 W/cm2 regime, and cana continuum with broad bands of L-shell involve materials in all four states ofline transitions. The intensifier could matter: solid, liquid, vapor, and plas-record images when gated off because the ma. A thorough understanding of thephotocathode transmits a substantial laser-matter interaction is required tofraction of the Cu spectrum to the MCP. ensure the economical production ofTests without gating gave a null signal high-quality materials. Liquid flow andcorresponding to a contrast ratio of 100 resolidification at weld or cut facesto I with and without gate pulses. must be carefully controlled to obtain

Some results are shown in Figure 2 acceptable strength or uniformity. Ion-for three laser shots and different gat- ized vapor clouds above cut and drilling conditions. On shot 622, the gate surfaces can absorb the incident laserpulse was made very long, and the inten- power and prevent continuous processingsifier imaged the three sources. Shots of the underlying solid material. This748 and 749 had 100-ps gate pulses with material response problem is similar to749 gated 50 ps later than 748. The in- that encountered in directed-energy re-tensity of source 2 has risen consider- search, where the laser must be focusedably with the 50-ps shift, demonstrating on moving targets for sufficient time toa discrimination time of about 50 ps forgatetur-of. Gte trn-n soul be penetrate metal superstructures.gate turn-off. Gate turn-on should be The Physics Institute II at theat least as good because the two legs of he si cs Isiuerat ethe tri lie crcui ar symetic.University of D~sseldorf (Federal Repub-the strip line circuit are symmetric. lic of Germany) is engaged in a broadThe major limitation of the present range of research and development activ-device is the contrast ratio between the ities in the laser-matter area. Thegated and straight-through images. The program was described to me by Prof. J.problem gets worse as the x-ray spectrum Uhlenbusch, director of the 35-memberhardens. A new tube has been built institute. Work there is devoted to thewhich promises to overcome the contrast refinement of high-power cw lasers forproblem. In the new device, the materials research and processing, thestraight-through image is separated from interaction of such lasers with matter,the gated image by angling the tube axis and the development of relevant diagnos-with respect to incident x-rays. A tic techniques. In this article, the0.2-T magnetic field is imposed to bend CO laser facility is described, resultsphoto-electrons around to the MCP with- 2out loss of resolution (Berg et al., of weld and optical discharge experi-1966). The gating system will also be ments are presented, and measurements of

142

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

OF .. *d

Preampt fier Amplifier

K cathodeA anode

* Oscillator Gl gas inGO gas out

Figure 1. Oscillator-amplifier system schematic.

laser absorption in melting aluminum A swirling gas flow is produced in theseare discussed. Unexpected changes in segments by a Roots pump, and thethe absorption at the melting point He-N 2-CO2 mixture is excited by 22-keV,provide important data for assessment of 150-mA electrical discharges.CO2 lasers in defense applications. During the past year, the outputLaser Development and Materials Process- power of the system was increased from

The 3.5 to 7 kW by optimization experimentsThe laser development program con- carried out on a separate two-segment

centrates on optimization of a high-pow- test section. Gas pressure, composi-er, cw monomode, CO2 laser. Such a las- tion, mass rate, inlet geometry, and

2 discharge current were varied to opti-er is ideal for materials processing for mize output. The main diagnostic tech-a number of reasons. Continuous and nique used to probe the discharge washigh-power operation are required for resonance scattering of a cw dye lases.high-speed processing of industrial Local Doppler shift and broadening meas-materials. Fine cutting and welding urements on He line profiles providedoperations at economical processing the radial gas temperature and velocityspeeds require power densities in the profile (Odenthal and Uhlenbusch, 1980).107 to 108 W/cm2 regime. The tight The best operation, and a gain maximum

focusing and stable operation required of 1.2 percent per centimeter wereat these power densities are best achieved with homogeneous temperatureachieved with the high beam quality of and velocity distributions in the dis-single-mode laser operation. Continuous charge.s oResearchers at the Institute havelaser operation also benefits basic demonstrated the applicability of the

research into the nature of the material monomode laser to an industrial processsteady hydrodynamic flow and equilibrium by performing high-quality weld experi-steay hdroynaic lowandequlibium ments on 0.2-mna-thick tinplate. TWOstates of matter that greatly simplifies sheets of tin were aligned on a drum

both measurements and modeling, which rotated under the lamer focus.A schematic view of the oscillator- With an optimized laser- spot diameter, a

amplifier laser system is shown in Fig- weldin pe ed oas ra e d aSure 1. Although high-power CO2 lasers welding speed of 50 cm/s was reached atS1about 3-kW output power. 'The theoreti-frequently combine oscillator and ampli- cally predicted linear relation betweenfier functions in a single cavity, high- processing speed and laser power wasly stable monomode operation is best demonstrated at lower pbwer. A polishedachieved by separating the two elements. section of the weld is shown in theThe oscillator, is a diffusion-dominated photomicrograph of Figure 2. UhlenbushCO2 laser tunable to different wave stated that the high quality of the weld

lengths with passive and active cavity could be attributed to the good modestabilization elements. The oscillator quality of the laser beam.operates in the TEN 00 mode (the funda- Optical Discharge Experimentsmental cavity mode with transverse elec- The most violent and complex re-tric and magnetic fields) and generates sponse of materials to intense laser ir-a beam of about 20 W. The main amplifi- radiation is encountered in cutting ander is a 10-m-long device consisting of drilling operations. In these cases,14 convectively cooled glass segments. the laser intensity is sufficient to

143

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tA ....•

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Figure 2. Cross section of tinplate weld.

vaporize and ionize the material, pro- enters a high-pressure discharge chamberducing a plasma cloud which can block thrcugh cone-shaped windows composed ofpenetration of incident radiation to the ZnSe or KCl and is focused by a gold-underlying solid material. This block- coated Be-Cu mirror to an intensity ofage produces irregular surfaces in 7 to 108 2 at a point a few centi-procsse matrias an isresponsible 10 o18W/cm2 tapitafwcniprocessed materials and is meters above the mirror. For reportedfor reduced lethality of laser beams in experiments, H, He, and AE gases atdefense applications. Because of com- pressures up to 200 bar filled the ves-plexities associated with asymmetric sel. A thin tungsten wire used to startgeometries, time-dependent effects, com- the discharge is removed after ignition.plex flow patterns of the liquid and Once the discharge is initiated,vapor phases, and ionization phenomena sufficient electron density is availablein the vapor, the laser-matter interac- to absorb laser power by the mechanismtion is difficult to analyze. Uhlen- o inversermsstr the rersebusch and coworkers have performed con- of the process responsible for continuumtinuout optical discharge (COD) experi- radiation). A continuuus discharge canments which allow one to separate out be established at the focus if laser

the gas and plasma phase phenomena and heating is sufficient to compensate for

study them in a sym- metric geometry eng ls a n re comtnsdue oundr teay-tat cndiios.energy loss and recombination due to

under steady-state conditions. thermal conduction, convection, and ra-Figure 3 shows the optical dis- diation processes. Stable operation

charge experiment. The CO2 laser beam (i.e., a symmetric and time-independent

density and temperature distribution) islaser beam ZnSe o only achieved about 20 minutes after

,KCI wignition. This is the time required toremove metal impurities from the gas and

wet for the chamber walls to reach a uniformtemperature. It is crucial for stable

*operation that the laser beam and dis-charge vessel axes of symmetry be coin-cident so that a symmetric free-convec-tion flow field can be established inthe gas surrounding the COD.

The plasmas produced by this tech-nique have a number of interesting prop-

"moglnna erties. Stationary plasmas of 1017 todriver- 101i cm- 3 density and 1- to 2-eV temper-tungslen ature are produced within a radius of aWire widow few millimeters. The COD is therefore

in local thermodynamic equilibrium sothat modeling of atomic physics process-

Figure 3. Optical discharge experiment. es and analyses of spectroscopic

144

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measurements are particularly simple. tion of gas pressure, and the data wereConvective flow velocities are in the compared with an ionization model whichcentimeters-per-second regime in the balanced inverse bremsstrahlung againstcold outer region, and the motion has a electron diffusion, radiative recombina-pattern similar to that surrounding a tion, and three-body recombination. Thecandle flame. In fact, the simple geom- impressive agreement shown in Figure 4

- etry and single-constituent gas lead to demonstrates the detailed understanding. simple convective flows which are inter- of phenomena which is possible with a. esting to study in their own right. COD. A second result demonstrated the

used Several diagnostic techniques are importance of the convective flow fieldused to probe the plasma and surrounding to the energy budget of the COD. Agas. Continuum radiation measurements simple hydrodynamic model employing aenable plasma temperature and density to gaussian-shaped laser beam and radialbe calculated with the aid of the Saha and axial conduction and convection rea-equation. These are confirmed by sonably described the local temperatureStark-broadened line intensity and line distribution and overall COD parametersprofile measurements. Visible light (Uhlenbusch, 1983). These results pro-interferometry determines the density vide confidence that simple models canand temperature fields in the region be applied with some success to a subsetsurrounding the COD, and laser-Doppler of the complex phenomena associated withanemometry provides the flow field, laser-matter interactions encountered in

One of the major results of these industry and defense.investigations is determination of theminimum laser power that can sustain the Optical Constants of Melting Aluminumdischarge. This information is impor- For a detailed description of thetant it laser-blocking CODs are to be interaction of laser beams with metal

avoided in applications. The minimum surfaces, a thorough knowledge of theintensity has been determined as a func- absorption coefficient is necessary.

For welding, cutting, drilling, and" hardening operations involving CO2

500- 1lasers, the temperature behavior of.1 hf absorption at A = 10.6 um must be known

ho. experime in the regime where phase changes occur.bdiffuson ohre dy recombination A few workers have reported on the

re o od hree subject, but absorption data have beenroditive recombiation reported only up to a few degrees below

... .. the melting point (Sekhan and Mehrabian,............. . ...................

100p 1981). Uhlenbush and coworkers extended_ _ _ _ _ absorption data above the melting point

o 10 0 30of aluminum in order to understand an0! 10 20pr30es0irregular behavior due to melting in

P 3processed aluminum.ZA schematic of the experiment is

1 000 Heshown in Figure 5. Absorption oflinearly polarized CO 2-laser light wasdetermined by ellipsometry as an alumi-

num target was heated in vacuum by anelectric oven. The elliptical polariza-

tion of the reflected beam is analyzed........... P by a power meter (PM) following reflec-

.. bor tion from a Brewster window (W2). PM

¢ ~~..............\...........--- ---- .. -- .-- -- -,, i _ -

" 0 50 100 150 200

150 - Hydrogen

1000 \ 1 m5D00P

N. ~bar IrW

510 15 20 ta-ldvse

Figure 4. Minimum laser power versus Figure 5. Absorption experiment sche-gas pressure. matic.

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a jump at the melting point, incorpora-

A/It tion into Drude's model cannot explainso . . . I I I the change in absorptance.

The observed enhancement in ab-sorptance by a factor of seven at themelting point is crucial for control of

o40.I -aterials processed by lasers when theI liquid phase is present. Uhlenbusch

• 5 indicated that the behavior at meltingis a new and unexpected result. If that

30. is so, the observed discontinuity willbe important to evaluations of laserlethality in defense applications.

20. References

Dreehsen, G.G., C. Hartwich, J.H.Schafer, and J. Uhlenbusch, Journalof Applied Physics, in press.

0.o Odenthal, H., and J. Uhlenbusch, IEEEPS-8, 4 (1980), 431.

Sekhan, J.A., and R. Mehrabian, Metal-/,r lurgical Transactions, B2 (1981),

0. - 411..3 . .7 9 U Uhlenbusch, J., Proceedings of the 16th

T/K E- E3 International Conference on Pheno-mena in Ionized Gases (Duesseldorf,

Figure 6. Absorptance versus tempera- 29 August-2 September 1983).

ture.

and W2 were rotated about the axis of 12/13/83

the reflected beam to cover the completeellipse. The angle of incidence a wasvaried from 30 degrees to 80 degrees, SCIENCE POLICYand the electric vector of the linearlypolarized beam was oriented at 45degrees to the plane of incidence. This EUROPEAN COMMUNITY STIMULATES RESEARCHorientation leads to a particularlystraightforward determination of the by James W. Daniel, Scientific Directorcomplex index of refraction from the for Europe and the Middle East for thepolarization of the reflected beam Office of Naval Research's London Branch(Dreehsen et al.). Office. Dr. Daniel. is on leave until

Measurements were performed for September 1985 from the University ofCO2-laser powers of 15 W, 100 W, and 1.6 Texas, where he is Professor of Mathe-

kW while the surface temperature of the ati of Computer Sciences, and ofA aluminum target was continuously varied

from room temperature to 1100 0 K. Figure6 summarizes results as the temperature The European Economic Communityvariation of percent absorptance. The (EEC) has completed the first phase ofsmall variations associated with the its 2-year experimental program to makedifferent laser powers are attributed to European R&D more effective by stimulat-additional heating by the laser. ing multinational research efforts. The

The most important feature of the EEC's Directorate-General XII forresults is a discontinuous jump at the Science, Research, and Development hasmelting point (9330K). The index of announced 34 research awards involvingrefraction decreases smoothly as a 88 institutions and some $3,800,000function of temperature and shows no (about 4,500,000 European Currencysuch discontinuity. For completeness, Units; 1 ECU in November 1983 was worththe experiment is compared to the Drude approximately $0.85). Among the awardstheory for solid bodies, which is valid is a $1,700,000 project on opticalfor 100-percent pure aluminum without bistability that has an optical computersurface oxidation. Since the experimen- as its goal.tal samples had both bulk impurities andsurface oxidation, the poor agreement is Backgroundconsidered tolerable. Although the The EEC's so-called "stimulationelectrical conductivity also experiences activity" was announced only in July

A 146

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1983; it is a key part of the new (4) research designed to analyze andEuropean research and science strategy disseminate information on theproposed for coordinating the EEC's strengths, weaknesses, and needs ofentire research effort (see ESN 37-12: European R&D.455-456 [1983]). I recently spoke with • Operation contracts to linkCharles White, head of the stimulation existing multinational teams in a majorprogram, about its goals and procedures. effort toward a scientitic or technical

According to White and to the breakthrough with a potentially impor-formal announcement of the stimulation tant impact on EEC needs or problems.activity, the community believes its R&Defforts are as good as anyone's; ,they Researchers in all member states wereare not, however, being effectively invited to submit proposals for any oftranslated into economically competitive the above activities and in any scien-advantages for the member states. Many tific field. In evaluating the propos-difficulties appear to contribute to als, however, preference would be giventhis inefficiency, and the formal to those in seven fields chosen forannouncement highlighted three: special emphasis: (1) applications to

pharmacobiology of new results incellular and molecular biology, (2)

me The wastage of energy and resources transitory phenomena in climatology, (3)arising from the fragmentation. . behavior of materials as they approachin European research .... ignition under combustion conditions,

" The increasingly damaging and irrele- (4) applications of mathematics tovant compartmentalization of activi- optics problems involving lasers andties, disciplines, and sectors in the bistability, (5) applications of surfaceEuropean R&D system .... chemistry and surface physics to inter-

, The difficulty of organizing resourc- surface exchange, (6) applications ofes quickly enough to develop promis- photometry and photoaqoustics to theing new ideas or results." nondestructive analysis of materials,

and (7) applications of solid state* The stimulation activity was created as physics to structure phenomena and

an experimental approach to these fabrication processes for compositedifficulties. materials.

The Stimulation-Activity Experiment Proposals and ProceduresOn 1 July 1983 the EEC announced The call for proposals produced

that it would spend almost $6,000,000 on 1500 inquiries, of which 275 were soonits 2-year experiment--about $300,000 on submitted 'formally; of these, 258 metadministration and about $2,850,000 per the requirements of the program and wereyear on research activities. If the thus eligible to compete for funding.experiment proves successful, the hope The largest numbers of eligible propos-is to increase the annual outlay in als were from the UK and Italy, eachstimulation activities to nearly with around a quarter of the total; next$45,000,000 by 1987. In the experimen- came France with about 20 percent,tal phase, support was made available to Belgium with about 15 percent, and Thefour types of activities: Netherlands with about 10 percent (note

that very few were from Germany). The0 Research grants to facilitate success of the plan in encouraging

mobility among researchers by funding: cooperative research is indicated by the(1). travel and subsistence to transfer a fact that the 217 projects involved 514researcher to work in a laboratory in different laboratories--95 in France, 82another member state, and (2) salary and in the UK, 64 in Belgium, and 61 inresearch for someone to join a research Germany, to name just the largest.team for a limited period. The proposals were evaluated by the

e Twinning contracts to facilitate EEC's Committee on European Developmentcooperative multinational research by of Science and Technology (CODEST),funding: (1) meetings among the re- which comprises one to four representa-searchers, (2) joint experiments, (3) tives of each member state. The indi-exchanges of results, and (4) acquisi- viduals on CODEST are chosen by thetions of human and material resources. Directorate-General XII, not by the

. Subsidies to encourage informa- member states themselves. The memberstion exchange by funding: (1) interdis- are an impressive lot; Nobel laureate I.ciplinary European meetings; (2) spe- Prigogine is a Belgian representative,cialized meetings involving basic for example. The primary selectionresearchers, applied researchers, criteria for those proposals meeting theengineers, and industrialists; (3) purposes of the program were scientificshort-term exchanges of researchers; and quality and value to the EEC; CODEST

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also favored supporting young investiga- a successful effort to stimulate indus-tors in order to provide for the future, trial cooperation in its universities.

Both groups of universities presentlyThe Results have such productive ties, and the

Funds were awarded to 34 projects government pursues a now even-handedinvolving 88 laboratories. Twenty-eight policy to stimulate still more; in manyof the projects are twinning contracts, funding programs, industry-universitywith only three research grants and two interaction is a high-priority criterionsubsidies. As planned, only one large for support.operations contract was awarded, namely As another example, considerfor research on optical bistability and Belgium's nearly 25-year-old effort toits role in an optical computer; and in coordinate R&D policy nationally. Partthe second year of the stimulation- of this effort seeks to coordinate theactivity experiment, only proposals for funding of research by the varioustwinning contracts, research grants, and governmental ministries; each of five--subsidies will be eligible. Economic Affairs, the Prime Ministry,

The largest share of the funds Education, Public and Family Health, and(about 26 percent) will go to proposals Agriculture--contributes at leastfrom the UK; France is close behind with $40,000,000 annually to support R&D.about 21 percent. Italy garnered around Yet, historically, Belgian governments13 percent, as did Germany; without its are usually coalitions of variousfunds in the large operations contract, parties; the chairmen of the advisoryhowever, Germany's share would be only 3 National Council for Science Policy andpercent. Next comes Belgium with 12 of the Ministerial Committee for Sciencepercent; no others exceeded 10 percent. Policy usually find it difficult to

Because of the selection procedure, obtain agreement on R&D recommendationsthe list should contain important in the face of the typical seriousresearch projects by many of the EEC's political divergence.best younger individuals and groups. These somewhat divisive forces,The EEC is confident that its stimu- however, appear at most to slow Belgianlation experiment will produce high technological progress rather than toquality research, hopeful that it will stop it. The full range of R&D--basichelp eliminate the perceived barriers to research, applied research, development,"ranslating R&D into competitive advan- and production--is supported and stimu-tages. It will be easier to judge the lated through both independent privateformer's success than the latter's. sources and centrally controlled govern-

. ment sources. In a recent round ofEuropean Economic Community (EEC)

12/1/83 research awards given on the basis ofresearch excellence, Belgium receivedabout 12 percent of the funding (see

BELGIAN R&D preceding article). For comparison,Belgium is generally considered to

by Jamea W. DanieZ. account for only about 6 percent of EECresources. Thus it appears that BelgianR&D is successful. Let's examine where

Scientific and technological R&D policy comes from, what it is, and.evelopments in Belgium reflect the same how it manifests itself financially.polarity found throughout that smallnation: tension between Dutch-speaking Policy Formationand French-speaking populations versus Poricylof course evolves both

9> the unifying forces of a popular mon- somewhat randomly--through the individ-archy and central government. The ual actions of research groups in busi-forces of fusion appear to be winning ness and industry--as well as determi-over those of fission, with the result nately, through government action. Inthat Belgian R&D is having increasing Belgium, about 60 percent of R&D isnational impact with world-class status funded by industry; this figure is morein several areas, such as molecular like 50 percent in most industrial na-biology and thermodynamics. tions. (Note: the government's view is

Tensions between Belgium's two that public support needs to increase incultural groups affect the advance of order to achieve balance and to liftR&D in a variety of ways. For example, total R&D support to the typical 2 per-a decade ago the French-speaking univer- cent of the gross national product forsities generally had few industrial most industrial nations.) This fundingties, while the Dutch-speaking generally is quite narrowly concentrated: of thehad many; political pressures from the about $800,000,000 industry spendsFrench-speaking population brought about annually on R&D, 25 percent is spent by

148

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just four companies, 50 percent by 20, s Coordinate resource use so as toand 75 percent by 70; the remaining 25 eliminate duplication of effortpercent is spent by the other 800 or so • Channel research efforts along linescompanies engaged in some sort of R&D. consonant. with community needsViewed differently, 33 percent is spent e Provide scientific and industrialin the chemical and pharmaceutical users of R&D with ready access toindustries, 13 percent in electronics, knowledgeand 11 percent in metals, with the s Stimulate exploitation of R&D for theremainder scattered widely. In this economic and social benefit ofindustrial sector, R&D policy of course society.is driven primarily by market forces andthe existing industrial structure of the The present orientation of that policynation. Yet the government--with some is perhaps most clearly expressed in asuccess, as you'll see below--seeks to February 1983 document from the SPPS,influence industrial R&D through various emphasizing "the inter-relationshipstimulation programs. Where are these between the expansion of higher educa-government policies created? tion, the promotion of research, the

Decisions on science policy are development of the national technologi-made by the Ministerial Committee for cal potential and economic and socialScience Policy (CMPS), chaired by the objectives and, therefore, the need toPrime Minister and including Ministers translate . . . action . . . into policywith responsibilities in science and terms, so that science can be placed ateducation. Senior officials from those the service of the nation'sministries form the Inter-ministerial aims . . . ." Thus overall policyCommission for Science Policy (CIPS), involves supporting basic research whilewhich implements CMPS decisions affect- increasingly seeking to stimulate anding two or more ministries. The CIPS is emphasize industrial applications ofchaired by the Secretary General of the such research.Science Policy Programming Services Basic research is supported primar-(SPPS), part of the Prime Minister's ily by the universities, which are inservice staff. And it is this SPPS that turn funded by the government; of thisproVides the permanent professional research support, some 26 percent is iningredient for the government's science physics and chemistry, 23 percent inpolicy; it has responsibilities such as: medicine and pharmacy, 21 percent in

" Budget analysis and annual prepara- biology and agriculture, 13 percent intion of the science budget social sciences, 10 percent in engineer-* Planinghesues t ing, and 7 percent elsewhere. Addition-industrial research al government funds for basic researchinustial reeaurch oare distributed by various foundations:

" Planning measures to stimulate the National Fund for Scientific Re-university research search (FNRS), the Fund for Basic

" Analysis every 2 years of Belgium's Collective Research (FRFC), the Fund forscientific potential Scientific Medical Research (FRSM), and

" Operation of the "national programs" thenteieity nstitut fordescribed later the Interuniversity Institute for

" Administration of space research Nuclear Sciences (IISN). Some basic" Formulation of policy on Belgian research is also supported at various

participation in cooperative science public institutions, such as the Botani-ventures with other nations c cal Gardens, the Royal Observatory, and

the Service for Hydrological Studies. AFormal advice from outside the govern- special fund of roughly $10,000,000 perment comes from the National Council for year is used for so-called "concertedScience Policy, composed of representa- research projects," generally 6-yeartives from science, education, business, plans to develop world-class centers of

-I and industry; its present president, excellence in important fields atProf. R. van Geen of the University of universities; there are now about 30Brussels, is the first academic to head centers on such diverse topics asthis influential advisory body. Through dissipative structures, molecular andthese various bodies is government cellular biology, microelectronics, newpolicy on R&D formulated and implement- metal-based or polymer-based materials,ed. What is the result? surface science, integrated optics, and

oceanography.Government Science Policy Belgium has developed several

The formal aims of the Belgian programs to stimulate industrial partic-science policy are to: ipation in and application of research.e Ensure that appropriate resources are The Ministries for Economic Affairs and

available for scientific education, for Agriculture fund the Institute forA research, and development the Promotion of Scientific Research in

149

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Industry and Agriculture (IRSIA); By universities ........... $122,000,000collective research programs in industry By the FNRS ............... $ 17,000,000and agriculture can *receive 50 percent By the FRSM ............... $ 12,000,000funding from IRSIA. The "national By the IISN ............... $ 13,000,000programs" run by SPPS devote roughly By the FRFC ............... $ 12,000,000$20,000,000 annually to support research Xn "concertedprograms that are in specifically research projects" ....... $ 10,000,000identified areas, involve both univer- For Belgium's supportsity and industry, and are planned to of CERN ................... $ 15,000,000lead to the actual manufacture of aproduct by the end of the support for a total of about $201,000,000.period. The first such national program Those funds identified as for appliedproduced a numerical model of the North research were spent as follows:Sea that is widely used by industrialand governmental groups. Later national By the ministries .......... $62,000,000programs led to commercial products such gy government labs ......... $89,000,000as photovoltaic cells and wood gasifi- By IRSIA ................... $92,000,000ers. The present national programs are By "national programs" ..... $17,000,000in energy (especially solar, synthetic, By international programs .. $48,000,000and biomass); information technology(especially optical fibers, office for a total of about $308,000,000. Theautomation, and microelectronics); basic and applied research funds to-aerospace and associated technologies gether total about $509,D00,000 from the(especially materials, electronics, and government, compared with thethe Airbus program); and the life $800,000,000 typically invested bysciences (especially biotechnology and industry in R&D.collections of strains). In generalthese national programs have been verysuccessful in promoting university-industry interaction from fundamental 12/2/83research through manufacture.

FinancesFigures from the SPPS for 1983 show GERMAN RESEARCH FOUNDATION- FUNDING

that government expenditures on re- PATTERNSsearch, development, and .dueationtotaled roughly $1,051,000,000, with by James W. DanieZ.sources distributed about as follows:

National Education ........ $622,000,000 The Deutsche ForschungagemeinschaftCulture ................... $ 8,000,000 (DFG) is the primary organization in theDefense ................... $ 13,000,000 Federal Republic of. Germany (FRG, orEconomic Affairs .......... $176,000,000 West Germany) for the external fundingAgriculture ................ $ 44,000,000 of research in universities. It isPublic Works .............. $ 4,000,000 similar to the combination of the USPrime Minister ............. $ 81,000,000 National Science Foundation, NationalPublic & Family Health .... $ 55,000,000 Institutes of Healtb, National EndowmentForeign Relations ......... $ 46,000,000 for the Humanities, and like agenciesOther ..................... $ 2,000,000 all rolled into one. The level and

distribution of its monies among variousThe SPPS grouped the expenditures under programs thus reflect and influence thesix headings representing the use of the direction of West German research. Thisfunds: $508,000,000 for the operation article examines recent aod plannedof universities; $54,000,000 for the trends in DFG funding.specific support of universityresearch; $205,000,000 for the support Backgroundof research in agriculture and industry; The DFG is a not-for-profit private$107,000,000 for research in public organization; approximately 53 percent

. institutions other than in agriculture of its overall funding comes from theor industry; $75,000,000 for support FRG federal government, and 47 percentof international organizations; and from the governments of the individual$102,000,000 for miscellaneous transfers states in the FRG. A small amount ofto universities for such things as additional funds is raised privately.teaching hospitals. Its programs do not support institutes,

Those funds specifically identified but rather are intended for individualsby the SPPS as supporting basic research or small groups. Its policies arewere spent as follows: determined by a complex system involving

150

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a DFG general assembly, executive board, Special Collaborative Programs.* senate, board of trustees, grants This approach is used to fund centers of

committee, review committees, and so on; excellence in universities for 12- tothis pluralistic structure provides for 15-year periods; the host universitiesdecentralized decision-making, with much commit themselves to providing a suffi-influence in the hands of research cient base of staff and equipment soexperts. Research projects are support- that the DFG support can provide theed in a wide range of areas, including margin needed for excellence in the

. the natural sciences, the humanities, general research subject chosen. Thethe arts, medicine, and engineering, number of such centers has risen from

* 114 in 1979 to 128 in 1982; individualSupport Programs 1983 budgets range from about $215,000

The DFG manages several forms of to about $2,900,000. Some 31 percent ofresearch support; the most interesting the DFG's budget is expended in thisfrom the perspective of US science are manner.the so-called "Normal Procedure and Heisenberg Program. In light of USResearch Groups," "Priority Programs," concerns over the support and supply of"Special Collaborative Programs," young scientists, this program is of"Heisenberg Program," and "Central special interest, even though it in-Research Facilities." volves less than 2 percent of the DFG's

Normal Procedure and Research funds. It provides full support for 5Groups. Approximately 45 percent of the years for young scientists--typicallyDFG's funds are spent each year in this under 35 years old--to pursue whateverprogram; it aims to support unsolicited research wherever they choose. The goalresearch by an individual or group of at is not merely to support good research;most six. Funds are provided to support it is to provide positions for youngstaff, equipment, travel, publication, scientists when university positions arepostdoctoral fellowships, and sabbati- very difficult to obtaip. Although onlycals. Research workers--not institu- 80 percent of the available funds hastions--are awarded the grants; any been awarded each year, DFG officialsresearcher, regardless of his or her consider the program successful: halfemployment situation, may apply. The the recipients accept permanent univer-table below shows the numbers of grant sity or research posts before theirapplications and the percentage funded Heisenberg awards expire.in recent years: Central Research Facilities.

Occasionally the DFG provides funds for1979 1980 1981 1982 the purchase of major equipment or

Number of facilities to be used by researchersapplications 5419 6261 5941 6090 throughout the country; many of the

research fields thus aided are interdis-Percent ciplinary. In 1983, these centralfunded 67.6 62.1 60.8 57.7 facilities included equipment for solar

physics, seismology, oceanography,The DFG leadership is concerned about geochronology, geophotometry and remotethis steady drop in the percent funded sensing, laboratory animals, mutagenics,and hopes to reverse the trend in the and polling methods and analysis.next few years. Other Programs. Miscellaneous

projects are supported by the DFG inPriority Programs. The DFG Senate areas such as libraries and library

ocqasionally identifies specific subject services, international cooperation andareas in which it wishes to stimulate exchange, and coordination and policy.research; applications are then solicit-ed from selected individuals for 5-year Budget Trendsresearch projectb. The first such In real terms (allowing for infla-program was created in 1952; in recent tion), the DFG's budget has remainedyears there have been about 100 Priority nearly constant since 1981--aboutPrograms operating at any time, consum- $294,800,000 in 1981 dollars. DFGing roughly 14 percent of the DFG's officials are optimistic, however, thatbudget. Approximately 40 new Programs the next 3 years will be rosier; withare presently planned for 1984-86, 7-percent cash increases, 2- to 3-per-including areas such as parasitology; cent inflation means growth in real

.. plasma diagnostics; the material, terms. Some broad program areas willstructure, and dynamics of the continen- fare slightly better than others, sincetal crust; nonlinear phenomena in the small shifts in the distribution ofatmosphere; energy- and material-trans- funds among areas are planned: (1) theport in phase transitions; and micro- Normal Procedure and Research Groupscrystalline materials, will get a slightly increasing share

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Table I

DFG Budget

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Normal/Groups 130.3* 137.7 134.4 148.1 163.0 179.0(44.2) (44.7) (41.8) (43.0) (44.1) (45.0)

Priority Progs. 39.1 44.5 43.6 46.8 49.0 51.5(13.3) (14.4) (13.5) (13.6) (13.2) (12.9)

Spec. Collab. 91.9 96.1 102.8 107.0 113.4 120.2(31.2) (31.2) (31.9) (31.1) (30.6) (30.2)

Heisenberg 3.7 4.4 5.3 6.6 7.5 8.3(1.3) (1.4) (1.6) (1.9) (2.0) (2.1)

Facilities 5.0 5.4 8.1 7.6 7.1 6.5(1.7) (1.8) (2.5) (2.2) (1.9) (1.6)

Other 24.8 20.3 28.0 28.3 30.3 32.3(8.3) (6.7) (8.7) (8.2) (8.2) (8.2)

Total 294.8 308.4 322.2 344.4 370.3 397.8(100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)

• Millions of dollars (percent of column total)

(from 41.8 percent in 1983 to 45 percent of population. Total R&D expenditure inin 1986); (2) the Heisenberg Program Norway is just under $500 million pershare will rise steadily from 1.6 year, which is roughly 1 percent of herpercent to 2.1 percent; (3) the Central gross domestic product. About half ofResearch Facilities share will fall from the total R&D spending is in the busi-2.5 percent to 1.6 percent; and (4) the ness sector; a little over half isshares of the other areas will decrease government funding, of which about halfvery slightly. These trends appear to goes to institutions of higher educa-indicate an increased emphasis on the tion. The distribution of Norway's R&Dresearch support of individuals, with a funds for 1981, summarized by sector andcorresponding decrease in the support of discipline, is shown in Table 1 (thiscentralized projects. has been adapted from "Research in

Table 1 gives the approximate bud- Norway," distributed by the Royalget--both as a percentage of the total Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1981]).and as an absolute amount in millions of Government R&D is generally admin-dollars (assuming DM 1.00 = $0.36)--for istered by a research council system in1981-86 in each of the broad program which councils are attached to variousareas, ministries, such as Education, Industry,

Agriculture, and Fisheries. The 40-mem-ber Norwegian Council for Scientific and

12/1/83 Industrial Research (NTNF), for example,is attached to the Ministry of Industry,although it has members representing

ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH IN NORWAY other ministries as well as variousindustries and research institutions.

b.R. Barr. Dr. Barr, formery at The NTNF is responsible for promotingORB LondonaiP. rofessor ofSt st# technological and scientific researchONR, London, is Professor of Statisticsand Operations Research at the NavaZ and for ensuring transfer of researchPostgraduate School, Monterey, CA. findings to Norwegian industry as a

whole. NTNF directly sponsors researchin fields such as manufacturing, con-

Norway, with just over 4 million struction, and shipping; it has alsoinhabitants, is a small country in terms established over a dozen research

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Table 1

R&D Funding in Norway by Sectorand Discipline for 1981(in millions of dollars)

SECTOR Business Public Foreign Other Total

Business 157.0 53.7 3.6 8.6 222.8Private nonbusiness 0.4 1.7 0.04 0.7 2.8Public 2.7 78.9 4.9 3.6 90.1Universities and colleges 2.2 131.7 0.6 3.1 137.6

Total 162.3 266.1 9.1 16.0 453.4

DISCIPLINE

Humanities 0.5 18.6 0.1 0.8 20.0Social sciences 0.6 35.6 0.3 0.6 37.1Natural science & math 2.7 65.4 0.8 1.1 70.0Medicine 0.6 42.9 0.5 2.8 46.7Agriculture 0.8 22.3 0.1 1.8 25.0Technology 157.1 81.3 7.3 8.9 254.5

Total 162.3 266.1 9.1 16.0 453.4

institutes and is directly involved in In addition, thert are a number of. international research cooperation, such colleges, such as the Norwegian School

a space research in collaboration with of Economics and BuSiness Administrationthe European Space Agency and the US and the Norwegian School of Architec-National Aeronautics and Space Admini- ture. Norway also has several appliedstration. research institutes, most of which were

A second council that should be originally established by the NTNF.mentioned is the Norwegian Research These institutes, though funded by theCouncil for Science and the Humanities various ministries, are essentially(NAVF), which is attached to the Minis- self-governing through boards composedtry of Church and Education. NAVF in- of researchers and research sponsors.teracts with university researchers and An example is the Institute of Marinecoordinates and encourages interdisci- Research, which is supported by theplinary research. NAVF is also directly Ministry of Fisheries; this institute isengaged in international research pro- responsible for the operation of Nor-jects, such as the European Science way's fisheries research ships.Foundation, the United Nations Educa-tional, Scientific and Cultural Organi-zation's Man and the Biosphere program, 1//83ahd the European Incoherent ScatterRadar Facility in the Auroral Zone.

Universities and other higher SPACE SCIENCEeducational establishments in Norwaycarry out a major portion of the coun-try's basic research. The couitry has INDUSTRIALIZATION OF SPACE IS DISTANTfour universities: GOAL" The University of Oslo, established

in 1811, having almost 20,000 stu- by R.L. CaroviZlano. Dr. CaroviZZano ie

dents; the Liaison Soientist for Spaoe Physioa

" * The University of Bergen, established in Europe and the Middle East for thein 1946, with about 8000 students; Offioe of NavaZ Reaearoh'e London Branoh

" The University of Trondheim, estab- Offio. He is on leave until June 2984

lished in 1969 throuqh a federation from Boston College, where he is Profee-

of several well-established Norwegian 9o of Physios.institutions, with 8000 students;

" The University of TromsO, established The Royal Society conducted ain 1968, with an enrollment of almost discussion meeting entitled "Technology2000. in the 1990st The Industrialization of

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Space," on 7 and 8 December 1983 in largest single application and willLondon. The opening address was given continue to be significant, if notby Kenneth Baker, member of parliament dominant, in the foreseeable future.and Minister of State for Industry and The International Satellite Organi-Information Technology of the Department zation (Intelsat) began in 1964 with 11of Trade and Industry. Baker reviewed members and one satellite, the Earlybriefly the accomplishments of the space Bird that was renamed Intelsat 1. Todayprogram from Apollo through the Shuttle the organization consists of 104 memberand pointed out that space has become an nations or signatories; and 17 satel-area of mature engineering. The assess- lites are operating. The organizationment must be made in the US and in is run by a board of governors thatEurope whether the costly systems now in consists of about 20 members--one fordevelopment have the economy, flexibil- each of the 13 largest signatories, plusity, adaptability, and suitability to a member for groups of signatories thatmeet future needs. Future space program collectively exceed a designated size.developments will be too costly for any Charges for using the system are basedsingle nation, and international coop- on telephone circuits per annum.eration is essential. Baker stated that Through the years, in equivalent dol-the European Space Agency (ESA) is the lars, the usage cost has gone from aboutbest example of cooperation in high $32,000 to its current value of $4,000technology and credited ESA with suc- per annum per one-half telephone cir-cessfully carrying out European commit- cuit. Usage charges cover all opera-ments made more than a decade ago. tional costs and overhead, depreciation,Looking ahead, Baker stated that the and a 14 percent per year average returnearnings of developers of space will on capital invested.exceed those of the hardware developers, Intelsat covers the globe in threeand that exploiters of space will profit sectors--designated the Atlantic Oceangreatly. Space telecommunications is sector, the Pacific Ocean sector, andalready a big business throughout the the Indian Ocean sector. The bulk ofworld; and markets for space-based the traffic is telephone usage and dataservices are already large outside of transmission by means of telephoneNorth America. circuitry. Television has become a

Conference speakers reviewed heavy user, too. The Atlantic region iscurrent space satellite and tracking the largest user, about three timescapabilities, assessed space business larger than the Indian sector and fouropportunities, discussed financing of times larger than the Pacific sector.space business ventures, and described As new satellites are developed, thefuture space efforts being planned or satellites in use are rotated cleverlyunder development, from high- to low-use regions to provide

G.K.C. Pardoe, Managing Director, adequate coverage with older or earlierGeneral Technology Systems Ltd., and generation equipment. Intelsat 4, builtchairman of the UK Remote Sensing Board, by Hughes, and Intelsat 5, the three-presented an overview of the industrial- axis stabilized current generationization of space. Opportunities include satellite built by Ford Aerospace, arecommunication, transportation, educa- in use now. Intelsat 6 is under con-tion, services, materials development, struction by Hughes and will have aboutland use, disaster control, water re- 30,000 telephone circuits, TV capabil-sources, and technological spin-offs. ity, and a digital data transmissionDifficulties include maintaining and system that effectively amplifies theservicing space and ground stations for available circuits by a factor of 2 toreliability; the need to provide inter- 2.5.national cooperation and organization In the past, high growth rates inthrough a coordinated centralized international communications haveapproach; insurance; and the proper produced a new generation Intelsatinterfacing of the financial and techni- satellite about every 5 years. Practi-cal communities for space ventures. The cal factors such as frequency-bandlevel of benefits to be gained from limitations, development costs, and needcurrent and future technical develop- preclude the liklihood of such continuedments in space will depend crucially on growth. Intelsat 6 is so expensive andthe manner in which the world community large that its implementation willorganizes itself, affect the satellite replacement philos-

A.K. Jefferis, chief executive of ophy used in the past. Intelsat 6 issatellite systems, British Telecom far too large to rotate into low-useInternational, spoke about the Intelsat sectors even late in its operationalglobal communications system. In terms lifetime, and it would be more practicalof the industrialization of space, to use earlier generation satellites forsatellite communication constitutes the that purpose.

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In a recent development, European coming and the plan is to provide directgovernments have established ECS, a broadcast to the home user in the comingregional communications satellite system years.that will become operational soon and O. Lundberg (director general,will be used into the 1990s. Satellites INMARSAT) spoke on maritime satellitecannot compete with terrestrial networks communications needs that led to the

" for local telecommunications. ECS is establishment of the Internationalintended to prepare the telecommunica- Maritime Satellite Organization (INMAR-tions industry for the large world SAT) in 1979; its headquarters are inmarkets requiring intermediate distance London. Membership in INMARSAT is opencoverage in the near future, to all nations; currently there are 38

M.Y. Demerliac, Director General of members or signatories. Because ofEurospace, Paris, spoke about the financial uncertainties, the organiza-communications system in Africa and the tion initially required backing fromrecommended use of satellites. The public funds and from ESA. Todaycurrent communications system in Africa capital needs are provided by theis limited primarily to telecommunica- signatories in proportion to theirtion services between capital cities and investment shares, and the organizationbetween capital cities and Europe by levies usage fees to operate on a soundmeans of Intelsat. There are about 7 to economic basis. The largest investment70 direct exchange lines per 10,000 shares are held by the US (23.4 per-inhabitants. About 80 percent of the cent), the USSR (14.1 percent), the UKtelephones are in the capital cities, (9.9 percent), Norway (7.8 percent), andand almost none are in rural areas that Japan (7.9 percent).contain more than 80 percent of the The purpose of INMARSAT is topopulation. Generally, radio coverage provide the space system needed toand (especially) quality are poor. improve maritipe communications forTelevision exists almost exclusively in efficient ship operatiod, navigation andcapital cities. position determination, safety, andment Eurospace recommends the establish- distress. Rescue operations at sea are

men ofa ddictedsatellite system notoriously expensive and dangerous--so(AFSAT) complemented by a large number a large amount of money can be saved ifof small, ineipensive ground stations ships are kept out of trouble. Thisthat would provide wide coverage into saving helps underwrite large technolog-rural and remote areas. Development ical programs. The main elements of thecosts would be about $800 million for INMARSAT system are the space segmentthe ground segment and $200 million for with associated ground support facili-the satellite segment. Operational ties, coastal earth stations, and shipcosts would be about $15 million per earth stations. INMARSAT funds theyear, including $5 million per year for space segment, the signatories generallythe governing African agency. In fund the coastal stations, and privateproviding telecommunications coverage, companies fund the ship stations.ground systems are cheaper than satel- S. Metzger, former chief scientistlites for connecting distances less than at the US Communications Satellite50 to 100 km. The plan is to finance Corporation, reviewed the development ofthe program through intergovernmental earth-based terminals for communicationscontributions and risk capital from the satellites. The latest antennas willprivate sector. operate in two polarization modes. In

P.L.V. Hickman, managing director effect there will be two sets of ampli-of the Space Division, British Aero- fiers in the satellite, one transmittingspace, spoke on the British direct in the vertical polarization mode andbroadcast system known as Unisat. one in the horizontal. Ao additionalUnisat is a successful commercial intermediate polarization ranges will beventure formed by several British available. The latest business servicecorporations and financed from the antennas will be only 3.5 m in diameter.private sector. Hickman indicated that Admiral W. Ramsey described thecapital leasing was used in place of navigation satellites of the US Navy.equity financing or outright loans. The TRANSIT is the current navigation systemapproach requires adequate insurance and it will be replaced by NAVSTAR in aagainst instant satellite mortality and few years. The TRANSIT system 6onsistsis available through New York and of six satellites in orbit--five opera-London. The 10-year lifetime of the tional and one spare. The system is 19satellites and the use of Ariane, the years old, and two of the satellitesEuropean rocket launcher, have lowered have been in use for 17 years. Theinsurance rates. Once in space, satel- original design lifetime of the satel-lites have proven to be very reliable. lite was merely 3 years, so the systemCable communication will be slow in has been very successful. The US Navy

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has 800 user sets. Worldwide there are The rest of the meeting related to3700 sets, mostly owned by commercial current and planned systems that wouldusers. The current cost of the user set significantly impact the commercializa-is $2700, and the cost reduction from tion of space. Ariane, the Shuttle,its original value of $65,000 has opened European and US remote sensing programs,the market. At only 1 to 4 hours per and the development of space dataday, coverage is not continuous; the systems were discussed. S. Tilfordsystem is vulnerable; and the resolu- (Environmental Sciences Division, UStion, 160 m at best, is less than National Aeronautics and Space Admini-needed. stration (NASA]) discussed NASA's space

The NAVSTAR, or Global Positioning remote-sensing program and the cross-System (GPS), will use 18 satellites disciplinary approach to determine basicorbiting at 10,900 nautical miles with a geophysical processes through missions12-hour period. Global coverage will be such as LANDSAT, UARS, TOPEX, andprovided by orbiting six satellites in SEASAT. P. Anson (Marconi Space andeach of three planes of motion. With Defence Systems, UK) similarly describedthree satellites viewing a target area, the European Remote Sensing Satellitethree-dimensional information and a (ERS-l). Tilford, Anson, and D.D. Hardyresolution of about 20 m. With a fourth (Royal Aircraft Establishment, UK)satellite viewing, dynamical character- emphasized the dramatic improvementsistics of the target area are also needed in data processing and handling

A' determined. About 20,000 user sets are for remote processing information to beplanned for all segments of US military available in anything near real-time.forces. Possible commercial interests in remote

J. MacArthur (director, Kleinwort- sensing were suggested for products suchBenson Ltd., London) discussed financing as soil moisture indices, temperaturespace ventures. A shifting emphasis is indications of sea nutrients, wave-taking place in the financing of space height determinations, weather monitor-from the public to the private sector. ing, and determination of pollutionRisks are high in space, but the payoff zones.potential can be even higher. Possible Throughout the program, speakersmeans of financing space ventures referred to the US space station asinclude joint partnerships, internation- though it were an approved program thata.l conglomerations involving different would expeditiously develop the facil-currencies, and risk venture capital. ity. The space-station concept isJohnson and Johnson and McDonnell highly controversial in the US, and bothDouglas Corp. have teamed up in a space the Department of Defense and the Spacepharmaceutical effort in the amount of Science Board of the National Academy of$150 td 200 million. Financial backing Sciences (NAS) have offered substantialby banks will require guarantees that opposition to it. R.F. Freitag (Spacewill probably have to be provided by Station Task Force, NASA) spoke aboutgovernments. Loan techniques for spade space stations and their potential uses.are developing, and forms such as Freitag is, of course, a strong propo-leasing may be suitable. nent of the space-station concept and

MacArthur emphasized that the space dismissed opposing viewpoints as tempo-sector, in attempting to operate on the rary in view of White House expectationsprivate market, will have to compete that the space program will take anwith the profitability available from exciting direction, with an expanded andalternative investment possibilities. permabent role for man in space.Risk assessment and reward potential Briefly, the viewpoint of the USwould be crucial considerations. The scientific community is that effectivecontinued success of the Shuttle will use of the Shuttle for scientific

"- improve the possibility of private purposes, such as for launching largefinancing because of insurability and instruments or laboratories and fordemonstrated reliability. servicing and retrieving payloads in

At the moment the expenditure of orbit, should have top priority in theprivate funds in space is very small, next decade. In evaluating a NASAWith further successes in space, govern- proposal for a manned space station withment encouragement could stimulate proposed scientific missions for theprivate investments. Perhaps in 15 1990s, the Space Science Board statedyears or less, financial institutions that "few of these missions wouldwill consider funding ventures in space acquire significant scientific oras they now do offshore oil rigs and technical enhancement by virtue of beingnuclear power plants. In the long term, implemented from this space station,"space will compete as just another and that the requirements to carry outbusiness for private investments and all top-priority missions now underfinancing. development or consideration by NASA

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.- could be provided by the Shuttle. An

underlying concern of the space science- *., community--based on long experience--is THE NORWEGIAN COMPUTING CENTER

the inevitable cost overruns of largeprograms and the relatively low priority by D.R. Barr. Dr. Barr, formerly at

-.. science has in resulting budgetary ONR, London, is Professor of Statistics

battles. The space science community is and Operations Research at the Naval

small and fragile, and further long Postgraduate SchooZ, Monterey, CA.

* .~o delays in program opportunity wouldseriously undermine its vitality or TNC O ox C3mputeng Osloe3existence. (NCC, P.O. Box 335-Blindern, Oslo 3,

In presenting this symposium, the Norway) employs about 60 researchRoyal Society assembled a distinguished professionals, mostly concerned withbody of executives, engineers, scien- data technology and the associated usetists, and other professionals to of quantitative methods and computers.discuss the future commercialization of The research is organized into threespace. Emphases were given to comamuni- branches: data technology, quantitativecations; materials development, particu- methods, and applied data processing.larly pharmaceuticals; manufacturing; Data Technologytransportation; remote sensing; and This branch has been working onfinancing requirements. Further sym- three projects: work stations forposia of this sort will be needed to programmers, programming languages andarticulate the issues and problems translations, and data networks. In all

. relating to the possible commercializa- of these, there has been interactiontion of space and to assemble propo- with university researchers in Norwaynents. and elsewhere. The computer language

Though enthusiasm and optimism SIMULA has been developed in the lan-exist, commercialization certainly guages project--this system is nowappears to be a remote goal. Despite implemented on a variety of computerthe fact that sustained progress in models and is widely used. Recently,space research and technology is requir- the "SIMULA machine" (the Mach-S worked for industry to take root and pros- station) has been developed, and it isper, NASA funds for space research and now undergoing testing and modification.technology have actually declined Applied Data Processingsteadily since 1962. In addition, This branch works on projects in aalthough ESA, France, Germany, the UK,and Japan all expressed interest in wide range of applications related to

. participating with NASA to develop the organizational and social aspects of thespace station, their collective finan- use of data technology. Generally thecial backing offered to the effort was applications concern methods of con-no more than 10 percent of the estimated structing and using data systems, takingcost. into account technology, organization,

The meeting was organized by Sir and the working environment.Harrie S.W. Massey, FRS, and Mr. G.K.C. Quantitative MethodsPardoe. The meeting was opened with the This is the largest branch at NCC;report that Massey had died 11 days it is concerned with research on mathe-earlier. Massey had a distinguished matical and statistical theory, methods,9cientific career that encompassed many and applications. Much of the work car-fields, including atomic and molecular ried out in this branch is done on con-physics, particle physics, astrophysics tract for various ministry and industryand space research. He is recognized groups. Recent projects have includedthroughout the world as a proponent of work related to natural resources (par-space exploration and has had a major ticularly use of remote sensing data forinfluence on the development of the exploration), medicine, public admini-British space effort since its incep- stration, and computer-assisted maption. production.

The latter project, called theResearch Program on Mapping and Spatial

Reference Data Management, has increased in sizeN s Report, National Academy of Sci- and currently accounts for about 40 per-

ences, Vol 32, No. 8 (October cent of NCC's contract activities. The1983), 23-24. mapping program is a 5-year project

which started in 1982. Last year, totalNorwegian government funding for theprogram amounted to roughly $1.5 mil-lion, with a similar amount contributed

12/14/83 by private industry and mapping system

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users. The program is composed of seven signature on the photo can be identifiedmajor efforts, involving: and compared with those in the map data

base. Thus changes in features such as" Developing new mapping equipment roads and .buildiigs, which change rela-* Developing general methods in mapping tively often, can be detected and incor-

and spatial data handling porated into the map data base. Fortun-" Finding methods for terrestrial otely, these features happen to have

resource mapping easily identifiable spectral signatures,* Mapping coastal areas and hydrograph- according to Kj~lberg.

ic mapping Another project at NCC concerns" Establishing mapping communication statistical analyses of data related to

networks, utility networks, and wind-transported pollutants, particular-similar systems ly those causing acidification of pre-

" Navigating and positioning digital cipitation. For several decades, south-maps and spatial data. ern Scandinavia has beer affected by

"acid rain"; measurements have been made

One particularly interesting facet of in Scandinavia since the mid-1950s. The

this program is the development of new increased acidity is caused mainly by

interactive cartographic work stations, sulphate carried by winds from industri-

The work on automated cartography, which al areas. Analysis of wind directions

was begun at NCC in 1974, is directed by and other meteorological conditions have

Dr. Truls Kj lberg. The group has work- shown that most of these pollutants areed on a new computer-assisted carto- coming from the south. They may be

graphy system called MIKADO, in collab- transported over very loug distances, on

oration with the Norwegian computer firm the order of several thousand kilome-Simulation Excel A/S and with other NCC ters. Since 1972 there has been a lev-

groups, such as the ones working on the eling out in sulphate concentrations inMach-S SIMULA machine and Ethernet on precipitation.the SIM-X S-2000 computer system. The Dr. E. Damsleth has been conductingSIM-X S-2000 has been developed as a a study of long-range transport of air

special computer for picture processing pollution into Norway. Time-serieswhich, according to KjO.lberg, bridges analysis and related techniques havethe gap between raster and vector data been widely used in analyses of air

processing. It is a stand-alone unit pollution, but Damsleth uses what hewith a SIMULA compiler which may be calls intervention analysis and transferlinked to a host computer via Ethernet. function modeling to describe the impactIt drives a high-resolution graphics of the prevailing wind direction on sul-screen, an input laser scanner for maps phate concentration in the air. Using

and hot gra hs, and an utp t l se observations from one station in south-scanner for plotting, ern Norway, Damsleth has shown that aMIKADO has four main modules, which standard auto-regressive moving averageMIKAO hs for min mduls, wich (ARMA) model of order 1 (an AR(1) model)handle data capture from existing maps,t e log-transformeddata capture from aerial photographs, data.digital terrain modeling, and landscape Damsleth divided the 360-degreegeneration. The goal is to create acartographic work station which gives compass into eight sectors, and classi-cartographers a chance to use their fied each day as "belonging" to a sectorskills, while exploiting data-processing if more than half the wind trajectory ontechnology in carrying out routine map- tat day withnt seo (bfmaking processes (mechanized drafting not, the day was not classified; aboutprocesses). This should produce superi- 23 percent of all days are of this cate-or maps at costs far lower than those gory.) After considerable data analysis,for maps making more extensive use of Damsleth adopted an ARMA (1,3) model forfield work, daily log-concentration as a function ofIn addition, digitized map informa- indicator variables representing dailytIon can be transformed or merged in wind sectors. He was also able to fit

various ways to produce relatively inex- monthly log geometric mean of dailypensive derivative map products (such as concentration, with a "sinusoidal"changes in scale, production of stereo model In Wt-.10 - .635t-1.05Ct+n t , wherepairs, or maps emphasizing features such - tas buildings, roads, and power lines). St sin((Zi-l)w/4)/Nt, where in turnOne module of MIKADO, particularly use- Zi is the sector value for day i, Nt isful in updating existing maps, compares the number of classifiable days in thean existing digital map with a newly monthe sum is over such days;taken aerial photograph of the same C has a similar definition in terms ofarea. Using pattern recognition proce- tdures, objects of specified spectral cosines, and nt is a noise term.

158

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Damsleth found close agreement of the best contributions (look for Bon-between the daily and monthly models arius, Van Heck, and Smid, forthcoming),with respect to the effects of wind and to form the European Association ofdirection. on sulphate concentration, Personality Psychology. The new associ-although quite different noise models ation will be formally founded at itsare involved. He concludes that the Second Conference, to be held at thewind direction has a significant impact Center for Interdisciplinary Research,on sulphate concentration at the obser- University of Bielefeld, Wellenberg 1,vation station involved. The log-trans- Federal Republic of Germany, from 16formed concentration has an almost through 19 May 1984. Invited speakersperfect sinusoidal relationship with include: H.J. Eysenck, Institute forwind direction. Damsleth now intends to Psychiatry, London; P. Roubertoux,apply these methods to data from several Institut National d'Orientation Profes-additional stations throughout Norway. sionelle, Paris; H. Thomae, University

of Bonn; B. Lomov, University of Moscow;and J. Reykowsky, Polish Academy ofSciences, Warsaw. There will also be

12/13/83 invited symposia on human action andmotivation, the social construction ofpersonality, the individuality concept,and experimental perception- and pro-

NEWS & NOTES cess-oriented personality research.Information about the association andthe conference can be obtained from Dr.

UK MOD DROPS SUPPORT OF ADA LANGUAGE G.L.M. Van Heck, Department of Psychol-ogy, Tilburg University, Box 90153, 5000

The British Ministry of Defence LE Tilburg, The Netherlands.(MoD) has decided to stop its financial The Europead Associotion of Experi-support of development of the ADA mental Social Psychology is a somewhatcomputer language, according to an older organization but with several newarticle in The Times (London), 6 Decem- initiatives. Its 20th anniversary Gen-ber 1983. The US Department of Defense eral Meeting will be held at Tilburgand the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- University, The Netherlands, from 9tion have scheduled ADA to become the through 12 May 1984. Special themes tomilitary standard language starting next be emphasized are social psychology andyear, although it is widely rumored that education, personality and social psy-actual introduction of the language may chology, the development of social be-have to be delayed due to the difficul- havior, universals in social behavior,ties in development of the ADA program- and the teaching of social psychology.ming support software. The association has also begun holding

A group of British software compan- East-West Meetings, in addition to itsies have formed the ADA Group to work on General Meeting, with the most recent ofthe ADA Programming Support Environment these occurring at Varna, Bulgaria, fromsoftware under joint sponsorship of the 16 through 20 May 1983. Featured sympo-British MoD, British Telecom, The sia included: social influence on humanGeneral Electric Co., Ltd. (GEC, a motivation, cultural and environmentalBritish company), and Plessey. It is influences, social cognition, interper-reported that British Telecom is also sonal and intergroup conflict, self con-pul~ing out of the project, although cept and control, developmental issues.,GEC, Plessey, and private software interpersonal behavior, emotion regula-companies are expected to carry on. tion and expression, and work motivation

(for abstracts of papers, see Newslet-ter, European Association of Experimen-

D.R. Barr tal Social Psychology, [Kent, England:12/7/85 University of Canterbury, June 19831).

Information regarding this associationand its publications and conferences canbe obtained from Dr. Geoffrey Stephen-

TWO EUROPEAN ASSOCIATIONS PROMOTE son, Secretary of EAESP, Social Psychol-RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL ogy Research Unit, University of Canter-PSYCHOLOGY bury, Kent, England CT2 7LZ.

In May 1982, the First EuropeanConference on Personality was held at ReferenceTilburg University, The Netherlands. Bonarius, H., G. Van Heck, and N. Smid,The success of this conference led to a eds., PersonaZit Psyobology in

-% decision to publish an edited collection Europe: TheoreticaZ and Empirioal

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DeveZopments (London: Lawrence ferences it supports. Readers who areErlbaum Assoc., forthcoming). interested in attending a conference

should write to the Scientific Director,ONRL, Box 39, FPO New York 09510.

Richard K. Snow

22/12/83Third UK Solar Maximum Mission

st Workshop, Oxford, UK, 26-28 March 1984.EUROPEAN SOLAR PHYSICS MEETING Vacuum 84--Technological Aspects of

Surface Treatment and Analysis Confer-The Fourth European General Meeting ence, York, UK, 1-4 April 1984.

on Solar Physics, entitled "The Hydro- Sixth European Conference onmagnetics of the Sun," will be held from Surface Science (ECOSS-6), York, UK, 1-5.1 through 3 October 1984 in Utrecht, The April 1984.Netherlands. Three sessions are plan- International Symposium on thened: I, Convection and Rotation; II, Properties and Applications of Metal

C Generation and Structure of the Magnetic Hydrides IV, Eilat, Israel, 3-9 AprilFields; and III, Structure and Stability 1984.of the Corona. Invited reviews and con- Royal Statistical Society 150thtributed papers will be included in each Anniversary Conference, London, 4-6session. In session I, the reviews will April 1984.be on solar rotation, solar convection, Second International Meeting onand solar oscillations; in session II, Lithium Batteries, Paris, France, 25-27the dynamics of magnetic flux concentra- April 1984.tions, and nonlinear dynamos; in session International Conference on theIII, coronal structure, Alfvdn wave Physics of Highly Ionised Atoms, Newheating, and the coronal energy balance. College, Oxford, UK, 2-5 July 1984.

The European solar physics meetings International Conference on Laserhave been held triennially since 1975. Processing and Diagnostics--Applications

Previous meetings were in Florence in Electronic Materials, Linz, Austria,(1975), Toulouse (1978), and Oxford 15-19 July 1984.

. (1981). Tenth General Assembly of the Euro-For further information, contact: pean Geophysical Society, Louvain-la-

Dr. P. Hoyng Neuve, Belgium, 30 July - 4 August 1984.

The Astronomical Institute at Fifth International Symposium on

Utrecht Gas Flow and Chemical Lasers, Oxford,

Space Research Laboratory UK, 20-24 August 1984.Beheluxlaan 21 - 3527 HS - Utrecht Fatigue '84, Birmingham, UK, 3-7The Netherlands September 1984.

International Confdrence on DigitalSignal Processing, Florence, Italy, 4-8

R.L. Cavovijiano September 1984.2118183 Second International Conference onScience of Hard Materials, Rhodes,

Greece, 23-28 September 1984.ONRL COSPONSORED CONFERENCES Ninth European Specialist Workshop

on Active Microwave SemiconductorONR, London, can nominate two regi- Devices, Veidhoven, The Netherlands,

stration-free participants in the con- 10-12 October 1984.

SCIENCE NEWSBRIEFS FOR DECEMBERThe following issues of Soienoe Newebrief were published by the ONR, London,

h. Scientific Liaison Division during December. Soience Newebrief provides conciseaccounts of scientific developments or science policy in Europe and the Middle East.Please request copies, by number, from ONR London.

Science Newebrief Number Title

1-4-83 UK Stimulates Industrial Innovation and TechnologyTransfer, by James W. Daniel.

1-5-83 Space Science in Europe: Cooperation and Competi-tion, by R.L. Carovillano.

1-6-83 Equation Characterizes Public Key for Encryption Sys-tem, by DR. Barr.

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DECEMBER MAS BULLETINSZ. The following MiZitary Applications Summary (MAS) Bulletins were published by

the ONR, London, Military Applications Division during December. The MAS Bulletinis an account of naval developments in European research, development, test, andevaluation. Its distribution is limited to offices with the US Department ofDefense. DoD organizations should request copies of the Bulletins, by number, fromONR London.

MASB Number Title

128-83 A Low Profile Forklift Truck for Shipboard Use

129-83 Closed Cycle Diesel Submersible---Revisited

130-83 Laser Weapon Research and Development

131-83 European Aerospace Update

132-83 The Sprite Remotely Piloted Helicopter

133-83 UK's ADA Program Losing Support

. 134-83 Self-Powered Buoy Using Wave Energy

135-83 A British Seawolf Missile Successfully Intercepts an

EXOCET Antiship Missile

136-83 UK Royal Navy Plans Secure Facsimile for Meteorologyand Oceanography (CONFIDENTIAL)

137-83 Fourth Quarterly Index 1983

138-83 Annual Subject Index 1983

EUROPEAN VISITORS TO THE US SPONSORED BY ONR, LONDON

Organizations Want Information?

Visitor Areas of Interest to be Visited Contact at ONRL

Dr. C.A. Brookes Engineering Science/ Naval Research James W. DanielDept. of Engr. Science Hardness Testing LaboratoryUniversity of Exeter NSWCNorth Park Road Whiteoak, MDExeter, Devon, EX4 4QF (9-20 July 84)

Drs Norman Louat Materials Science/ Naval Research James W. Daniel* University of Oxford Dislocation Theory Laboratory

Dept. of Metallurgy & (Jan.-April 84)• Materials Science temporary re-

Parks Road search appoint-Oxford OXI 3PH ment

Dr. Herman 3',h~yer Ramjet Propulsion NWC, China Lake CDR J. StradaDelft Univ. of Tech. (16 April 84)Dept. of Aerospace NPS, MontereyEngineering (12 April 84)

P.O. Box 50582600 GB DelftThe Netherlands

Prof. David Tabor Physics/Friction & ONR HQ James W. DanielUniv. of Cambridge Wear Naval ResearchCavendish Laboratory LaboratoryMadingley Road NSWCCambridge CB3 0HS (9-20 July 84)

161

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ESN 38-3 (1984)

EUROPEAN VISITORS (CONT'D)

Organizations Want Information?Visitor Areas of Interest to be Visited Contact at ONRLDr. R.J.H. Wanhill Materials Science/ NADC, Warmin- James W. DanielMaterials Dept. Fatigue & Fracture ster, PANatl. Aero. Lab., NLR Mechanics Naval ResearchP.O. Box 153, Laboratory8300 AD Emmeloord (Late March-The Netherlands early April 84)

Dr. T.P. Obrenovitch Hyperbaric Beth Israel T. C. RozzellCERB. HIA, Sainte Anne Physiology Medical Cen., NYF-83800, Toulon Naval (21 May 84)France

Univ. of Penn.Medical Center(22-23 May 84)

Natl. Inst. ofHealth, Bethesda,MD (24 May 84)

Uniformed Serv.Univ. of theHealth SciencesBethesda, MD(25-26 May 84)

%, Gerontology Re-search CenterBaltimore, MD(27 May 84)

George WashingtonUniv. Med. SchoolWashington, DC(28 May 84)

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