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What's more influencial on child's development? Family influence or Other factors?

nature or nurture which one have influence on personality and development ?

Whether temperament which we are born with or experience various situations has an effect on

our character or growing up arouse some controversy. From my point of view, both of them influenceon our personality and development.Firstly some psychologist like Cloninjer believe that people are born with four specific temperaments (harm avoidance, novelty seeking, perseverance, reward dependence) which have a crucial role informing the personality and how we get long with our family and other people. for instance onelongitudinal research illustrated teenagers who have been more novelty seeker , they have hadborderline personality, which is a personality disorder, when they have grown up. Which is why, it is

really important to pay attention to the temperaments of children. Secondly people are inherited sometraits which haven't changed. However, they have experienced different situations and have acquirednew things in their lives.

On the other hand, some theorists who are advocate of behavioral theories believe that the personalityof individuals is made by encountering several conditions. For example Eskiner who is a famousbehavioral psychologist said we have different characters because our parents provide specificsituations for us; in the other words we are product of conditions which we have nurtured in. forinstance parents who have gotten strict upbringing to their children, they might be have had sons or

daughters with obsessive personality. therefore they don't accept that traits which every person areborn with determining personality or way of growing.To sum up I think that nurture and nature, both of them, are the bases of the personality anddevelopment, we can not neglect each of them. In additions Parents should heed their children' s traits

which are born with and provide best conditions for them.

How young people's behaviour is influenced by their peers ?\

There are various factors that are influential in building one's character and behaviour.The role of family, peers and environment can't be neglected in this regard. Family or parentsremain with the child whenever he is at home. Moreover, they always try to brought up their child in the best way by keeping him away from all those negative aspects that can spoil him.However, they always remain worried by letting their children embarked into the life activities intheir absence.There a child encountered different kinds of peple belonging to different

backgrounds. Infact this is the stage when a person or child can be substantially affected by his peers around. Parents destined their child to the school and among the society of other peple. The

novice child is completely unaware of the people around him.The exposure of yougsters to the world, wheter it is for the purpose of acquiring education or playing games is inevitabel. They are always ready to adapt the things that seem alluring to themregardless of the fact whether it is good or bad to follow. Consequently, they get involved inwrong activities. For instance, if a young person has peers around him who are addicted tosmoking than it is very much likely that he will develop the same habit, no matter how much hetries to avoid but one day he will also be one of them. Likewise, there are so many youngsterswho are always ready to commit juvenile delinquency so, whoever sits in there company will

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definitely get involved in such activities as well.Certainly, this deep effect of peers company is instrumental in one's life and if this effect canextol your value than on the other hand it can also proved to be detrimental. It is our commonexperience that we adopt the habits of our peers which is quite unintentional.. Their talking habit,way of communicating and acting starts reflecting in our personality as well.

In conclusion, young people can be higly influenced by their peers. So, one should be verycautious in the selectionof his/her peers.

How has your family history, culture or environment influenced who you are?

"My family environment influenced me in almost all aspects of my life both in and out of school.My younger sisters force me to think responsibly in my work to perform as a positive role model tothem. We are close friends even though sometimes we fight or get mad at each other. Overall, myfamily has been there to make me a better student and person. What about being responsible outside of

your work responsibilities? Especially during hard times in my life, my mom pushed me to my true potential. Whether I wascompeting in a swim meet or studying for school, she kept me focused and concentrated on performingbetter in school and inspiring? to be an aerospace engineer. She places high expectations and supportsme as a swimmer and a student. Sometimes, I had felt that a course was becoming too hard orconfusing to me she always backed me up a hundred and ten percent. She drove me to swim practiceand cheered for me during my races and rewarded me when I earned good grades in school. During thetwo year divorce, she instilled many characteristics and habits that prove to be important in my life.What are those? Under close scrutiny, I became more responsible and diligent in my schoolwork and arrive d at school

with the necessary knowledge to perform well on tests. I study for small and large tests the same andview them as equal in importance. I complete homework at all times and understand that preparation isthe most important part of preparing for tests. Let's not use "prepare" twice this closely together. Howabout, "...and understand that preparation is the most important part of taking a test," or "...that beingready is the most important part of preparing for a test." The family environment molded me into amore passionate and successful student by supporting me , resulting in my having the confidence to

succeed in my ventures. After understanding how much I took attending a private school for granted, Ichanged my attitude and wanted to succeed in each respective year. Now, I am using this top notcheducation to my advantage and strive to perform well in all my classes no matter the difficulty. Theoverall relief and joy that I experience when I am one of the few people to get an A on a test can not bematched anywhere else. Taking pride in my work is the most important influence resulting from myfamily atmosphere . Rather than trying to escape from studying for a test, I understand that preparation

and what? are necessary in performing well on exams. "

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Ten fascinating facts about personality.

1. Birth Order Can Influence Your Personality

Photo by Horton Group

You've probably heard of this concept before. First born children are often described as "bossy"or "responsible," while last-born children are sometimes described as "irresponsible" and"impulsive." But how true are these common stereotypes?

For decades, pop psychology books touted the effects of birth order on personality, but hardevidence on the phenomenon remained elusive until recently. A few recent empirical studieshave found that such things as birth order and family size may indeed have an impact on

personality. One study even found that birth order can influence your choices of friends andromantic partners; first-borns tend to associate with other first-borns, middle-borns with other middle-borns and last-borns with last-borns.

2.Your Personality Is Relatively Stable throughout Life

Photo by Sharon Dominick / iStockPhoto

In long-term studies of personality, some of the most core parts of personality remain stablethroughout life. Three aspects that do tend to change as we age are anxiety levels, friendlinessand eagerness for novel experiences.

According to researcher Paul T. Costa Jr., there is no evidence our overall personalities changeas we grow older. "What changes as you go through life are your roles and the issues that matter most to you. People may think their personality has changed as they age, but it is their habits thatchange, their vigor and health, their responsibilities and circumstances - not their basic

personality," he suggested in a New York Times article.

3. Personality Traits Are Linked to Certain Illnesses

Photo by Andy Nowack / iStockPhoto

In the past, a number of different personality traits have been suspected of contributing to particular illnesses. For example, hostility and aggression were often linked to heart disease. The

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difficulty was that while some studies would reveal a link, other studies demonstrated no suchconnection.

Recently, researchers have used a statistical technique known as meta-analysis to reevaluate previous research on the connection between personality and disease. What they discovered were

some previously unnoticed connections between neurotic personality traits and five illnesses;headaches, asthma, arthritis, peptic ulcers and heart disease.

Another study suggested that shyness might be linked to a shorter lifespan.

4. Animals Have Distinctive Personalities

Does it ever seem like your beloved pet has a personality that makes him utterly unique? Animalresearchers have found animals from nearly every species of animal (from spiders to birds toelephants) have their own personalities with preferences, behaviors and quirks that persistthroughout life.

While some critics suggest that this represents anthropomorphism, or ascribing human traits toanimals, animal personality researchers have been able to identify consistent behavioral patternsthat can be empirically measured and tested.

5. Current Research Suggests that there are Five Core Personality Traits

In the past, researchers have debated exactly how many personality traits exist. Early researcherssuch as Allport suggested that there were as many as 4,000 distinct personality traits, whileothers such as Raymond Cattell proposed that there were 16. Today, many personalityresearchers support the five-factor theory of personality , which describes five broad personalitydimensions that compose human personality:

1. Extraversion2. Agreeableness3. Conscientiousness4. Neuroticism5. Openness

6. Personality Influences Personal Preferences

Photo by Sanja Gjenero

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It may come as no shock to learn that your personality can have a profound effect on your personal preferences, but you just might be surprised by how far reaching these effects may be.From your choice of friends to your taste in music, your unique personality can influence nearlyevery choice you make in your daily life.

For example, while you might pride yourself on carefully considering the issues before choosinga candidate to support, research suggests that personality may play a strong role in political preferences. One study conducted by researchers at the University of Toronto found thatindividuals who identified themselves as conservatives were higher in a personality trait calledorderliness, while those who self-identified as liberal were higher in empathy.

Researchers suggest that these underlying personality needs to either preserve order or expressempathy can have a strong influence on political preferences.

7. People Can Accurately Judge Your Personality Based on Your Facebook Profile

Screenshot

When you think about people's online identities, you might imagine that most people try to present an idealized version of their real selves. After all, in most online situations you get to pick and choose the information you want to reveal. You get to select the most attractive photosof yourself to post and you can edit and revise your comments before you make them.Surprisingly, one study discovered that Facebook profiles are actually quite good at conveyingyour real personality.

In the study, researchers looked at the online profiles of 236 U.S. college-aged individuals. The participants also filled out questionnaires designed to measure personality traits includingextroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness. Observers then ratedthe personalities of the participants based on the online profiles, and these observations werecompared to the results of the personality questionnaires. The researchers found that observerswere able to get an accurate read on a person's personality based on their Facebook profile.

"I think that being able to express personality accurately contributes to the popularity of onlinesocial networks in two ways," explained psychologist and lead author Sam Gosling. "First, itallows profile owners to let others know who they are and, in doing so, satisfies a basic need to

be known by others. Second, it means that profile viewers feel they can trust the information theyglean from online social network profiles, building their confidence in the system as a whole."

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8. Numerous Factors Can Contribute to Personality Disorders

Photo by omgimages / iStockPhoto

An estimated 10 to 15% of adults in the United States experience symptoms of at least one personality disorder. Researchers have identified a number of factors that may contribute to theonset of different personality disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and borderline-

personality disorder.

These factors include:

Genetics Relationships with peers High sensitivity Verbal abuse Childhood trauma

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9. Cardinal Traits Are Rare

Photo by Ferdinand Schmutzer, from the Wikimedia Commons

Psychologist Gordon Allport described cardinal traits as those that dominated an individual's lifeto the point where that person is known and often identified specifically by that trait. These traitsare considered rare, however. In many cases, people become so known for these traits that their very names become synonymous with that type of personality. Consider the origins of theseoften-used terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan and Christ-like.

For most people, personality is instead composed of a mixture of central and secondary traits.Central traits are those that make up the core foundation of personality, while secondary traits arethose related to preferences, attitudes and situational behaviors.

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10. Your Pet May Reveal Information About Your Personality

Photo by TJ Nuckolls

Would you consider yourself more of a "dog person" or a "cat person"? According to one personality study, your answer to this question might actually reveal important information aboutyour personality.

In a study of 4,500 people, researchers asked participants whether they considered themselves to be more dog people or cat people. These individuals also completed a personality survey thatmeasured a number of broad traits including conscientiousness, openness, neuroticism and

agreeableness.The researchers discovered that people who identified themselves as dog people tended to bemore extroverted and eager to please others, while those who described themselves as cat peopletended to be more introverted and curious.

According to researcher Sam Gosling, a psychologist at the University of Texas-Austin, theresults might have important implications in the field of pet therapy. By using personalityscreenings, therapists might be able to match people in need with animals that are best suited totheir personality.

DETERMINANTS / FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY

Personality is the wide term, which is the result or net effect of different circumstances andfactors. There are many factors which affect personality or which determine the personality. Fewamong them are as follows:

Heredity Brain Family Background Social group (where we interact) Situation

Cultural Factor Physical Features

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(1) H eredity:

Heredity is the transmission of qualities from generation to generation. This can happen due tochromosomes of the germ cell. Heredity predisposes to certain physical, mental, emotionalstates. It has been established through research on animals that physical and psychological factor may be transmitted through heredity. It has been concluded from various researches that heredity

plays an important part in determining an individuals personality.

(2) Br ain:

It is the second biological factor that affects the personality of a person. The role of brain in personality formation is very important. If a persons brain is sharp, he can understand thesituation better and take prompt decision. This improves his personality.

(3) Fami ly Background (M embers):

Parents and other family members have strong influence on the personality development of thechild. Parents have more influence on the personality development of a child as compared toother members of the family.

Family influences the behaviour of a person especially in early stages. The nature of suchinfluence will depend upon the following factors:-

Family Size Birth Order Race Religion Geographic location Parents educational level Socio- economic level of family

For Instance: -

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The study made by Newcomb showed that there is higher co-relation between attitude of parentsand children than that between the children and their teachers.

(4) Social Groups:

Besides a persons home environment and family members, there are other influences arisingfrom the social placement of the family as the person is exposed to agencies outside the home(i.e. social groups) these social groups includes school mates, friends, colleagues at work placeor any other group to which an individual belongs because A man is known by the company hekeeps. Similarly, socio-economic factors also affect personality development.

(5) Situation:

Situational factors may also play an important role in determination of human personality. Manya times, the behavior of a person is determined not by how that man is but by what the situationis in which he is places. An employee who is hard working and always gets ahead may prove

lazy and trouble maker if he is put under unfavorable situation. This aspect is very important because it can be kept in control by the management.

(6) Cultur e:

According to Hoebel

Culture is the sum total learned behavior trait which manifested and shared by the member of the society

In other words It is a unique system of perception, belief, values, norms, pattern of behaviour

of individual in a given society

Culture is the factor which determines the decision making power of an individual. It includesindependence, competition, artistic talent, and aggression, Co-operation etc.

Each culture expects that the person should behave in a way, which is accepted by the group.Personal belonging to different cultural groups has different attitudes. Every culture has their own sub-culture also.

However, a direct relationship cannot be established between personality and given culture.

(7) Physical F eatur es:

The physical features of the individual also have a great impact on personality of an individual.Physical features include height, weight and such other physical aspect of an individual.

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Big Five personality traits

The five factors

A summary of the factors of the Big Five and their constituent traits :[4]

Openness to experience : (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious ). Appreciation for art,emotion , adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity , and variety of experience. Openness reflects thedegree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has.It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent, and depicts apersonal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine. Some disagreement remainsabout how to interpret the openness factor, which is sometimes called "intellect" rather thanopenness to experience.

Conscientiousness : (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless ). A tendency to show self-discipline , act dutifully , and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior;organized, and dependable.

Extraversion : (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved ). Energy, positive emotions, surgency , assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others, andtalkativeness.

Agreeableness : ( friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind ). A tendency to be compassionate andcooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of ones'trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well tempered or not.

Neuroticism : (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident ). The tendency to experience unpleasantemotions easily, such as anger , anxiety , depression, or vulnerability . Neuroticism also refers tothe degree of emotional stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low

pole, "emotional stability".

The Big Five Model was discovered and defined by several independent sets of researchers .[5] These researchers began by studying known personality traits and then factor-analyzinghundreds of measures of these traits (in self-report and questionnaire data, peer ratings, andobjective measures from experimental settings) in order to find the underlying factors of

personality .[4][6 ][7][8 ][9] The Big five personality traits was the model to comprehend therelationship between personality and academic behaviors .[10]

The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961 [11] but failed toreach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five factor model of personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization .[12] These five overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known

personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits .[13] These five factors provide a rich conceptual framework for integrating all the research findingsand theory in personality psychology.

At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem andhave identified generally the same Big Five factors: Tupes and Cristal were first, followed by

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Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute ,[14][15 ][16][17 ][18] Cattell at the University of Illinois ,[7][19 ][20][21] and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health .[22][23 ][24][25] Thesefour sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus eachset of five factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been foundto be highly inter-correlated and factor-analytically aligned .[26][27 ][28][29 ][30]

Because the Big Five traits are broad and comprehensive, they are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous lower-level traits. Manystudies have confirmed that in predicting actual behavior the more numerous facet or primarylevel traits are far more effective (e.g., Mershon & Gorsuch, 1988 ;[31] Paunonon & Ashton,200 1[32] )

Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting alevel of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that also comprisethe Big Five .[33] The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism;Enthusiasm and Assertiveness for Extraversion; Intellect and Openness for Openness/Intellect;

Industriousness and Orderliness for Conscientiousness; and Compassion and Politeness for Agreeableness .[33]

Openness to experience

Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination,curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious,appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, when compared to closed people,more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold unconventional

beliefs. On average, people who register high in openness are intellectually curious, open toemotion, interested in art, and willing to try new things. A particular individual, however, may

have a high overall openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures buthave no great interest in art or poetry. There is a strong connection between liberal ethics andopenness to experience such as support for policies endorsing racial tolerance .[34] Another characteristic of the open cognitive style is a facility for thinking in symbols and abstractions far removed from concrete experience. People with low scores on openness tend to have moreconventional, traditional interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over thecomplex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion or viewthese endeavors as uninteresting. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they areconservative and resistant to change .[24]

Sample openness items

I have a rich vocabulary. I have a vivid imagination. I have excellent ideas. I am quick to understand things. I use difficult words. I spend time reflecting on things. I am full of ideas.

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I am not interested in abstractions. ( reversed ) I do not have a good imagination. ( reversed ) I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. ( reversed )[35]

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievementagainst measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control,regulate, and direct their impulses. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for

planned rather than spontaneous behavior .[36] The average level of conscientiousness rises amongyoung adults and then declines among older adults .[37]

Sample conscientiousness items

I am always prepared. I pay attention to details.

I get chores done right away. I like order. I follow a schedule. I am exacting in my work. I leave my belongings around. ( reversed ) I make a mess of things. ( reversed ) I often forget to put things back in their proper place. ( reversed ) I shirk my duties. ( reversed )[35]

Extraversion

Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency fromexternal activity/situations, and energy creation from external means .[38] The trait is marked by

pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, andare often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals.They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves .[39]

Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seemquiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvementshould not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone.This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in socialsituations .[40]

Sample extraversion items

I am the life of the party. I don't mind being the center of attention. I feel comfortable around people. I start conversations. I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

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I don't talk a lot. ( reversed ) I keep in the background. ( reversed ) I think a lot before I speak or act. ( reversed ) I don't like to draw attention to myself. ( reversed ) I am quiet around strangers. ( reversed )[35] I have no intention of talking in large crowds. ( reversed )

Agreeableness

Agreeableness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious andantagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in general concern for socialharmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate,friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others .[40] Agreeable

people also have an optimistic view of human nature.

Although agreeableness is positively correlated with good team-work skills, it is negativelycorrelated with leadership skills. Those who voice out their opinion in a team environment tendto move up the corporate rankings, whereas the ones that do not remain in the same position,usually labelled as the followers of the team .[41]

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generallyunconcerned with others well -being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people.Sometimes the ir skepticism about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, anduncooperative .[42]

Sample agreeableness items

I am interested in people. I sympathize with others' feelings. I have a soft heart. I take time out for others. I feel others' emotions. I make people feel at ease. I am not really interested in others. ( reversed ) I insult people. ( reversed ) I am not interested in other people's problems. ( reversed ) I feel little concern for others. ( reversed )[35]

Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to asemotional stability. According to Eysencks (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism isinterlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli .[43] Those who score high inneuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpretordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negativeemotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are

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often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism is connected to a pessimistic approach towardwork, confidence that work impedes with personal relationships, and apparent anxiety linkedwith work .[44] Furthermore, those who score high on neuroticism may display more skinconductance reactivity than those who score low on neuroticism .[43][45] These problems inemotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think

clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.[citation needed ]

Lacking contentment inone's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one's likelihoodof falling into clinical depression .[46]

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset andare less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistentnegative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience alot of positive feelings .[47]

Research suggests extraversion and neuroticism are negatively correlated .[43]

Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense. Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional stability to differentiate it from theterm neurotic in a career test.

Sample neuroticism items

I am easily disturbed. I change my mood a lot. I get irritated easily. I get stressed out easily. I get upset easily. I have frequent mood swings. I often feel blue. I worry about things. I am relaxed most of the time. ( reversed ) I seldom feel blue. ( reversed )[35] I am much more anxious than most people .[48]

History

Early trait research

Sir Francis Galton made the first major inquiry into a hypothesis that by sampling language it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits- the lexicalhypothesis .[4] In 1936 Gordon Allport and S.Odbert put Sir Francis Galtons hypothesis into

practice by extracting 4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable andrelatively permanent traits from the dictionaries at that time .[49] In 1940, Raymond Cattell obtained the adjectives, and eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171 .[7] He constructed a

personality test for the clusters of personality traits he found from the adjectives, called SixteenPersonality Factor Questionnaire . Then, in 1961, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal found fiverecurring factors from this 16PF Questionnaire. The recurring five factors were: "surgency",

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"agreeableness", "dependability", "emotional stability", and "culture .[8] This work wasreplicated by Warren Norman, who also found that five major factors were sufficient to accountfor a large set of personality data. Norman named these factors surgency, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability, and culture; and these factors are through which FiveFactor consensus has grown .[9]

Hiatus in research

For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality researchdifficult. In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment , Walter Mischel asserted that personalitytests could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists likeMischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation.Predicting behavior by personality tests was considered to be impossible.

Emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could

predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations .[50]

As a resultcorrelations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that"personality" did in fact exist .[51] Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that

both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior .[52] Traittheories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area. [citation needed ]

By 1980, the pioneering research by Tupes, Christal, and Norman had been largely forgotten by psychologists. Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, independently found the fivefactors once again, and gradually brought them back to the attention of psychologists .[53] He later coined the term "Big Five" as a label for the factors.

Renewed attention

In a 1980 symposium in Honolulu , four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg , NaomiTakemoto-Chock , Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personalitytests of the day. They concluded that the tests which held the most promise measured a subset of five common factors, just as Norman had discovered in 1963 .[54] This event was followed bywidespread acceptance of the five factor model among personality researchers during the1980s. [citation needed ] Peter Saville and his team included the five-factor "Pentagon" model with theoriginal OPQ in 1984. Pentagon was closely followed by the NEO five-factor personalityinventory, published by Costa and McCrae in 1985. [citation neede d ]

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Biological factors

Heritability

Personality research conducted on twin subjects suggest that both heritability and environmental

factors contribute to the Big 5 personality traits.

Twin studies suggest that heritability and environmental factors equally influence all five factorsto the same degree .[55] Among four recent twin studies, the mean percentage for heritability wascalculated for each personality and it was concluded that heritability influenced the five factors

broadly. The self-report measures were as follows: openness to experience was estimated to havea 57% genetic influence, extraversion 54%, conscientiousness 49%, neuroticism 48%, andagreeableness 42% .[56]

Age differences

Many studies of longitudinal data, which correlate people's test scores over time, and cross-sectional data, which compare personality levels across different age groups, show a high degreeof stability in personality traits during adulthood .[57] It is shown that the personality stabilizes for working-age individuals within about 4 years after starting working. There is also little evidencethat adverse life events can have any significant impact on the personality of individuals .[58] More recent research and meta-analyses of previous studies, however, indicate that changeoccurs in all five traits at various points in the lifespan. The new research shows evidence for amaturation effect. On average, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness typically increasewith time, whereas extraversion, neuroticism, and openness tend to decrease .[59] Research hasalso demonstrated that changes in Big Five personality traits depend on the individual's currentstage of development. For example, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness demonstrate a

negative trend during childhood and early adolescence before trending upwards during lateadolescence and into adulthood .[60] In addition to these group effects, there are individualdifferences: different people demonstrate unique patterns of change at all stages of life .[61]

Another area of investigation is the downward extension of Big Five theory into childhood.Studies have found Big Five personality traits to correlate with children's social and emotionaladjustment and academic achievement. More recently, the Five Factor Personality Inventory Childre n[62] was published extending assessment between the ages of 9 and 18. Perhaps the

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reason for this recent publication was the controversy over the application of the Five Factor Model to children. Studies by Oliver P. John et al. with adolescent boys brought two new factorsto the table: "Irritability" and "Activity". In studies of Dutch children, those same two newfactors also became apparent. These new additions "suggest that the structure of personality traitsmay be more differentiated in childhood than in adulthood" ,[63] which would explain the recent

research in this particular area.

In addition, some research (Fleeson, 2001) suggests that the Big Five should not be conceived of as dichotomies (such as extraversion vs. introversion) but as continua. Each individual has thecapacity to move along each dimension as circumstances (social or temporal) change. He is or she is therefore not simply on one end of each trait dichotomy but is a blend of both, exhibitingsome characteristics more often than others :[64]

Research regarding personality with growing age has suggested that as individuals enter their elder years (79 86), those with lower IQ see a raise in extraversion, but a decline inconscientiousness and physical well being .[65]

A research by Cobb-Clark and Schurer indicates that personality traits are generally stableamong adult workers. The research done on personality also mirrors previous results on locus of control .[66]

Brain structures

Important research on personality traits and brain structures have been conducted, providing

correlations between the Big 5 personality traits and specific areas of the brain.

Some research has been done to look into the structures of the brain and their connections to personality traits of the FFM. Two main studies were done by Sato et al. (2012 )[67] and DeYounget al. (2009) .[68] Results of the two are as follows:

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Neuroticism: negatively correlated with ratio of brain volume to remainder of intracranialvolume, reduced volume in dorsomedial PFC and a segment of left medial temporal lobeincluding posterior hippocampus, increased volume in the mid-cingulate gryus.

Extraversion: positively correlated with orbitofrontal cortex metabolism, increased cerebral,volume of medial orbitofrontal cortex.

Agreeableness: negatively correlated with left orbitofrontal lobe volume in frontotemporaldementia patients, reduced volume in posterior left superior temporal sulcus, increased volumein posterior cingulate cortex.

Conscientiousness: volume of middle frontal gyrus in left lateral PFC. Openness to experience: No regions large enough to be significant, although parietal cortex may

be involved.

Group differences

Gender differences

Cross-cultural research has shown some patterns of gender differences on responses to the NEO-PI-R and the Big Five Inventory. For example, women consistently report higher Neuroticism,Agreeableness, warmth (an extraversion facet) and openness to feelings, and men often reporthigher assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and openness to ideas as assessed by the NEO-PI-R .[69]

A study of gender differences in 55 nations using the Big Five Inventory found that womentended to be somewhat higher than men in neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, andconscientiousness. The difference in neuroticism was the most prominent and consistent, withsignificant differences found in 49 of the 55 nations surveyed. Gender differences in personalitytraits are largest in prosperous, healthy, and more gender-egalitarian cultures. Differences in themagnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due todifferences between men, not women, in these respective regions. That is, men in highlydeveloped world regions were less neurotic, extraverted, conscientious and agreeable comparedto men in less developed world regions. Women, on the other hand tended not to differ in

personality traits across regions .[70] The authors of this study speculated that resource-poor environments (that is, countries with lowlevels of development) may inhibit the development of gender differences, whereas resource-richenvironments facilitate them. This may be because males require more resources than females inorder to reach their full developmental potential. The authors also argued that due to differentevolutionary pressures, men may have evolved to be more risk taking and socially dominant,whereas women evolved to be more cautious and nurturing. Ancient hunter-gatherer societiesmay have been more egalitarian than later agriculturally oriented societies. Hence, thedevelopment of gender inequalities may have acted to constrain the development of gender differences in personality that originally evolved in hunter-gatherer societies. As modernsocieties have become more egalitarian, again, it may be that innate sex differences are no longer constrained and hence manifest more fully than in less-developed cultures. Currently, thishypothesis remains untested, as gender differences in modern societies have not been comparedwith those in hunter-gatherer societies .[70]

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Birth-order differencesMain article: Birth order

Frank Sulloway argues that firstborns are more conscientious, more socially dominant, lessagreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. Large scale studies using random

samples and self-report personality tests, however, have found milder effects than Sullowayclaimed, or no significant effects of birth order on personality .[71][72]

Cultural differences

The Big Five have been replicated in a variety of languages and cultures, such as German ,[73] Chinese ,[74] Indian ,[75] etc.[76] For example, Thompson has demonstrated the Big Five structureacross several cultures using an international English language scale .[77] Cheung, van de Vijver,and Leong (2011) suggest, however, that the Openness factor is particularly unsupported inAsian countries and that a different fifth factor is sometimes identified .[78]

Recent work has found relationships between Geert Hofstede s cultural factors , Individualism,Power Distance, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance, with the average Big Five scores in acountry .[79] For instance, the degree to which a country values individualism correlates with itsaverage extraversion, whereas people living in cultures which are accepting of large inequalitiesin their power structures tend to score somewhat higher on conscientiousness. Although this is anactive area of research, the reasons for these differences are as yet unknown.

Attempts to replicate the Big Five in other countries with local dictionaries have succeeded insome countries but not in others. Apparently, for instance, Hungarians do not appear to have asingle agreeableness factor .[80] Other researchers have found evidence for agreeableness but notfor other factors .[81]

Relationships

Big Five and personality disorders

There is a rich literature concerning the FFM as a structural model for describing andunderstanding disorders of personality, including those within the Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders .

As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the FFM to personality disorders .[82] Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and

provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms of the FFM domains .[83]

In her seminal review of the personality disorder literature published in 2007, Dr. Lee AnnaClark asserted that "the five-factor model of personality is widely accepted as representing thehigher-order structure of both normal and abnormal personality traits" .[84]

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The Five Factor Model has been shown to significantly predict all ten per