Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Energy: Feasibility and Challenges 1

Nuclear Energy:

Feasibility and Challenges

Riddhima Kartik

School of Petroleum Management, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar,

Gujarat. India


Table of ContentsAbstract................................................................................................................................4

1. Nuclear Energy: Feasibility and Challenges...............................................................5

2. History.........................................................................................................................6

3. Uses..............................................................................................................................7

a. Agriculture:..........................................................................................................8

b. Insect Control:.....................................................................................................8

c. Food Preservation:...............................................................................................8

d. Water Resources:.................................................................................................9

e. Medicine:.............................................................................................................9

f. Industry:...............................................................................................................9

4. Nuclear Technology Components..............................................................................10

a. Fuel:...................................................................................................................10

b. Moderator:.........................................................................................................10

c. Control rods:......................................................................................................10

d. Coolant:..............................................................................................................11

e. Pressure vessel:..................................................................................................11

f. Steam generator:................................................................................................11

g. Containment:......................................................................................................11

5. Nuclear Power Generation Methods..........................................................................12


6. Financial Implications...............................................................................................15

7. Environmental Implication........................................................................................17

a. Gas emissions and impact of accidents.............................................................17

b. Life Cycle..........................................................................................................18

8. Nuclear along with Renewables................................................................................20

9. Current Scenario of Nuclear technology in India......................................................21

10. Scope of Nuclear Power........................................................................................23

11. Suggestions and Conclusion..................................................................................24

References..........................................................................................................................25

Journals..............................................................................................................................26

Web References.................................................................................................................26


AbstractThe usage of nuclear technology for power generation has been in dilemma in current

scenario. Although nuclear technology helps to keep a check on the emission of greenhouse

gases but the safety issues associated with the extraction and usage of Uranium as a fuel, high

cost associated due to the complexity of disposal of radioactive waste and amount of radiations

being emitted during accidents are some of the critical issues which restrict the contribution of

nuclear power to a small percentage value of around 10 percent worldwide and less than 3

percent in India. But with time the technological innovations are taking place in the development

of components of reactor along with the techniques to improve the electrical and chemical

parameters by implementing the latest operational techniques. Fast Breeder technology has been

identified as one of the latest nuclear technology which addresses the above mentioned issues to

a great extent. The tendency of different countries over the adoption of latest technology of

nuclear power generation considering the financial and environmental implications has been

focused. Growth of nuclear power along with the improvement in critical values has been shown

with respect to India. The compatibility of nuclear technology with respect to renewable sources

of energy financially and technologically has been shown. Details of technological development

which are still under research like the evolution of latest generation reactors along with the

technology collaborating Fusion and Fission has been shown and their potential to compete the

usage of renewable source of energy. Finally, the suggestions have been made for the

collaboration of some existing sources of energy like that of Nuclear and Solar energy which can

be a model of increased acceptance of nuclear energy power generation.

Keywords: Complexity of disposal of radioactive waste, electrical and chemical parameters,

Fast Breeder technology, latest generation reactors, Nuclear and Solar energy.


1.

Nuclear Energy:

Feasibility and Challenges Energy plays an essential part in any country's improvement and securing energy is one

of the most essential difficulty confronting any advancement plans, securing energy demands for

next generations is a standout amongst the most viewpoints confronting any sustained

development plans, because of the developing electric power request and demand.

World energy consumption rate has now been a matter of concern in this era as the

resources required for generation of power are depleting at a high unknown rate. As per the

prediction by United Nations Statistics Division on the growth of global population, it will be

approximately 9 billion people in 2050. With the increase in population demand for energy must

increase significantly over that period, as mentioned in the annual world energy outlook 2013

from OECD’s International Energy Agency (IEA), the world primary energy demand grew by

26% (about 19,004 TWh) from 2000 to 2011 and projected growth of 45%(about 34,453 TWh)

till 2035 under the current policies with about double energy growth in both the cases. Also it has

been observed that coal and oil had been the major resources utilized to generate power followed

by Natural Gas and finally Nuclear and other renewable sources of energy. As the fossil fuels

such as coal, oil and so on are turning out to be rare the issue will soon turn out to be more

serious after some time, particularly for nations which are exceedingly subject to non-renewable

vitality assets. Additionally, it has been watched that around 34.6 billion tons CO2 emanation has

occurred all-inclusive in 2012. The CO2 discharge has been expanding throughout the years

because of unreasonable use of fossils and this over the top CO2 emanation has brought about

making the issue of an Earth-wide temperature boost leading to global warming.

Nuclear Energy has been distinguished as one of the major source of energy which can

possibly create adequate energy alongside generally low carbon emanations. Because of these

reasons headway and advancement in technological innovation of power generation through

nuclear reactors is being done at various research institutions.

Nuclear power generation utilize nuclear reactions, different mediator material, coolants

and different kind of reactor. The current innovations used for most part for power generation are

boiling water reactor, pressurized water reactors and pressurized heavy water reactor. Recent


innovation called Fast breeder technology has been created using naturally occurring uranium

isotopes that harness the greater part of the energy contained in uranium or thorium decreasing

fuel consumption by 99% as compared to earlier reactor technologies. Uranium which is a

noteworthy fuel for nuclear power generation is accessible only 1 percent furthermore includes

four complex procedures before being utilized for power generation. So to build the proficiency

and to make it economically practical for power generation, breeder technology is created. To

make nuclear energy production more aggressive and competitive in contrast with other

customary advances modification are made in breeder technology with some modern innovation

such as Generation IV and Generation V+ reactors which likewise considered to make the

nuclear power generation more protected and safe as for pre and post era risks like radiations

being discharged.

In this paper we will discuss how fast breeder technology along with Generation IV and

Generation V+ reactors have provided scope for further advancement of nuclear technology in

terms of power generation efficiency along with optimum usage of nuclear fuel and in terms of

safety level of operation of nuclear power plants. Also we will try to discuss and suggest what

modifications in technology needs to be carried out to make nuclear technology more

competitive and acceptable by people of India. Finally, we will try to discuss how Fusion

Reaction which is still under research has the potential to give a new shape to nuclear power

generation technology economically and technologically.

2. History Nuclear energy is recent than most different types of energies produces that we utilize.

The concept of neutron was started in 1932. Later with Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd, in 1933

the concept of nuclear chain reaction was founded. Not until the early 1930's scientists were not

able to find anything on the chain reaction theory, then the researchers found out that atom is

made up of proton and neutron particles. A long time later in 1938, two German researchers,

Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman and physicist Lise Meitner of Austria, found that they could part

the core of a uranium molecule by bombarding it with neutrons, this process was named as

fission. As the uranium core split, some of its mass was changed over to heat energy.

In 1942, Enrico Fermi of Italy, and a gathering of different physicists then saw the fission

of one uranium atom emitted more neutrons which could thus split other uranium atoms,


beginning a chain response. They soon understood that through atomic splitting process of

nuclear fission tremendous amount of energy could be harnessed. Otto Hahn also won the Nobel

Prize for his discovery of atomic splitting and Enrico Fermi also get a Nobel Prize for making

the world's first nuclear chain reaction.

In the year 1940's the first nuclear fission was created prior to World War II which

encouraged more research on nuclear energy. In late 1942 the first artificial atomic reactor

named as Chicago pile-1 was constructed in the premises of the University of Chicago, by a

group headed by Enrico Fermi. In the later year’s numerous new reactors were worked by US yet

they were generally worked to get the large scale manufacturing of plutonium for atomic

weapons. Later the first nuclear power plant was authorized for regular citizens was worked by

Soviet Union in 1954 which was named as AM-1 Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant and it delivered

around 5MW electrical. After this first commercial atomic power plant was sanctioned by Britain

in 1956 and it was of 50MW at first and with time its energy rating was expanded to 200MW.

Not until 1953 was the primary usable power from nuclear fission delivered at the National

Reactor Station now called the Idaho National Building Lab. At that point in 1955, the

principally first U.S. town to be provided with nuclear energy was in Arco, Idaho. In today’s

time nuclear energy only represents just 20% of the power created in the United States.

According to 2013 report of IAEA, there are now 437 fully functioning civil fission-

electric reactors in 31 countries thought the globe and as per the latest 2015 report of IAEA,

worldwide there are 67 civil fission-electric power reactors being built in 15 different countries

including Gulf countries such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Around 15 percent of energy

throughout globe is generated by nuclear powered plants. The United States has more than 100

reactors, still through fossil fills and hydroelectric energy it generates its vast majority of its

electricity. More than 430 nuclear power plants (NPPs) are functioning and are present all over

the inhabited. Countries, for example Lithuania, France, and Slovakia generates almost all of

their power from nuclear power plants.

3. Uses The first nuclear power plant for generating electricity from the heat of splitting of

uranium was constructed in 1950's. With further advancement in nuclear innovation the potential

for new and different usage was found in radioisotopes and radiation. Radioisotopes are


specifically unstable isotopes that change their core nucleus after some time from milliseconds to

centuries and thus they discharge charged particles or waves, making them radioactive. Because

of their radioactive nature. They have utilization in farming, pest control, Food conservation,

water assets, medication and industry. Considering each of the uses independently:

a. Agriculture:

In agriculture sector, usage of expensive fertilizers which sometimes cause damage to

the environment by leaving poisonous chemical residue behind. Hence it becomes important to

find fertilizer and different way that minimize the loss of plants and environment both.

Nowadays fertilizers which are 'labelled' with a particular isotope are in the market and are being

used in developing and developed countries, allowing better ways for usage and applications of

fertilizers. Thus due to usage of these isotopes we are able to estimate optimum amount of

fertilizer required for that particular soil and crop.

b. Insect Control:

The damage of food crops due to attack by insects has been more than 10% of the total

harvest worldwide and of the range 25-35% in developing countries. Chemical insecticides have

been used to hinder insect attack but over a period of time insects have been found to be resistant

to the chemicals used or the leave poisonous chemical residue on the crop.

The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was discovered in which involves destroying the eggs

of insects with the help of gamma radiation before hatching and thus sterilizing them also. This

technique helps to reduce the production of offspring of insects drastically and 95% success rate

has been achieved in two fruit-growing areas of Argentina.

c. Food Preservation:

Over the years it is measured that over 25-30% of the food crop harvested in many

countries is destroyed as a result of spoilage by microbes and pests. These microbes and insects

are also responsible for food related diseases like trichinosis and cholera. To get rid of this

problem Food irradiation method has been developed in which gamma radiation kills bacteria,

insects and other harmful organisms affecting the crops without causing loss or any side effect of


nutritional value of food products. The following table shows the amount of dosage of gamma

rays generally given according to possibility of attack of microorganisms on food products:

1. Low dose (up to 1 kG) Inhibition of sprouting Potatoes, onions, garlic,

ginger, yam

Insect and parasite

disinfestation

Cereals, fresh fruit, dried

foods

2. Medium dose (1-10 kG) Extend shelf life Fish, strawberries,

mushrooms

Halt spoilage, kill pathogens Seafood, poultry, meat

3. High dose (10-50 G) Industrial sterilization Meat, poultry, seafood,

prepared foods

Decontamination Spices, etc.

Table 1: Food irradiation applications

d. Water Resources:

With the help of Isotope hydrology techniques, we can estimate of amount of

underground water available, the age, distribution and origin can also be known. It has different

purposes and is vital for industry, agriculture and human settlements. To get these estimates

isotope hydrology techniques is used which enables the accurate tracing and amount of extent of

underground water resources. By the results obtained from these technique countries are able to

do sustainable planning and management of water resources.

e. Medicine:

Nuclear medicines allow doctors to diagnose the proper functioning of certain organs by

taking detailed and accurate pictures. Radiotherapy is one of those unique technique which let

detection of Cancer before 6 to 18 months ago and destroy particular targeted cells. The most

common radioisotope that is being used in diagnosis is radioactive technetium-99.


f. Industry:

Nuclear technology has been used for various important industrial purposes.

Radioisotopes have been used to detect pollutants present in air which are generally in very small

quantity which get dispose without any residue. As the radioactivity in any space can be

measured in minute amounts due to this radioisotope can also be used as very effective tracers.

The above usages are basically the derived usages of nuclear power but in current

scenario Nuclear power is also being used widely for electrical power generation widely along

with construction of nuclear weapons which is still a matter of concern.

4. Nuclear Technology Components Nuclear technology is currently being used widely for electrical power generation and

electrical power extraction from nuclear energy through many components and some more are

added with time to increase efficiency of nuclear power plants. The components which are used

in nuclear power plants are:

a. Fuel:

Uranium is the basic fuel which is being used. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2)

are accumulated in tubes to convert it into fuel rods. The rods are input into fuel assemblies at the

reactor core. Generally, to start a new reactor with new fuel a requirement of neutron source is

there to maintain the smooth flow of reaction. Usually the process followed in this case is the

mixing of beryllium with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. To start a reactor again with

some used fuel may not require this, as there can be enough neutrons available to obtain

criticality when control rods are removed.

b. Moderator:

Material in the core which decelerate the neutrons released from fission so as to cause

more fission. It is generally water, but may be heavy water or graphite.


c. Control rods:

These are formed by neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron,

which are inserted or withdrawn from the core to regulate the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In

some PWR reactors, special control rods make the core to maintain a low level of power

efficiently.

d. Coolant:

A fluid circulating through the core so as to dissipate the heat from it. In light water

reactor the water serves the function of primary coolant. Except in BWRs, in the secondary

coolant circuit the water transforms into steam.

e. Pressure vessel:

Usually it’s a robust steel vessel which contains moderator/coolant and reactor core, but it

can also include series of fuel tubes and conveying the coolant through the surrounding

moderator.

f. Steam generator:

It is a part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) in which

high-pressure coolant gathers heat from the reactor to generate steam from turbine, in a

secondary circuit. Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator.

g. Containment:

The structure surrounding the reactor and associated steam generators designed to protect

them from outside intrusion and to prevent the outside surroundings from radiation effects of

radiation in the case of any critical breakdown inside. It is basically a meter-thick concrete and

steel structure.


Fig 1: Uranium pellets Fig 2: Moderator

Fig 3: Control Rods Fig 4: Coolant

Fig 5: Pressure vessel


Fig 6: Steam Generator Fig 7: Containment

5. Nuclear Power Generation MethodsMany conventional technologies are being used worldwide for electric power generation

from nuclear power. The details of conventional technologies are being shown in table below:

Reactor

Type

Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

Pressurized

water

Reactor

US, France, Japan,

Russia

277 257 Enriched

UO2

Water Water

Boiling

Water

Reactor

US, Japan,

Sweden

80 75 Enriched

UO2

Water Water

Pressurized

Heavy

Water

Reactor

Canada, India 49 25 Natural

UO2

Heavy

water

Heavy water

Gas

Cooled

Reactor

UK 15 8 natural U

(metal),

enriched

CO2 Graphite


UO2

Light

Water

Graphite

Reactor

Russia 15 10.2 enriched

UO2

Water Graphite

Table 2: Details of Conventional Nuclear Reactor

Fast Breeder technology is one of the latest technology that is much more useful in terms

of optimum utilization of resources. In Fast breeder technology we use liquid sodium as a

coolant that causes neutrons to remain of high energy and hence these fast neutrons are not able

to cause proper fission. Despite of improper fission neutrons are readily caught through an

isotope of uranium (U238), which changes into plutonium (Pu239), which with further

transformations can be utilized as reactor fuel. The design of reactors can be made accordingly to

produce more plutonium and in few cases reactors actually produce the fuel they consume. These

reactors are called breeder reactors. Adherents claim that by seawater uranium extraction, the

amount of fuel created for breeder’s reactor is enough for 5 billion years of energy satisfaction as

per 1983’s energy usage rate, consequently making nuclear energy effectively suitable as

compared to renewable energy.

Nuclear waste has also been a matter of concern since 1990 as this waste is radioactive and

transuranic which is threat for environment. Breeder reactions are effective in reducing actinide

waste, particularly plutonium and actinides. Nowadays commercial light water reactors also tend

to breed some new fissile material, mostly in the form of plutonium. Conversion ratio,

breakeven, breeding ratio, doubling time and burnup are some of the ratios that define the

efficiency level of nuclear reactor. Conversion ratio for consumption of fuel to the generation of

fuel usable again breeder reactor is more and the reactor produces as much fissile material as it

uses. Burnup is that value of energy harnessed form the given particular mass of heavy metal in

fuel generally expressed in gigawatt-days per ton. Burnup value is high for a breeder reactor as

breeder reactors produce much of their waste in the form of fission products, while most of the

actinides used in fission. There can also be thermal breeder reactor but are only commercially

feasible with thorium fuel. Lead Fast breeder reactors are found to be more advantageous than


Sodium fast breeder reactors because it makes the investigated accident indicators easy to cope

with. This is possible in Lead fast breeder reactor because of their natural circulation behavior

and much higher boiling temperature of lead. Economically, the LFR is advantageous since it

needs an intermediate coolant circuit. Integral fast reactor is one of the design of fast neutron

reactor which addresses the waste disposal and plutonium issues. Many other fast breeder

reactors prototypes are being built worldwide including India.

Fig 8: Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor


Fig 9: Reaction during Fast Breeder Reactor operation

6. Financial Implications The economics of Nuclear power plant mainly consist of three costs which are capital

costs, Plant operating costs and external costs.

The capital costs comprise of site restructuring, commissioning, construction,

manufacture, and financing a nuclear power plant. Capital costs are expressed in terms of

generating capacity of plant. Plant operating costs are mainly the costs of fuel, operation and

maintenance. Operating cost can be divided into two fixed cost and variable cost. To estimate

the operating cost of a plant over its whole life levelised cost at present value must be

estimated. It provides with the cost at which the electricity should be generated if the project is to

break even (after considering the opportunity cost of capital through by applying a discount rate).

External costs are basically the cost that has to be borne by the government during severe

accidents if they occur. Cost overruns which are most significant costs that occur during

installation of nuclear power plants. It has been observed that capital cost of nuclear power

projects may be 60% or more of the levelised cost of electricity. But fuel costs have been

observed to be 15% of the levelised cost of electricity. Generally, 10 to 20 years of operation is

expected by nuclear power plants under reasonable national circumstances to get back capital

and interest.


Fig 10: Capital Risks associated since 2008 for financing nuclear power plants in

different countries

Uranium Conversion Costs under certain conditions have been observed and can be seen in the

table as follows:

Uranium 8.9 kg U3O8 x $97 US$ 862 46%

Conversion 7.5 kg U x $16 US$ 120 6%

Enrichment 7.3 SWU x $82 US$ 599 32%

Fuel Fabrication Per Kg (approx.) US$ 300 16%

Total (approx.) US$ 1880

Table 3: Uranium Conversion Costs


The above Uranium Conversion Costs come under operating cost but operating costs also

include waste disposal costs and decommissioning costs. Disposal of low level cost of nuclear

power plant was found to be £2,000/m³ in UK and 500 million $ was found to be

decommissioning cost in US in a particular year. Thus high costs associated with waste disposal

and decommissioning still possess a challenge with conventional reactors. Fast breeder reactors

can play a major role in reducing waste disposal cost by reducing waste generated during nuclear

reactions. Also increase in efficiency level due to Fast breeder reactors can reduce operating cost

by getting more output for the same input.

7. Environmental Implicationa. Gas emissions and impact of accidents

Greenhouse Gas emissions from nuclear power plant are much smaller as compared to

generation of power from coal, oil and gas. However, during accidents there is a risk of

radioactive emission due to presence of fissile materials. Fukushima 1 nuclear power plant

accident lead to hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns and was classified as Level

7 event.

Disposal of spent nuclear fuel at the site is also a major challenge as in severe cases it can

affect environment greatly by increasing radiation level in the environment. According to

international survey it has been found that annual average dosage of the order of 0. 1μSv.y-1

were noted at world level during power generation from nuclear power plant. This value is found

to be one thousandth the adopted limits for nuclear power generation. Thus under normal

operation nuclear power plant causes least pollution in the environment. Uranium Mining is also

means of pollution after a few months of mining the tailing material has been observed to contain

75% of the radioactivity of the original ore. But generally these are not classified as radioactive

waste. Abandoned uranium mines remain a source of radioactive risks for as long as 250,000

years after closure. Also usage of nuclear weapons can tremendously affect flora and fauna of

that particular region and can have its impact lasting for several years.

b. Life Cycle

Disposal of nuclear waste which also includes spent fuels may take several years.

Managing high level waste also requires a strategic method. It has been recorded that a common


reactor produces around 27 tons of utilized fuel which might be decrease to 3 m per year of

vitrified waste. Containment of utilized fuel is mostly in the ponds attached with a reactor, or a

central pool for multi-reactor location. Generally, these used fuels are reprocessed and then

incorporated into cement prior to disposal as ILW. After 40 -50 years of reprocessed fuel disposal

the radioactivity have fallen to one thousandth of the level at removal. Thus it follows the time

cycle which can be visualized by the graph given below:

Fig 11: Lifecycle of decay of radioactive products

Utilized fuel still contains parts U-235 as well as various plutonium isotopes which are

formed inside the reactor core, and the U-238c. The sum total of account for some 96% of the

original uranium and over half of the original energy content (disregarding U-238). Reprocessing

segregate Uranium and Plutonium. Plutonium emerging from reprocessing is reused through a

MOX fuel fabrication plant where it blends with drained uranium oxide to create fresh fuel. This

however can't be straightly added to MOX fuel and reused in conventional reactors. It needs a

fast neutron reactor which are few and yet far between. It also disposes the highly toxic waste

easily.


Fig 12: Storage Pond for Used fuel in Nuclear Power Plant

During disposal to guarantee that no critical natural emissions happen over a millions of

year's immobilizations of waste. It is completed in an insoluble matrix, for example, borosilicate

glass or engineered rock. Sometimes tightly pressed inside an erosion safe compartment, for

example, stainless steel.

Some amount of waste heat i.e. generated during cooling process and some amount of

waste liquids from reprocessing plants are sent into large water heads like seas and rivers. Small

quantities of radioactive gases like krypton-85 and xenon-133 are released into atmosphere.

However, they have short half-lives, and the radiations in the emissions is reduced by delaying

their release.

8. Nuclear along with Renewables Nuclear technology when compared with renewable sources of energy seems less

potential to be adopted in future based on current trends of investment in both in different years.

This can be seen from the graph below:


Fig 13: Investment trends in nuclear vs. Renewable

China which leads in the world in terms of construction of new nuclear plants spent about 9

billion $ in nuclear and collectively 83 billion $ in renewables like wind and solar. Rapid ageing

of reactors has been found which makes it inferior in the current scenario of technological

development of renewable source of energy. Nuclear energy cannot be used to supply more than

base load which renewable source of energy can easily provide based on availability of

resources. However technological advancements are being made in nuclear power plant like the

evolution of Nuclear Fusion –Fission hybrid power plant.

9. Current Scenario of Nuclear technology in India The Government of India wants to generate a one-fourth of its power from nuclear

generation by 2050. This scheme of government incorporates 20,000 MW of increased limit in

form of nuclear energy by 2020, and 63,000 MW by 2032.

There are as of now twenty-one operational nuclear energy reactors in India, in six

different states. They contribute approx. 3% the nation's total energy generation, yet radioactive

pollution at each phase of the nuclear fuel cycle: from extraction from earth crust and processing


it into usable state reprocessing or transfer. There is no long term radioactive waste transfer

arrangement in India. With new reactors under development, the fresh out of the box new 1,000-

MW power plant at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu, began business operations on December 31, 2014,

while different undertakings are in the pipeline. Four reactors are under development, one in

RAAP (Rajasthan) and other at Kakrapar are indigenously planned 700 mw reactors. Chip away

at another pair is relied upon to begin in mid-2015 in Haryana, and six more are arranged at three

locales (see table underneath). These indigenously planned reactors seem set to be the

workhorses of Indian atomic project.

By the records measured in 2010 nuclear power generation in India is approximately

4780 Mw from the 20 fully functional nuclear plants which provide just 3 percent of the

aggregate electrical supply in the nation. APSARA and CIRIUS are the two introductory reactors

that gave way to advancement of nuclear power generation in India. India is by and large

working PHWR and BWR reactors as of now. New nuclear power plants are being sanctioned by

the government and the construction work already started in Chennai, Kakrapar and

Kudankulam.

Fig : 14 Source: Lok Sabha

Additionally, in these new developing reactors some new technologically advanced

reactors are being utilized like Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and Water-Water Energetic

Reactor. Right now 500 Mwe Model Fast breeder reactor is being dispatched in Chennai and it

will be called “Bhavini”. The large amount of plutonium of fast breeder reactor can lead to

prompt development of more such similar reactors. India has the capacity to utilize thorium cycle

http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult16.aspx?qref=7827


based procedures to extricate nuclear fuel. This is one of the special advantage to the Indian

nuclear power generation methodology as India has one of the world's biggest reserves of

thorium.

The Water-Water Energetic Reactors are the series of Pressurized water reactor which

was innovated in Russian and imported to India. These reactors are not the same as Pressurized

water reactor in outline and design as these reactors consist of horizontal steam generators, a

Hexagonal assembly for fuel, infiltrations without any base in the vessel and pressurizers with

high capacity providing a huge reactor coolant stock. In this way more up to date establishments

are expanding productivity of nuclear power plant alongside with more secure operations. The

nuclear power production Unit 5 in Rajasthan worked for constant 739 days which enhances the

accessibility factor of plant and this reactor was Pressurized heavy water reactor manufactured

indigenously. Prior in Tarapur nuclear power reactor had worked for constant 590 days. These

information demonstrates the measure of atomic force era capacity accessible with India. Indian

nuclear power development program is completely developed and has exiled in all aspects of

nuclear power innovation.

Fig 15: Water-Water Energetic Reactor

10. Scope of Nuclear Power Nuclear energy still has a little percentage commitment altogether in total power

generation on the planet yet with the consistent advancement and innovation of reactors we can

enhance proficiency furthermore ready to diminish waste produced and hence making it focused


with different sources of energy. As of late hybrid nuclear power plant i.e. it is a blend of fission

and combination is giving scope to generate large amount of energy and lead to expansion in this

competitive market. The whole idea through the usage of this technology is to tap high-energy

fast neutrons in a reactor to start a fission reaction in non –Fissile components like U-238 and

Thorium -232. In this advancement and innovation every neutron can trigger several fission

reactions, increasing the energy discharged by every fission reaction to be hundred several times.

China is advancing and promoting this advanced innovation as it uses non fissionable fuel which

generally goes about as a waste. Additionally, there are numerous reactors like Generation IV

and Generation V+ reactors which are supercritical water reactors and have Gas core reactor

which are under examination and testing stage however when actualized will have the capacity to

make nuclear power generation to be improved with most with advanced security measures

alongside right around zero waste.

Fig 16 : Hybrid nuclear reactor description

11. Suggestions and Conclusion


In spite of the resistance it right now confronts, nuclear power has specific components

that support the dedication of some nations to consider it as a future alternative," World energy

Outlook 2014 said. "Nuclear power generation can increase the dependability of the power

system where they harness greater power through nuclear power plants and with advancements

the efficiency of process and amount of energy harness will increase. For nations that import

energy, it essentially lessens their reliance on outside supplies and control the exposure of fuel

prices changes in global markets."

Combination of Fusion and Fission reaction provides scope for Nuclear power generation

technology to become more efficient in future years. Waste Disposal remains a serious issue but

methods are developing to convert waste into the useful material and in future years’ techniques

can be developed to collaborate solar power technology with nuclear power technology by

utilizing the heat that is currently being considered as a waste in nuclear power generation. Fast

breeder and conventional technology in nuclear reactor is modifying at an unprecedented rate

which is helping to make nuclear power technology to be more technologically and economically

viable. Increased investments are expected in nuclear power research which will help Nuclear

power can become more efficient than solar and wind energy technology which still faces

various constraints. As Nuclear power generation causes no release of Greenhouse gases during

its operation so nuclear power holds a good potential to eliminate all the conventional modes of

power generation in current scenario i.e. through oil, coal etc. which have become pollution

houses for the environment. Finally increasing awareness among public is required regarding the

compatibility of nuclear power plants with latest technology in current scenario.

References[1] Synapse Energy Economics, Inc, Nuclear Power Plant Construction Costs, July 2008,

David Schlissel and Bruce Biewald

[2] POSITION PAPER: COMMERCIAL NUCLEAR POWER, Thomas B. Cochran,

Christopher E. Paine, Geoffrey Fettus, Robert S. Norris, Matthew G. McKinzie


[3] U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology

Washington, D.C. 20585, The History of Nuclear Energy

[4] IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES No. NP-T-3.2

Journals

[1] BARC Newsletter May, 2009

[2] Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2009. 34:127–52

[3] Trends in Global CO2 Emissions, 2014 [ISBN: 978-94-91506-87-1]

Web References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_consumption

[2] http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-fast-breeder-react/

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder_reactor

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor

[5] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-many-

uses-of-nuclear-technology/

[6] Table 1 : http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclearapplications/overview/

the-many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/

[7] http://www.world-nuclear.org/Nuclear-Basics/What-other-things-can-nuclear-technology-

be-used-for-/

[8] https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/resources/uranium/images/IMG0550.jpg

[9] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Thermal_reactor_diagram.png

[10] http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/grayson1/images/f2big.gif

[11] http://www.fluidcomponents.com/Industrial/Products/Nuclear/images/

Illustrations/reactor-core-coolant.jpg


[12] http://www.ihi.co.jp/nupd/nuclear%20technology/nuclear%20power%20plant/

rpv800.jpg

[13] http://en.citizendium.org/images/8/86/Nuclear_Power.png

[14] http://www.nuclear-power.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Containment-

Building-Mark-II.png?11abca

[15] http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-fast-breeder-react/

[16] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306003347

[17] http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C09/E4-23-03-03.pdf

[18] http://www.theenergycollective.com/katherinetweed/2250134/around-world-

nuclear-cant-compete-growing-renewables

[19] http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/rajasthan-nuclear-plant-unit-

5-sets-world-record-114081200704_1.html

[20] http://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1840219/china-aims-get-

hybrid-fission-fusion-nuclear-reactor-and

[21] Fig 14 : (http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-india-s-

nuclear-power-output-is-surging-115020300354_1.html)

[22] http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-04-20/peak-people-interrelationship-

between-population-growth-and-energy-resources

[23] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/world-Energy-

Needs-and-nuclear-power/

[24] http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/The%20History%20of%20Nuclear

%20Energy_0.pdf

[25] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/world-Energy-Needs-and-nuclear-power/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/world-Energy-Needs-and-nuclear-power/

http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-04-20/peak-people-interrelationship-between-population-growth-and-energy-resources

http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-04-20/peak-people-interrelationship-between-population-growth-and-energy-resources

http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-india-s-nuclear-power-output-is-surging-115020300354_1.html


http://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1840219/china-aims-get-hybrid-fission-fusion-nuclear-reactor-and

http://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1840219/china-aims-get-hybrid-fission-fusion-nuclear-reactor-and


[26] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-

of-nuclear-energy/

[27] http://www.slideshare.net/nimaliarachchi/the-good-use-of-nuclear-energy

[28] http://nuclear-energy.net/applications

[29] http://www.world-nuclear.org/Nuclear-Basics/What-other-things-can-nuclear-

technology-be-used-for-/

[30] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-

many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/

[31] http://www.greenpeace.org/india/en/What-We-Do/Nuclear-Unsafe/Nuclear-

Power-in-India/

[32] http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-india-s-nuclear-

power-output-is-surging-115020300354_1.html

[33] http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/ieorefcase.html



http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy/

Nuclear Energy

Environment

Transcript of Nuclear Energy