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20 African Plant Biodiversity in PestManagementS. N’Danikou1,2, D.A. Tchokponhoue1, C.A. Houdegbe1 and E.G. Achigan-Dako1

1Laboratory of Plant Science, Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences (FSA), University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou,

Republic of Benin2Bioversity International, West and Central Africa Office, Cotonou, Benin

20.1 Introduction

Secoy and Smith (1983) defined pest as

including household insects, external human parasites, exter-

nal and irritating arthropods of domestic animals, wound flies

and maggots, insects and vertebrates which attack field crops

and orchards, and, destroyers of stored foods and other mate-

rials.The term also includes other forms, such as wolves, scor-

pions, snakes and crocodilians, that threaten shepherds and

fishermen. However, they did not include scabies and mange,

although caused by parasitic arthropods, since any recorded

use of plants seems to have been to alleviate the symptoms

rather than to kill or repel the mites.

In the context of this chapter, a crop pest is considered as an

organism causing damage to crops. This includes all vertebrates and

invertebrates, plants andmicroorganisms that are damaging to crops,

either at the farm (e.g. insects, rabbits, weeds, fungi) or in storage

(e.g. insects, rodents). Thus, the review is limited to crop pests and

does not include livestock pests and human disease vectors.

Biodiversity is defined as the variety and variability of life at all lev-

els of organization; that is, genetic, species and ecosystem levels. Bio-

logical diversity is classified in two ways: by ecological (functional)

and evolutionary (phylogenetic) criteria. Ecologists and conserva-

tion biologists apply the term biodiversity most often at the species

level (Colwell, 2012). In this chapter, plant biodiversity refers to the

variety and variability of plants at species level. Pest management

refers to methods and systems used in controlling pests in agricul-

tural production and related activities (e.g. forestry). The concept

could also include controlling of pests causing illness to human and

livestock.This latter component is not treated in this chapter. Rather,

it focuses on the variety of plants used to get hold of pests and their

damages in agricultural production, at farm and post-harvest.

Crop pests and diseases represent important challenges for farm-

ers, and particularly for smallholders in Africa. Two important

migratory insect pests reported to cause more damage are the desert

locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forskal) and the African armyworm

(Spodoptera exempta Walker). They are responsible of important

losses to yield. For instance, attacks by desert locust in the African

Novel Plant Bioresources: Applications in Food, Medicine and Cosmetics, First Edition. Edited by Ameenah Gurib-Fakim.© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sahel have resulted in food insecurity and famine. Losses to cereals

were estimated at 55 000 t in Sudan in 1954; 17 000 t in Senegal in

1957 and 167 000 t in Ethiopia in 1958 (CIRAD, n.d.). The same

source estimated losses in 1974 at 368,000 tonnes of cereals for

the whole African Sahel. Also grasshoppers cause between 70% to

90% losses in disastrous conditions and this is cyclic in the African

Sahel (Abate et al., 2000). About 342 million US dollars were spent

between 1986 and 1993 to suppress the pest over about 30 million

hectares of lands (CIRAD, n.d.). The damages by the desert locust

threaten food supply and food security at a point that governments

in most affected countries have created national centres to prevent

locust attacks; for instance, the “Centre National de Lutte Contre

le Criquet Pèlerin” in Mali. Several other diseases and unwanted

weeds also challenge agricultural production in Africa.

Chemical or synthetic pesticides have been commonly used in

fighting crop pests. These have been somehow successful in sup-

pressing some of them. However, their impacts on the environment

and human health have made them unsustainable. This is the case

for several chemical products formerly used to control crop pest

populations and diseases, for instance the DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl

Trichloroethane), which have been banned worldwide for use in

agriculture, under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic

Pollutants (POPs). However, there are controversial debates over this

ban, especially on the use of DDT to control malaria. For instance,

some governments in Africa are coming back to DDT to control

malaria in the continent.The argument is that there is no alternative

to the use of DDT to overcome malaria in their respective countries

(Hecht, 2004). Meanwhile, there are scientific evidences on the

dangers of chemical use on human’s health (Pressinger and Sinclair,

n.d.). For example, petroleum-based chemicals are responsible

of several illnesses, including cancer, neurological dysfunctions,

weakness of the immune system, infertility, asthma, and so on. An

alternative solution to the intensive use of synthetic pesticides and

their related environmental and toxicological problems has been

the use of natural methods to deal with plant pests and diseases.

Among these natural methods are the use of pesticide and repel-

lence properties of some plants and their secondary metabolites as

important sources of biopesticides (Cavoski et al., 2011).

In consideration of the above, advocacy for the use of botanical

products and biological methods in pest management has gained

interest worldwide. This chapter presents a review of the African

263

264 Novel Plant Bioresources: Applications in Food, Medicine and Cosmetics

plant biodiversity used in pestmanagement and is structured around

five key sections as follows:

1. History of humans’ use of plant biodiversity in pest management

2. Methods and approaches in pest management

3. Research on plant utilization in pest management

4. Biodiversity of plants used in pest management

5. Benefits of the use of plants in crop pest management.

20.2 History of humans’ use of plant biodiversityin pest management

20.2.1 Background and trends worldwide

Pest problems are probably as old as agriculture itself. Several

indigenous and modern agricultural practices have evolved due to

pest problems (OTA, 1979). Crop losses due to pests were more

severe at that time in the humid tropics, just as they still are today.

The pest problems were exacerbated by the introduction of new

pests from other continents. For instance, several of the most

important pests in the USA were introduced from other continents

(OTA, 1979). In response to the outbreak of pest problems, humans

have developed several methods to sustain productivity. Crop

protection methods used for this end included the use of chemical

pesticides, pest-resistant plants, cultural controls and biological

controls, among others. However, the era of modern agriculture

(1940s–1970s) emphasized more on sophisticated techniques and

high inputs (chemical pesticides, high-yielding varieties, irriga-

tion, etc.). This sophisticated agriculture is accompanied with high

pesticide use, and this has recently raised concerns regarding risks

to human health and environmental issues. Thus, since the end

of the green revolution, and taking note of lessons of this era,

there has been an advocacy for natural methods for pest control,

which integrate the ecosystem as a whole. Nowadays, the trend

worldwide is more oriented towards an approach of integrated

pest management (IPM), with the development of several resistant

varieties, multiplication and introduction of natural enemies, and

more evolved from traditional practices, the use of plant extracts or

cultural practices and mechanical methods.

20.2.2 Experiences from Africa

Traditional farming in Africa is characterized by mixed cropping,

with two or more crops grown in the same field, thus enhancing

diversity of natural enemies (Abate et al., 2000).This is considered as

a built-in process in smallholdings, and no specific activity is dedi-

cated to pestmanagement. It had been recognized that Africa’s use of

pesticides is among the lowest in the world. InmanyAfrican regions,

numbers of farmers still rely on traditional methods for pest man-

agement. This is mainly due to the limited financial strength of sub-

sistence farmers, although extension programmes encourage use of

pesticides (Abate et al., 2000, Mihale et al., 2009). Synthetic pesti-

cides are mainly used on commercial crops (cotton, vegetables, cof-

fee, cocoa, etc.). SouthAfrica is one of the largest pesticides exporters

in sub-Saharan Africa (Quinn et al., 2011).

In late 20th century, pest management research focused on clas-

sical biological control and enhancement of host plants’ resistance

(Abate et al., 2000). In the traditional agriculture, only about two

dozen insect and mite species have an economic impact. The huge

cortege is made up of introduced pests (Abate et al., 2000). National

programmes and international agricultural research centres have

been carrying out IPM or IPM-related research since about four

decades now.

20.3 Methods and approaches in pestmanagement

Several approaches and methods have been developed in pest

management. In Africa, pest management still relies on indigenous

knowledge and practices and is based on experiences acquired

by farmers. These traditional pest management practices include

crop associations, planting and harvesting time, closed season,

mechanical control, use of proper seed, use of herbal products and

pest use for food and as income source (Abate et al., 2000).

20.3.1 Diversity of traditional pest managementpractices

20.3.1.1 On-farm pest management

Intercropping

Also called crop association, intercropping is the way whereby two

or more species are grown on the same farm plot at the same time.

This practice helps small farmers to meet their elementary needs.

Different authors have reported that it better meets food security,

promotes efficient land use, reduces weeding effort, and obviously

reduces field pest infestation and increases natural enemy popula-

tion (Abate, 1988; Kyamanywa and Ampofo, 1988). For instance,

Brassica spp. infestation by the aphid Brevicoryne brassicae L. and

the root flyDelia brassicae (Bohé) was significantly reduced, by over

60%, when the crop is associated with taxonomically unrelated plant

species (Tukahirwa and Coaker, 1982). Single row intercropping is

recommended so that the intercrop will better cover the ground

at the infestation time for an efficient pest management. Further-

more, the ability of the association of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.]

Moench) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) to reduce stem

borer (Chilo partellus (Swinhoe)) and thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti

Trybom) infestation respectively was showed by Ampong-Nyarko

et al. (1994). Similarly, in Kenya, intercropping sorghum, maize

(Zea mays L.) and cowpea reduced various stem borers (Busse-

ola fusca Fuller, Eldana saccharina Wlk., and Sesamia calamistis

Hmps.) on sorghum and thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti, Hyda-

tothrips adolfifriedericiKarny) on cowpea (Dissemond and Hindorf,

1990). In Kenya, the positive effect of habitat diversity on the nat-

ural enemies of the African bollworm, Heliothis armigera (Hbn.)

was reported by Abate (1991). He showed how tachinid parasitoids

(Tiphia sp.) and a predatory wasp (Tachytes sjostedti Cameron) pop-

ulation could increase in strip-cropping haricot bean (Phaseolus

vulgaris L.) with maize under weedy and weed-free conditions. In

crop association, intercrops odours generally interfere and result in

pest track muddle.

20 African Plant Biodiversity in Pest Management 265

Planting and harvesting time

Cultural practices must be carried out as appropriate to avoid an

eventual precocity or delay in crop planting or harvesting time, even

though in some opinions early planting could perhaps be the most

effective means to control some pests (Gebre-Amlak et al., 1989).

The importance of sowing at the appropriate time was emphasized

by some authors. In a study carried out on bean insect pests inAfrica,

Abate andAmpofo (1996) reported that sowing bean at the appropri-

ate time constitutes a major means for reducing bean stemmaggots.

In Ivory Coast, planting cassava between November and February

helps to avoid the spread of cassava mosaic disease (Fargette et al.,

1994). Several other arguments in favour of planting and harvesting

at appropriate times have been presented in Ambe (1993) and Adi-

pala et al. (1998). However, fluctuation of pest population can result

in planting time adjustment. Such strategies were reported on beans

in Tanzania (Ampofo and Massomo, 1998) and on sweet potato in

South Nyanza, Kenya (Smit and Matengo, 1995).

Mechanical control, site selection and use of proper seed

Selecting a suitable field site is crucial for infestation reduction.

Thus, farmers, according to crops grown, can move over from low-

land to upland or from upland to lowland. Similarity in the planting

material is required when a better resistance to pests is desired.

In Kenya, cuttings of high-altitude cassava were more resistant to

African mosaic virus than lowlands ones were (Abate et al., 2000).

During land preparation, it is reported that farmers mechanically

hand-pick important numbers of pests, including nocturnal beetles,

larvae of the cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval)),

the orange dog (Papilio demodocus (Esper)) and the sweet potato

butterfly (Acraea spp.) (Hillocks et al., 1996).

Pest exploitation for food and as income source

Pests and often insects, although harmful, are also used as food

and can constitute a relatively important source for income. This

is the case for the edible grasshoppers, locusts and the cluster bug

(Agonoscelis pubescens (Thumb.)), which are diversely exploited

(Faure, 1944; Van Huis, 1996). This food and economic value

will probably shape the management strategies developed by

populations.

20.3.1.2 Post-harvest pest management

Post-harvest pests have an important economic impact on products.

Their impacts are categorized into three orders. There is direct loss

due to consumption of products by pests, quality or value loss due

to the presence of pests in the product and costs engaged to treat

infested commodities (Campbell and Arthur, 2007). To deal with

those pests, different approaches are used, including the use of chem-

ical pesticides and natural products. Only methods employing plant

products are presented here.

The use of herbal products is an old practice used both against

field and storage pests. It is an eco-friendly way to control pests

including use of different plant extracts, essential oils and some sec-

ondary metabolites. For instance, Azadirachta indica A.Juss (neem)

cake extract, Nerium oleander L. leaf extract and Trichoderma viride

Pers. had been reported to significantly reduce the incidence of rice

brown spot by 66%, 52% and 45% respectively (Harish et al., 2008).

In an evaluation of efficacy of various botanical extracts for their

repellence property, Andrographis paniculata L. and Leucas aspera

L. leaf extracts and A. indica seed kernel extract were reported to be

the most effective (Sathyaseelan and Bhaskaran, 2010). Koona et al.

(2007) reported the ability of hexane extracts from Tephrosia vogelii

Hook.f. to protect stored maize grain against the weevil Sitophilus

zeamais (Motschulsky). In quantitative terms, the most important

botanicals are by order pyrethrum, neem, rotenone and essential

oils, typically used as insecticides (Cavoski et al., 2011).

20.3.2 Classification of pest management systems

20.3.2.1 Approach-based classification

Approach-based classification differentiates pest management sys-

tems into suppression, prevention and eradication (Willson, 1992).

Prevention

Prevention consists of any action undertaken to anticipate pest

attacks from occurring. It consists of the use of proven methods to

either prevent or reduce the probability of a significant pest prob-

lem from occurring. The prevention approach may include either

chemical or non-chemical methods. In Florida, a preventive tactic

consisting of scouting, ultraviolet reflective technologies, biological

control, compatible insecticides, companion plants and fertility

regulation has proven to be effective, economically and ecologically

sound, and sustainable in the western flower thrips, Frankliniella

occidentalis (Pergande) (Demirozer et al., 2012).

Suppression

After the outbreak of a pest problem, all actions undertaken to

manage it are termed suppressive. Post-emergence application of

herbicides to reduce emerging weed populations is considered as

suppression. The use of chemical methods is generally associated

with suppression practices (Willson, 1992; Wright, 1995).

Eradication

Eradication is the approachusedwhen a pest problemmust be totally

eliminated from a targeted area. For instance, coypu (Myocastor coy-

pusMolina) accidentally introduced in Britain during the 1980s was

successfully eradicated (Singleton et al., 1999). Myers et al. (2000)

pointed out the importance of eradication approaches in invasion of

exotic species; even the attempt to remove or reduce the density of a

species, even an exotic one, is a challenging undertaking.

20.3.2.2 Method-based classification

Based onmethods used, pestmanagement systems are characterized

as biological, chemical, cultural and mechanical, and legal (Willson,

1992). What makes the difference between one system and another

is explained below.

Biological control

Biological control is the use of antagonist organisms (natural ene-

mies) against others thought to be harmful. Three basic approaches


are recognized: classical, natural and augmentation. However, it is

worth mentioning that, intrinsically, biological control is focused

primarily on predator–prey relationships between animal and

microorganisms. Besides this, biological control does apply to

plants as well, through exploitation of allelopathy phenomena

between plant species.

Classical biological control. This is the importation of natural ene-

mies from other countries and applies to pests which are not native

to a given area; namely, a non-native pest is accidentally introduced

in a new area. Classical biological control is used to determine

(1) the pest’s origin, (2) to locate beneficial organisms that naturally

control the pest organism in its native area and (3) permanently

establish them so that they will provide continuing pest control with

little or no additional human intervention. An important success

in classical biological pest management in Africa is the control

of the cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero)

by Epidinocarsis lopezi De Santis (Herren and Neuenschwander,

1991). In southern Africa, Australian acacia (Acacia spp.), Azolla

filiculoides Lam. and Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. were subjected to

classical biological control with weevils (Melanterius maculatus Lea,

Melanterius acaciae Lea, etc.), wasps (Trichilogaster spp.) and flies

(Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) McAlpine and Cylindrobasid-

ium laeve (Pers.:Fr.) Chamuris) as natural enemies (Dennill et al.,

1999). Moreover, cereal leaf beetle on oats and the alfalfa blotch leaf

miner on alfalfa were dealt with by the release and establishment

of beneficial parasitic wasps. Though relevant, that method is not

directly conducted by the farmer or gardener owing to specific

quarantine laws prohibiting private individuals or agencies from

introducing non-native organisms (including natural enemies)

without proper authorization.

Augmentation. This is the periodic mass rearing and releasing of

beneficial organisms in order to implement the natural enemies’

complex and achieve a reduction of the pest problem. Augmen-

tation is mostly to protect greenhouse crops. Application of the

augmentation approach to field crops is limited, although major

efforts were underway in South Africa to control the Eldana borer

on sugarcane via augmentative releases of parasites. This method is

limited at the farm because it is the most costly and least sustainable

form of biological control (Willson, 1992; Wright, 1995). In Mexico,

augmentation release ofDiachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead)

had been reported to be associated with an approximately 2.7-fold

suppression of Anastrepha spp. populations in backyard orchards

(Montoya et al., 2010).

Conservation of natural enemies. Conservation of natural enemies

is the most important concept in the practice of biological control. It

means avoiding practices that harm natural enemies, implementing

practices that benefit them and modifying practices to accommo-

date them. For instance, susceptibility ofHarmonia axyridis (Pallas)

to various pesticides depends on the developmental stage. Adults are

often less susceptible than immature stages are. As for the Ambly-

seius womersleyi Schicha, Phytoseiulus persimilisAthias-Henriot and

Chrysopa pallens Rambur, herbicide application weakly influences

their activity (Ahn et al., 2001).

Chemical control

Chemical control is the use of synthetic products to manage pests.

The most common chemicals are insecticides, herbicides and fungi-

cides. Chemical control constitutes an important way to manage

pests in spite of its environmental cost. Indeed, pesticides not only

destroy the target pest but also cause damage to other non-harmful

or beneficial organisms.

Cultural and mechanical control

Prior to the advent of chemical pesticides, humanity relied pri-

marily on cultural and mechanical methods of pest management.

Cultural and mechanical control include crop rotation, tillage

practices, barriers, hedge rows, traps, scarecrows and other forms

of environmental modifications that influence the incidence of

pest problems. For instance, adopting reduced spacing in a cassava

field could contribute to reducing cassava mosaic disease spread

(Thresh and Cooter, 2005). Abate (1988) showed the importance of

trap-cropping in the integrated management of African bollworm,

H. armigera, in Ethiopia. Respecting plant protection principles,

including crop hygiene, disease-free planting material and system-

atic removal of unhealthy plants from within crops, was reported to

contribute to pest management (Thresh and Cooter, 2005).

Legal control

Legal methods are regulatory actions and are often employed to pre-

vent immigration of foreign pests or to prevent the dispersal of estab-

lished pests. It is, for instance, fruit and other perishable products

stopped for inspection and confiscated by customs to prevent entry

of pests in a country. It also includes imported animals, which are

often retained in quarantine for a period of time to allow inspection

for pests and diseases. Legal actions are not always effective, but they

enable intercepting several pests that could add to the pest problems

already present in a given country (Wright, 1995).

20.4 Research on plant use in pest management

20.4.1 Research areas, concepts and organizationsinvolved in Africa

Research on plant use in pest management is quite old. This must

have been intensified during the green revolution era, where pest

pressures increased due to monoculture. The trend has been a shift

from research on synthetic pesticides against most damaging pests

such as the desert locust and the malaria mosquito, to intensive

research on more eco-friendly methods. Since the end of the green

revolution era, with its weaknesses regarding impacts of synthetic

pesticides on human health, research has been intensified towards

alternatives that preserve the environment and human health.

The development of pest resistance to some chemical compounds,

together with health and environmental impacts of pesticides,

constrained entomologists and plant protection scientists and ecol-

ogists to move to the concept of IPM. The IPM research seeks to

define eco-friendly approaches to pest management that ensure a


sustainable production in agricultural systems.This combines inves-

tigations on predator–prey relationships between the different pests

and also integrates indigenous knowledge on pest management.

Pest management research in Africa is carried out by national and

international agricultural research institutions and organizations.

Among the leading international agricultural research centres there

is the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), which

has been working on crop pest management for more than four

decades now. IITA has developed different pest management mea-

sures by focusing on food crops like banana and plantain, maize,

cassava, soybean, cowpea, yam and tree crops.

20.4.2 Gaps in knowledge

Owing to the harmful impacts of synthetic pesticides on human

health and the environment, the trend today is oriented towards

IPM approaches and emphasizing their sustainability. Although

methods involving use of plants to handle pest infestations showed

great comparative advantages, the main gap in knowledge is that

there are no 100% efficient plant-based pesticides to handle a given

pest of economic importance to African agriculture. Meanwhile,

there is still lack of knowledge on the environmental impacts of these

natural pesticides (Cavoski et al., 2011) and quality assessement of

biopesticides for human health (Mihale et al., 2009).

20.5 Biodiversity of African plants used in pestmanagement

As already mentioned, pests constitute important threats to agricul-

ture as they lead to decreased yields and cause damage to agricultural

products. Several methods are being used to overcome pest issues

and their damage, as described above. From an ecological intensifi-

cation perspective, exploiting biodiversity potentials is necessary for

a sustainable pest management. Secoy and Smith (1983) presented

the biodiversity of plants used worldwide to control agricultural and

domestic pests, including human and livestock diseases vectors.This

section focuses on the diversity of African plants used in crop pest

management.

20.5.1 Biodiversity of plants used to control insectpests

Insects which cause at least 5% damage are considered pests. Minor

pests are those which provoke between 5 and 10% damage, whereas

major ones are responsible for above 10% crop loss (Navarajan,

2007). Insects destroy about 35% of crops all over the world (Shani,

2000), and for centuries their management was traditionally based

on plants. Whatever insect type is considered, plants and/or plant

products are proven to be effective to different degrees in their

control.

20.5.1.1 Storage pest control

Themost common insect pests infesting stored grains and other crop

products are Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) and Oryzaephilus suri-

namensis (L.) (Al-Jabr, 2006).

In storage, plants are mostly used as botanicals for more efficiency

(Abate et al., 2000). Moreover, botanicals have low mammalian

toxicity, are cost effective, mostly non-phytotoxic and are easily

biodegradable (Isman, 2006). In this regard, spraying of Annona

squamosa L., Moringa oleifera Lam. and Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

leaf extracts at 2.0 g per 10 g of wheat grain can be recommended

to small-scale farmers to control T. castaneum (Anita et al., 2012).

T. castaneum was also controlled by spraying Punica granatum L.

andMurraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. leaf extracts (Gandhi et al., 2010).

Glycoalkaloids extracted from species of the Solanum genus inhibit

the weight increase of T. castaneum (Weissenberg et al., 1998). In

Pakistan, propagation of T. castaneum and grain spoilage were sig-

nificantly controlled by Ricinus communis L. and A. indica. Indeed,

both crushed leaves and ground leaves of R. communis and A.

indica reduce T. castaneum propagation by up to 78% and grain

spoilage to 13% in storage (Tooba et al., 2005). Rhizome of Cype-

rus articulatus L., a common plant in Nigeria, has more of an

antifeedant property on T. castaneum than the light petroleum

extract does (Abubakar et al., 2000). Hexane extracts from Ceri-

ops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. stem and bud produce a robust feeding

deterrent on T. castaneum, whereas capsaicin derived from Cap-

sicum spp. constitutes a good repellence agent to Sitophilus zeamais

(Ho and Ma, 1995; Du et al., 2011). Powders of Lantana camara

L. and Tephrosia vogelii used as natural pesticides considerably

reduce maize infestation by S. zeamais without adverse effect on

germination and, therefore, constitute a good alternative to Actellic

Super 2% dust (Ogendo et al., 2004). Some species, such as Angelica

dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav., Cnidium

officinale Makino, Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., Pterocarpus indicus

Willd.,Allium sativumL., Illicium verumHook.f.,Eugenia caryophyl-

lata Thunb., Lysimachia davurica Ledeb., Zanthoxylum schinifolium

Siebold & Zucc., Kaempferia galanga L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill.,

Agastache rugosa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Kuntze and Aquilaria agal-

locha Roxb., exhibit high antifeedant activity on Attagenus unicolor

japonicus Reitter (Soon-Il et al., 2012). The traditional African plant

products used to protect stored cowpea have been widely docu-

mented by Boeke (2002). Out of 33 plants collected in Benin and

Tanzania, powder from ground leaves of three of them (Nicotiana

tabacum L., Tephrosia vogelii and Securidaca longepedunculata Fre-

sen.)were toxic, and five others (Clausena anisata (Willd.)Hook.f. ex

Benth., Dracaena arborea (Willd.) Link, T. vogelii, Momordica cha-

rantia L. and Blumea aurita (L.f.) DC) showed repellence properties

to Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). C. macullatus is well investigated

owing to its destructive action, which starts in the fields and con-

tinues through into storage. In some plant species, efficacy tests

on C. maculatus and S. zeamais proved Vitex grandifolia Gürke

to be the most effective (Epidi et al., 2008). In Nigeria, hexane

extract from Lantana camara, Monodora myristica (Gaertn) Dunal

and Euphorbia lateriflora Schum. and Thonn. against bean wee-

vil C. maculatus caused high mortality to C. maculatus and maize

weevil, S. zeamais (Ogunsina et al., 2011). A survey carried out in

the UK on sensitivity of three storage pests to Securidaca longepe-

dunculata root extract found repellent and toxic effects against S.

zeamais (Jayasekara et al., 2005). Caryedon serratus (Olivier), the

main threat to stored groundnut in Congo, is widely controlled by

Trephosia vogelii andChenopodium ambrosioides L. Powders of these

two plants completely protect groundnut by shortening the pest’s

longevity and reducing its fecundity (Delobe and Malonga, 1987).


In Kenya, powders of A. indica, Lantana camara and Tephrosia

vogelii showed strong repellent effect towards Prostephanus trunca-

tus (Horn), which is a major problem in most areas that produce

maize and cassava (Chebet et al., 2013). Essential oils constitute

other plant products used in storage pest control. The mixture of

A. indica seeds with grains controls storage pests on pearl millet

(Gahukar, 1988). In Tanzania, Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad.

ex W.D.J.Koch&Ziz, Ocimum suave Willd., Senna siamea (Lam.)

H.S.Irwin & Barneby and Eucalyptus spp. are used either in sim-

ple (two species) or complex (more than two species) mixtures

for pest management. Globally, all those plants showed repellence

and/or toxic activities against Prostephanus truncatus, Sitophilus

spp., Tribolium spp., Bruchus rufimanus (Boheman) and Rhyzop-

ertha dominica (Fabricius) (Mihale et al., 2009).

20.5.1.2 On-farm pest control

Leaves of Cestrum parqui L’Hérit. are reported to indirectly reduce

Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.) population by their toxicity on the

imago (Barbouche et al., 2001). In Uganda, maintaining Tephrosia

plants in a farm environment protects potato tubers from mole

rate damage, whereas juice of the species was used to control maize

stem borer in southern Tanzania and northern Zambia (Wortmann

et al., 1998). Soaked maize grain in a solution of macerated leaves of

A. indica before sowing is repellent for birds and termites (Zehrer,

1986). In the Sahel, smoke from burning the fruits of Parkia biglo-

bosa (Jacq.) G.Don and leaves of Terminalia spp. repel blister beetles

(Gahukar, 1988). The important substances contained in plants

giving them the insecticidal properties are saponins (Chaieb, 2010).

In Tanzania, spray of aqueous extracts of Tamarindus indica L.

fruits mixed with Nicotiana tabacum leaves controlled cotton pests,

whereas using Aloe spp. is known to indigenous pest management

(Mihale et al., 2009).

Saponins have various structures enabling their use in several

contexts (beneficial or toxic activities). On the one hand, saponins

interfere with the feeding behaviour of insects. For instance,

saponins extracted from Ilex opaca Aiton reduce food uptake by

Oligonychus ilicis (McGregor), a mite species, and two caterpil-

lars, Hyphantria cunea Drury and Malacosoma americanum (F.)

(Kreuger and Potter, 1994). It is also the case of Balanites rox-

burghii Planch., Agave cantala (Haw.) Roxb. ex Salm-Dyck and

Phaseolus vulgaris on Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Jain and Tri-

pathi, 1999) and the spirostanic saponin isolated from Solanum

laxum Spreng. on Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) aphid (Soule

et al., 2000). Larvae weight losses were reported on Manduca sexta

(L.) treated with glycoalkaloids extracted from Solanum species

(Weissenberg et al., 1998). On the other hand, saponins exhibit

entomotoxicity. In this respect, crude saponins of C. parqui have

variable toxicity on Tribolium confusum (Du Val). The saponins

extracted from leaves and roots of Medicago sativa L. are toxic for

Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) larvae (Szczepanik et al., 2001)

and caused prolongation of the larval and pupal stages, retarded

growth, increased mortality, and reduced fecundity and fertility

of S. littoralis (Adel et al., 2000). Similarly, hexane extract from

Acorus calamus L. exhibited antifeed activity against Peridroma

saucia (Hübner) (Koul et al., 1990). In Nigeria, leaf extract of

Tephrosia vogelii and the root extract of Petiveria alliacea L. are

both proven to act in the same way as decis against field cowpea

pests such as Ootheca mutabilis (Sahlb.), Maruca testulalis (Geyer),

Zonocerus variegatus (L.), Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius) and Apion

varium (Wagner) (Adebayo et al., 2007). Also from Nigeria, reports

indicate that other dangerous pests were also sensitive to botani-

cal mixtures (Oparaeke et al., 2005). Indeed, synergetic action of

Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich., Allium sativum L., Capsicum

sp. and Anacardium occidentale L. strongly reduce Megalurothrips

sjostedti,Maruca vitrata (Fab.) and Clavigralla tomentosicollis (Stal)

on cowpea plants at farms. Spraying neem oil on rice plants reduced

the leaf folder incidence (Mohan et al., 1991), whereas applying

neem cake (de-oiled) amendment on the soil at 150 kg/ha and

neem oil spraying at 10-day intervals were reported to control

the infestation by Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee (Krishnaiah

and Kalode, 1990). Similarly, rice seedling root soaked in neem

extract minimized damage caused by Sogatella furcifera (Horvath)

(Saxena, 1987), and various neem extracts containing azadirachtin

induced reduction of weight and increased mortality of nymphs

of Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) (Senthil Nathan et al., 2007). Neem oil

respectively applied at 0.5% and 1.5% doses reduced H. armigera

infection on chickpea and Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) damage on soy-

bean (Siddappaji et al., 1986; Mani et al., 1990). The same effects on

those pests were also obtained with neem kernel extracts (38.7%)

and leaf extracts and to aqueous leaf extract from Catharanthus

roseus (L.) G.Don (Atwal and Pajni, 1964; Siddappaji et al., 1986).

The leaf extract of A. squamosa and 12% leaf extract of neem were

reported to develop strong antifeeding activity against Brevicornye

brassicae L. Losses induced by hairy caterpillar were reported to

have been significantly minimized by Euphorbia royleana Boiss. or

Lantana camara aqueous extract spraying (Sharma et al., 1982).

As for potato pests, the rhizome extract of Acorus calamus or

the leaf extract of Ageratum conyzoides L. were reported to show

up to 42% mortality to the third instar larvae of Gnorimoschema

operculella Zell. (Pandey et al., 1982). Moreover, Epilachna vigin-

tioctopuncata (Fabr.), a dangerous pest affecting potato crops, is

effectively controlled by rhizome extract of A. calamus (Chandel

et al., 1987).

Appendix 20.1 summarizes the biodiversity of African plants used

to control insect pests, the plant parts used, the types of insects con-

trolled and the type of control reported (on-farm or storage).

20.5.2 Biodiversity of plants used to treat cropdiseases

Diseases also constitute an important threat to agricultural produc-

tion. Their management using plants or plant-based approaches is

proven to be effective. For instance, leaves, stem and flower powder

of Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. applied as amendment were proved

to suppress root rot fungi on cowpea and mung bean (Ikram and

Dawar, 2013).

In western Africa, plant use to control crop disease has been well

documented. For instance, application of ground ginger (Zingiber

officinale Roscoe) showed effective biocidal activity on Fusarium

moniliforme (Sheldon), Rhizopus stolonifer (Vill) and Geotrichum

candidum (Link) associated with rot on tomato (Chuku et al.,

2010). Among Tridax procumbens L., Vernonia amygdalina Delile,

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. and Azadirachta

indica tested for their antifungal activity on post-harvest rot of

tomato, A. indica was the most effective as a bio-protective agent


on tomato fruits (Ijato et al., 2011). In Nigeria, Enikuomehin

(2005) demonstrated that spraying 7.5% extract of Aspilia africana

(Pers.) C.D. Adams, C. odorata, Musa paradisiaca L. and Tithonia

diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray every 2weeks from the third week

after planting was comparable to Bentex T (20% Benlate + 20%

thiram) application in suppressing Cercospora leaf spot disease

in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Adesegun et al. (2013) studied

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (causal agent of southern blight disease)

management in Nigeria and concluded that Aframomum melegueta

K.Schum., Ocimum gratissimum L. and Cymbopogon citratus (DC.)

Stapf extracts are recommendable, with a stress on O. gratissimum,

which acts as funguforce (a synthetic fungicide). Tomato southern

blight disease had also been reported in Benin but was treated with

the sap of banana pseudo stem and banana column juice (Sikirou

et al., 2010, 2011). In Egypt, the use of A. sativum and Datura

stramonium L. plant extracts in management of early blight disease

on tomato was reported (Nashwa and Abo-Elyousr, 2012). Indeed,

A. sativum and D. stramonium leaf extracts not only induced the

highest reduction in mycelial growth of Alternaria solani Sorauer

and the reduction of the induced disease, but also increased fruits

yield. Amadioha (2003) reported that the mixture of alcohol and

water with leaf extracts of Piper nigrum L. and Ocimum sanctum L.

have considerable control on cowpea anthracnose disease (caused

by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magnus) Briosi &

Cavara) and were potential substitutes for synthetic chemicals.

Colletotrichum destructivum N.L. Horn, the agent of that disease,

was also reported to be more sensitive to aqueous extracts of Car-

ica papaya L. roots and seeds and of neem bark as concentration

increased (Enyiukwu and Awurum, 2011). Cowpea root rot disease

caused by Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. was proved

to be controlled by Z. officinale and Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. plant

extracts (Suleiman and Emua, 2009). Myzus persicae (Sulzer), very

well known as a vector of potato virus Y disease, is well controlled

by using pyrethrum and dried flower powder of Chrysanthemum

cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch.Bip. leaf extract (Jacobson, 1975). Cer-

cospora spot disease on avocado fruits is controlled with ethanol

extracts of O. gratissimum, Acalypha wilkesiana Mull.Arg. and

Acalypha macrostachya Jacq., which totally inhibited the causal

agent Cercospora purpurea Cke. (Ogbo and Oyibo, 2008). Neem is

also reported to be potentially effective in rice blast disease control

in Nigeria. Neem leaf extracts (aqueous) and seed oil reduced

radial growth of Pyricularia oryzae Cavara, and resulted in high

reduction of blast development on rice (Amadioha, 2000). In this

report, neem has almost the same action as carbendazim at 0.1%.

Carré et al. (2006) reported that soaking banana fruits in Artemisia

camphorata Vill. extract reduces anthracnose severity up to 67%.

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. is also useful in crop diseases control.

The aqueous extract was reported to induce local resistance in

cucumber plants against Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. &

Halst., responsible for anthracnose (Bonaldo et al., 2007), whereas

systemic resistance was induced by the aqueous leaf extract of O.

gratissimum (Colpas et al., 2009). Under in vitro assays, E. citri-

odora also inhibited mycelia growth of Phytophthora sp., Sclerotium

rolfsii Sacc., Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn and Alternaria alternata (Fr.)

Keissl. Mixing the extracts of Bidens pilosa L. and Lippia alba

(Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson had shown effective in vitro

fungi-toxic activity against Alternaria alternata (Moreira et al.,

2008). Tohamy et al. (2002) reported in Egypt that A. indica (neem)

andAllium sativum (garlic) and Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.Presi

(camphor) drastically reduced mildew disease, with an emphasis on

the highest effect of garlic. In Germany, it has been demonstrated

that the volatile phytoanticipin allicin contained in garlic (Allium

sativum) extracts has applications in plant pathogen management.

This secondary metabolite of A. sativum has the ability to con-

trol Magnaporthe grisea (T.T. Hebert) M.E. Barr infection in rice,

and then reduces rice blast disease development, downy mildew

of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. caused by Hyaloperonospora

parasitica (Pers.) Constant., and Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de

Bary infesting potato tubers (Curtis et al., 2004). Also, Kagale et al.

(2004) demonstrated that a foliar application of Datura metel L.

leaf extract significantly reduces the incidence of sheath blight and

bacterial blight diseases on rice.A. indica and Eucalyptus tereticornis

Sm. leaf extracts contribute to reduce pre- and post-emergence

mortality and number of onion seedlings presenting symptoms

of black mould disease (Gupta et al., 2012). Van Tol et al. (2007)

showed in a push–pull system that Origanum majorana L. has a

strong repellence against the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci (Linde-

man). Xanthomonas campestris (Pammel) Dowson, responsible

of bacterial blight, common blight, fiscous blight and canker on

cotton, tomato and rice paddy, was controlled by fresh leaf extracts

of Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd., Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC., Achras

zapota L., Enterolobium saman (Jacq.) Prain, Lawsonia inermis L.,

Oxalis corniculata L., Punica granatum L. and Viscum orientale

Willd. (Satish et al., 1999).


to control plant diseases, the plant parts used, the types of diseases

or pathogens controlled and the type of control reported (on-farm

or storage).

20.5.3 Biodiversity of plants used to controlfarm weeds

Weeds represent a serious challenge to agricultural production and

alone can reduce crop yield to about 34% (Oerke, 2006). The use of

eco-friendly technology to manage weeds has become a necessity

in view of the health and environmental hazards created by syn-

thetic herbicides. In this respect, there is interest in botanicals and

allelopathy phenomena occurring in plants for sustainable weed

management (An et al., 1998; Koul and Walia., 2009). In Japan,

the potential of Passiflora edulis Sims to reduce some paddy rice

weeds was reported (Khanh et al., 2006). Indeed, P. edulis con-

tained some substances, such as coumarin, lactones and fatty acids,

which induce germination and growth suppression of Echinochloa

crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. and Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C.Presel

ex Kunth. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) pellets inhibited emergence of

several weeds, such as abunome (Doparium junceumHamilt.), false

pimpernel (Lindernia pyxidaria L.), stemmed water wort (Elatine

triandra Schk. var. pedicellata Krylov), Eleocharis acicularis (L.)

Roem. & Schult and Rotala indica Koehne when applied at 1–3 t/ha

and significantly reduced the number of Echinochloa oryzicola

Vasinger plants (Xuan et al., 2001). In India, Tagetes minuta L.

leaf extract applied on rice field soil has been reported to exhibit

herbicidal activity against Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. and

Cyperus rotundus L. and also to increase rice yields owing to its

partial pesticidal properties against fungi, nematodes and insects

(Batish et al., 2007). The control ability of aqueous leaf extracts


of A. indica, Ficus benghalensis L., Melia azedarach L., Mangifera

indica L. and Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels towards Parthenium

hysterophorus L. (one of the world’s worst weeds) was stressed by

Shafique et al. (2005). The authors reported that, of all tested trees,

F. benghalensis and M. indica extracts were the best inhibitors of

P. hysterophorus seed germination, whereasM. azedarach, S. cumini

and F. benghalensis had been foundmost effective in suppressing the

radicle and plumule growth of P. hysterophorus. The ability of plant

species to control this dangerous weed was confirmed by Javaid

and Anjum (2006), who showed the herbicidal activity of Dichan-

thium annulatum Stapf, Cenchrus pennisetiformis Hochest and

Sorghum halepense Pers roots and shoots aqueous extracts against

P. hysterophorus. The most effective activity was obtained with C.

pennisetiformis shoot extracts. Similarly, aqueous extracts of dried

leaves of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br., A. indica and E. citriodora

Hook were proven to reduce by up to 43% the final germination of

Phalaris minor Retz, an important weed of wheat fields (Javaid et al.,

2006). In Pakistan, herbicide use was reduced by 75% through an

integration of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) plus sunflower

(Helianthus annuus L.) extracts without adverse effects on wheat

yield, in the management of the wild oat (Avena fatua L.) and canary

grass (P. minor) (Mushtaq et al., 2010). In Cambodia, a suitable use

of phytotoxic rice crop residues was reported in barnyard grass

(Echinochloa crus-galli), small umbrella sedge (Cyperus difformis

L.) and water primrose (Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven) as

a management strategy (Pheng et al., 2010). Using root and stem

aqueous extract of Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. and Ageratum cony-

zoides constituted an ecological way to control P. minor, Poa annua

L. andMedicago polymorpha L. in wheat (Akhtar et al., 2001).


to control farm weeds, the plant parts used and the weed species

controlled.

20.6 Benefits of the use of plants in crop pestmanagement

20.6.1 Economic rewards of plant use in crop pestmanagement

Africa is known to be the smallest user of chemical pesticides, and

the main reason for this is that farming in the continent is char-

acterized by smallholdings. Thus, the smallholders are financially

limited in accessing those synthetic pesticides. The use of natural

approaches developed by indigenous people, and especially botan-

icals in crop pest management, reduces their bills for pest manage-

ment, and this is cost effective (Cavoski et al., 2011). In the same

way, this reduces expenditure for treating intoxications that often

arise from the careless use of highly toxic pesticides. Moreover, the

growth of the demand for organic food represents an opportunity

and creates new markets for producers already experienced in the

use of botanicals for pest control.

20.6.2 Health and environmental benefits

Among the severe criticisms of the green revolution are the health

and environmental impacts of the heavy use of pesticide bulks. The

use of plant-based products to manage pests reduces those health

and environmental risks. The use of botanical pesticides in agricul-

tural production offers an incomparable food quality by suppressing,

if not significantly reducing, pesticide residues and risks for intox-

ication. Thus, much attention has been given to those methods as

biopesticides, which are in most cases non-toxic to plants and are

biodegradable (Cavoski et al., 2011). These plant products generally

have low toxicity to mammals. The overall agricultural biodiversity

is also enhanced, by minimizing side effects on non-target useful

insects and other micro-fauna, which play important functions in

the agro ecosystems (e.g. pollinating, regulating).

20.6.3 Risks mitigation and food security

Use of eco-friendly pest management approaches and methods

such botanicals and plants antagonisms offers incomparable advan-

tages compared with synthetic pesticides. Botanicals and other

plant-based methods are more resilient to environmental changes,

as African small farmers have maintained agricultural ecosystems

and related biodiversity through their practices.Thus, they are more

sustainable and promote biodiversity conservation and enhance-

ment. All these are concurrent contributors for better food security

and poverty alleviation, as they are affordable for poor farmers.

20.7 Limits of the study

A major limit to this study is that it only covers crop pest manage-

ment and does not treat human and animal disease vectors/agents.

Another limit concerns the definition of what should be considered

as ‘African plant’. Several species have a wide distribution, with

Africa as centre of origin or not, and occur also outside the African

continent (e.g. Asia, Americas, Europe or Australia). Here, we have

reported the use of plant species occurring in Africa and used in the

African farming systems or that have been tested and confirmed by

agricultural research centres, irrespective of their centres of origin.

In addition, some species found in Africa but with no record of

use in African pest management are employed in other continents

to control crop pests. Those species are also reported here, with

mention of places where their properties were studied.

20.8 Conclusion

Natural methods for pest control and organic farming are the least

toxic possibilities.This chapter has presented the diversity of African

plants and metabolites used in crop pest management. It has also

showed that traditional pest management is an integral part of crop-

ping systems, based on botanicals and natural processes. Biopesti-

cides need to be promoted in order to develop sustainable methods

for plant protection and to provide healthy and secure foods for the

benefit of farmers, consumers and the environment. However, there

is still need to evaluate their environmental sustainability.

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Appendices

Diversity of African plants used to control crop insect pests

Family Species Plant part(s)/formulation Application Pest controlled Source

Acanthaceae Acanthus montanus

(Nees) T. Anderson

Spiny leaf to keep rats

from granaries

– – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Acanthaceae Duosperma sp Insect repellent – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Acoraceae Acorus calamus L Rhizome Field Peridroma saucia (Hübner) Koul et al. (1990)

Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Rhizome extract Field Epilachna vigintioctopuncata

(Fabr)

Chandel et al. (1987)

Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Rhizome extract Field Gnorimoschema operculella

(Zell.)

Pandey et al. (1982)

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Bulb Field Megalurothrips sjostedti

(Trybom),Maruca vitrata

(Fab.) and Clavigralla

tomentosicollis (Stal.)

Oparaeke et al. (2005)

Amaranthaceae Chenopodium

ambrosioides L.

Plant powder Storage Caryedon serratus (OL.) Delobe and Malonga (1987)

Amaranthaceae Pupalia lappacea (L.)

Juss.

Seed pods in rat poison – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Essential oil Storage Aspergillus flavus (Link) Gurjar et al., (2012), Reddy et al.

(2009)

Anacardiaceae Anacardium

occidentale L.

Nutshell Field Megalurothrips sjostedti





Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. Leaf extract Field Brevicornye brassicae (L.) Singh and Sharma (1986)

Annonaceae Monodora myristica

(Gaertn.) Dunal

Seed powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)

and Sitophilus zeamais

(Motsch.)

Ogunsina et al. (2011)

Annonaceae Polyalthia suaveolens

Engl. & Diels

Decoction of leaves for

ritual bath for crop

protection against

sorcery


Annonaceae Xylopia aethiopica

(Dunal) A.Rich.

Fruits Field Megalurothrips sjostedti





Anonaceaea Annona squamosa L. Leaf powder Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Anita et al. (2012)

Apocynaceae Catharanthus

roseus (L.) G.Don

Aqueous leaf extract Field Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)

and Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Siddappaji et al. (1986)

Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. Leaves against insect and

rodents; oleandrin


Apocynaceae Thevetia peruviana

(Pers.) K.Schum.

Insecticide – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Apocynaceae Voacanga obtusa K.

Schum

Fruit put in field to repel

wild pigs


Aquifoliaceae Ilex opaca Aiton Saponins extracted Field Oligonychus ilicis (McGregor),

Hyphantria cunea Drury and

Malacosoma americanum (F.)

Kreuger and Potter (1994)

Asparagaceae Agave cantala (Haw.)

Roxb. ex Salm-Dyck

Saponins extract of plant Field Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) Jain and Tripathi (1999)

Asphodelaceae Aloe spp. Whole plant Field Lepidoptera and Coleoptera Mihale et al. (2009)

Asteraceae Blumea aurita (L.f.) DC Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Boeke (2002)

Asteraceae Tarchonanthus

camphoratus L.

Insect repellent – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

(continued)



Barringtoniaceae Barringtonia racemosa

(L.) Spreng.

Bark as insecticide, seeds

as poison bait


Brassicaceae Cochlearia armoracia L. Essential oil Storage Callosobruchus chinensis (L.),

Lasioderma serricorne (F.) and

Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.)

Soon-Il et al. (2012)

Burseraceae Commiphora abyssinica

Engl.

Insect repellent and

insecticide


Burseraceae Commiphora africana

(A.Rich.) Engl.


insecticide


Burseraceae Commiphora myrrha

(Nees) Engl.


insecticide


Cesalpiniaceae Erythrophleum guineense

G. Don

Bark as rat poison, leaves

in storage grain


Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium

opulifolium Schrad. ex

W.D.J.Koch&Ziz

whole plant Storage and fields Prostephanus truncatus (Hom),

Stophilus sp., Tribolium spp.,

Bruchus rufimanus

(Boheman) and Rhyzopertha

dominica (Fabricius)

Mihale et al. (2009)

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium

ambrosioides L.

Decoction of seed or

leaves against insects


Combretaceae Terminalia sp. Smoke from burning

leaves

Field Blister beetle [Epicauta vittata

(Fabricius)]

Gahukar (1988)

Compositae Ageratum conyzoides L. Leaf extract Field Gnorimoschema operculella

(Zell.)

Pandey et al. (1982)

Compositae Matricaria chamomilla L. Essential oil at 1% Storage Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.)

and Tribolium castaneum

(Herbst.)

Al-Jabr et al. (2006)

Crassulaceae Bryophyllum

(=Kalanchoe)pinnatum (Lam.) Kruz

Wood in fetish for

protection of fields


Crassulaceae Kalanchoe crenata

(Andrews) Haw.

Wood in charm for

protection of fields


Crassulaceae Kalanchoe somaliensis

Baker

Sap as insect repellent – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Cucurbitaceae Luffa acutangula Roxb. Seed or plant as

insecticide


Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L. Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Boeke (2002)

Cucurbitaceae Momordica foetida

Schumach.

Fruit pulp as insecticide

and repellent


Cucurbitaceae Momordica schimperiana

Naud.

Fruit as insecticide – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Cyperaceae Cyperus articulatus L. Rhizome Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Abubakar et al. (2000)

Dichapetalaceae Dichapetalum toxicarium

Baill.

Seeds as rat poison – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Dioscoreacea Dioscorea dumetorum

(Kunth) Pax

Bulb as poison bait for

field-raiding monkey


Ericaceae Agauria salicifolia

(Olivier) Hook. f.

Infusion as insecticide,

especially for beetles


Euphorbiaceae Antidesma

membranaceum

Müll.Arg.

Fruit as charm for health

of crops


Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia lateriflora

Schum. andThonn.

Stem powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)


(Motsch.)


Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia royleana

Boiss.

Leaf extract Field Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) Sharma et al. (1982)

Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas L. Leaves as general

insecticide


Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca

(Rchb.f. & Zoll.)

Müll.Arg.




Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Crush leaves and ground

leaves

Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Tooba et al. (2005)

Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Seeds, oil insecticidal,

poison bait for rats

and coyotes, ricin


Euphorbiaceae Spondianthus preussii

Engl.

Bark and seeds as rat bait – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Euphorbiaceae Toxicodendron

(=Hyaenanche)capenseThumb.

Seeds in carcasses to

poison flock predators


Leguminosae Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe)

Hutch. & Dalziel

Resin as termite repellent – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Leguminosae Daniellia thurifera Benn. Resin fumigant for flying

insects; rotenone


Leguminosae Derris uliginosa (Willd.)

Benth.

Insecticide, rotenone – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Leguminosae Dolichos

pseudopachyrhizus

Harms

Root decoction as

insecticide


Leguminosae Indigofera sp. Root against insects – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Leguminosae Medicago sativa L. Leaves and roots saponin

extract

Field Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) Szczepanik et al. (2001)

Leguminosae Medicago sativa L. Leaves and roots saponin

extract

Field Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) Adel et al. (2000)

Leguminosae Mundulea sericea

(Willd.) A.Chev.

Bark as insecticide;

rotenone


Leguminosae Neorautanenia

pseudopachyrrhiza

(Harms) Milne-

Redh.

Root as insecticide – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Leguminosae Phaseolus vulgaris L. Saponins extract of plant Field Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) Jain and Tripathi (1999)

Leguminosae Sesbania sesban (L.)

Merr.


Leguminosae Swartzia

madagascariensis

Desv.

Powdered fruit as

repellent in stored

grain


Leguminosae Tephosia vogeliiHook.f. Leaf against fleas;

rotenoids


Leguminosae Tephrosia spp. Plants juice Field Blister beetle [Epicauta vittata

(Fabricius)]

Wortmann et al. (1998)

Leguminosae Tephrosia vogeliiHook.f. Leaves extract Field Ootheca mutabilis (Sahlb.),

Maruca testulalis (Geyer),

Zonocerus variegatus (L.),

Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius)

and Apion varium (Wagner)

Adebayo et al. (2007)

Leguminosae Tephrosia vogeliiHook.f. Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Boeke (2002)

Leguminosae Tephrosia vogeliiHook.f. Plant powder Storage Caryedon serratus (OL.) Delobe and Malonga (1987)

Leguminosae Tephrosia vogeliiHook.f. Mixture of leaves and

succulent stems (crude

powder)

Storage Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) Ogendo et al. (2004)

Leguminosae Tephrosia vogeliiHook.f. Mixture of leaves and


powder)

Storage Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) Chebet et al. (2013)

Hippocrateaceae Hippocratea velutina

Afzel. ex Spreng

Charm to protect yam

crop from insects


Hyperiaceae Psorospermum guineense

Hochr.

Bark and root in seed

steep as bird poison


Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis latifolia Hook. Bulb as poison bait for

rodent


(continued)



Lamiaceae Hyptis spicigera Lam. Termite repellent in

stored grain


Lamiaceae Leonotis africana

(P.Beauv.) Briq.

Insect and rat repellent in

stored grain


Lamiaceae Leonotis

nepetifolia (L.) R.Br.

Insect and rodent

repellent in stored

grain


Lamiaceae Ocimum sanctum L. Leaf, seed, fruit and

crude extract

Storage Aspergillus flavus (Link) Gurjar et al., (2012), Reddy

et al., (2009).

Lamiaceae Ocimum suaveWilld. Leaves Storage Prostephanus truncatus (Hom),

Sitophilus sp., Tribolium spp.,

Bruchus rufimanus




Lamiaceae Origanum majorana L. Essential oil Field Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) Van Tol et al. (2007)

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare L. Essential oil Storage Tribolium catsaneum (Herbst.) Soon-Il et al. (2012)

Lamiaceae Salvia repens Burch. ex

Benth.


Lamiaceae Salvia runcinata L. Insect fumigant – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Lamiaceae Salvia sisymbrifolia Skan Insect fumigant – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Lamiaceae Salvia stenophylla Burch.

ex Benth.

Insect fumigant – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Leguminosae Tephrosia spp. Plants juice Field Blister beetle [Epicauta vittata

(Fabricius)]

Wortmann et al. (1998)

Leguminosae/

Caesalpinioideae

Senna siamea (Lam.)

H.S.Irwin & Barneby

Root solution Storage Prostephanus truncatus (Hom),

Sitophilus sp., Tribolium spp.,

Bruchus rufimanus




Leguminosae Tamarindus indica L. Fruits Field Agrotis spp. Mihale et al. (2009)

Leguminosae/

Mimosoideae

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.)

G.Don

Smoke from burning

fruits

Field Blister beetle [Epicauta vittata

(Fabricius)]

Gahukar (1988)

Liliaceae Androcymbium

leucanthumWilld

Bird poison – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Liliaceae Baeometra collumerallis

Salisb.


Liliaceae Dipidax ciliata (L.f.)

Baker


Liliaceae Dipidax triquetra (L.f.)

Baker


Liliaceae Dracaena arborea

(Willd) Link

Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Boeke (2002)

Liliaceae Ornithoglossum

glaucum Salisb.


Liliaceae Wurmbea

capensisThunb.


Lyrthraceae Punica granatum L. Leaf powder Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.),

Rhyzopertha dominica

(Fabricius)

Gandhi et al. (2010), Gandhi

and Pillai (2011)

Malvaceae Hibiscus abelmoschus L. Fruit as insecticide – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica

A.Juss.

Seed (oil) Field Cnaphalocrosis medinalis

(Guenee)

Mohan et al. (1991)


A.Juss.

Seed (oil) Field Cnaphalocrosis medinalis

(Guenee)

Krishnaiah and Kalode (1990)


A.Juss.

Plants extracts Field Sogatella furcifera (Horváth) Saxena (1987)




A.Juss.

Plants extracts Field Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) Senthil Nathan et al. (2007)


A.Juss.

Neem oil and kernel

extracts

Field Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) Siddappaji et al. (1986)


A.Juss.

Neem oil Field Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) Mani et al. (1990)


A.Juss.

Kernel and leaves

extracts

Field Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)

and Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Atwal and Pajni (1964)


A.Juss.

Leaves Field Birds and termites Zehrer (1986)


A.Juss.

Mixture of leaves,

inflorescence and


powder)



A.Juss.

Crush leaves and ground

leaves

Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Tooba et al. (2005)


A.Juss.

Leaf extract Field Brevicornye brassicae (L.) Singh and Sharma (1986)

Mimosaceae Acacia concinna (Willd.)

DC.

Flowers and pot soap as

insecticide


Moraceae Ficus leprieuriiMiq. Sap to destroy anthills – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaf powder Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Anita et al. (2012)

Musaceae Musa sapientum L. Fruit pulp on wall as

insect repellent


Myrtaceae Eucalyptus codonocarpa

Blakely & McKie

Essential oil Storage Rhyzopertha dominica

(Fabricius) and Sitophilus

oryzae (L.)

Lee et al. (2004)

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus

Labill.

Leaf powder Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Anita et al. (2012)

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus

Labill.

Leaf sap as insect

repellent; eucalyptol


Myrtaceae Eucalyptus spp. Air dried and ground

leaves of Eucalyptus

Storage Prostephanus truncatus (Hom),

Stophilus sp, Tribolium spp,

Bruchus rufimanus




Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum

(L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

Leaf, seed, fruit and

crude extract

Storage Aspergillus flavus (Link) Gurjar et al., (2012), Reddy

et al., (2009)

Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana L. Seed as insecticide and

repellent


Pedaliaceae Ceratotheca

integribracteata Engl.

Decoction as insecticide – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Phytolaccaceae Petiveria allicea L. Root extract Field Ootheca mutabilis (Schönherr),

Maruca testulalis (Geyer),

Zonocerus variegatus (L.),

Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius)

and Apion varium (Wagner)

Adebayo et al. (2007)

Pocaeae Andropogon marginatus

Steud.

In stored grain as rodent

repellent


Pocaeae Vetiveria zizanoides (L.)

Nash

Raceme use as repellent – – Secoy and Smith (1983)

Polygalaceae Securidaca

longepedunculata

Fresen


Polygalaceae Securidaca

longepedunculata

Fresen

Root extract Storage Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) Jayasekara et al. (2005)

Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal (Perr.)

C.B.Rob.

Stem and bud hexane

extracts

Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Du et al. (2011)

(continued)



Rosaceae Prunus amygdalus var.

amara (DC.) Focke

Essential oil Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Al-Jabr (2006)

Rubiaceae Adina rubrostipulata

K.Schum


Rubiaceae Xeromphis (=Randia)nilotica Keay


Rutaceae Clausena anisata (Willd.)

Hook.f. ex Benth.


Rutaceae Murraya koenigii (L.)

Spreng.

Leaf powder Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.),

Rhyzopertha dominica

(Fabricius)

Gandhi et al. (2010), Gandhi

and Pillai (2011)

Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica

Oliv.

Root in insecticide;

harrisonin


Simaroubaceae Mannia (=Quassia)gabonensis (Pierre)

Engl.

Seeds in poison bait for

rodents


Simaroubaceae Picraena (=Aeschrion)excelsa Lind.

Wood extract as

insecticide


Simaroubaceae Quassia amara L. Flowers, wood extract as

insecticide; quassia


Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. To protect stored kola

nuts


Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L. In stored food against

weevils, charms for

crops


Solanaceae Capsicum sp. Fruits Field Megalurothrips sjostedti





Solanaceae Capsicum sp. Capsaicin Storage Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) Ho and Ma (1995)

Solanaceae Cestrum parqui (Lam.)

L’Hér.

Leaves extracts Field Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.) Barbouche et al. (2001)

Solanaceae Datura fastuosa L. Fruit as rat poison in

stored grain


Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Boeke (2002)

Solanaceae Solanum laxum Spreng. Aerial parts extract Field Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) Soule et al. (2000)

Solanaceae Solanum sp. Glycoalkaloids extracted Field Manduca sexta (L.) Weissenberg et al. (1998)

Solanaceae Solanum sp. Glycoalkaloids Storage Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.) Weissenberg et al. (1998)

Sterculiaceae Sterculia foetida L. Bark, leaves as repellent;

known

chemosterillant


Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Mixture of leaves,

inflorescence and


powder)

Storage Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.) Ogendo et al. (2004)

Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Leaf extract Field Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) Sharma et al. (1982)

Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)


(Motsch.)


Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Mixture of leaves,

inflorescence and


powder)


Verbenaceae Vitex grandifolia Gürke Leaf powder Storage Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)


(Motsch.)

Epidi et al., (2008)

Vitidaceae Cissus quadrangularis L. Planted as termite

repellent


Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Leaf, seed, fruit and

crude extract

Storage Aspergillus flavus (Link) Gurjar et al. (2012), Reddy et al.

(2009)

Zygophyllaceae Balanites roxburghii

Planch.

Saponins extract of plant Field Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) Jain and Tripathi (1999)


Diversity of plants used in disease management

Family Species Plants part/formulation Application Diseases/causal agents controlled Source

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Bulb extracts Field Downy mildew of Arabidopsis

thaliana (L.) Heynh./

Hyaloperonospora parasitica

(Pers.) Constant.

Curtis et al. (2004)

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Bulb extracts Field Potato infection/Phytophtora

infestans (Mont.) de Bary


Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Leaves extract Field Early blight disease/Alternaria

solani Sorauer

Nashwa and Abo-Elyousr (2012)

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Bulds tissues extract Field Mildew disease Tohamy et al. (2002)

Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Bulb extracts Field Rice blast disease/Magnaporthe

grisea (T.T. Hebert) M.E. Barr


Asparagaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Fresh leaves and seeds Field Cowpea root rot disease/Pythium

aphanidermatum

Suleiman and Emua (2009)

Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Root etxtract Field Cowpea antrachnose/

Colletotrichum destructivum

N.L. Horn

Enyiukwu and Awurum (2011)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Artemisia camphorata

Vill.

Camphor extracts Field Banana anthracnose Carré et al. (2006)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.

D. Adams

Fresh leaves extract Field Sesam cercospora leaf spot

disease/Cercospora sesami

(Zimm.)

Enikuomehin (2005)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (L.)

R.M.King & H.Rob.



(Zimm.)

Enikuomehin (2005)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Chrysanthemum

cinerariifolium (Trevir.)

Sch.Bip.

Dried flower powder Field Potato Y disease virus/Myzus

persicae

Jacobson (1975)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Tithonia diversifolia

(Hemsl.) A.Gray



(Zimm.)

Enikuomehin (2005)

Compositae/

Asteraceae+Verbanaceae

Bidens pilosa L. and Lippia

alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex

Britton & P.Wilson

Extracts mixture Field Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. Moreira et al. (2008)

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha macrostachya

Jacq.

Fresh leaves Field Cercospora spot disease/

Cercospora purpurea Cke.

Ogbo and Oyibo (2008)

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha wilkesiana

Müll.Arg.

Fresh leaves Field Cercospora spot disease/


Ogbo and Oyibo (2008)

Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum L. Fresh leaves Field Southern blight

disease/Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.

Adesegun et al. (2013)

Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum L. Aqueous leaves extrcact Field Cucumber anthracnose/

Colletotrichum lagenarium

(Pass.) Ell. & Halst.

Colpas et al. (2009)

Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimum L. Fresh leaves Field Cercospora spot disease/


Ogbo and Oyibo (2008).

Lamiaceae Ocimum sanctum L. Leaves extract Field Anthracnose disease/

Colletotrichum

lindemuthianum

Amadioha (2003)

Lauraceae Cinnamomum camphora

(L.) J.Presl

Leaves extract Field Mildew disease Tohamy et al. (2002)

Leguminosae/

Mimosoideae

Acacia arabica (Lam.)

Willd.

Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and canker

/Xanthomonas campestris

(Pammel) Dowson

Satish et al. (1999)

Leguminosae/

Mimosoideae

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.)

DC.

Leaves, stem and flower

powder

Field Cowpea root rot fungi/Fusarium

spp., Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn

andMacrophomina phaseolina

Ikram and Dawar (2013)

Leguminosae/

Mimosoideae

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.)

DC.

Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and canker/

Xanthomonas campestris

(Pammel) Dowson


(continued)


Family Species Plants part/formulation Application Diseases/causal agents controlled Source

Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and

canker/Xanthomonas

campestris (Pammel) Dowson


Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Leaves extract and seed

oil extract

Field Rice blat disease/Pyricularia

oryzae Cavara

Amadioha (2000)

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Leaves extract Field Black mould disease Gupta et al., (2012)

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Leaves extract Field Mildew disease Tohamy et al. (2002)

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Leaves extract Storage Tomato post-harvest rot /

Rhizopus stolonifer [(Ehrenb.

Ex. Fr) Lind.] and Geotrichum

candidum (Link)

Ijato et al., (2011)

Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Fresh leaves extract Field Sesame Cercospora leaf spot


(Zimm.)

Enikuomehin, (2005)

Musaceae Musa spp. Pseudo stem sap Field Southern blight


Sikirou et al. (2010, 2011)

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora

Hook.

Leaves extract Field Cucumber

anthracnose/Colletotrichum

lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Halst.

Bonaldo et al. (2007)


Hook.

Fresh leaves aqueous

extrcact

Field Phytophthora sp., Sclerotium

rolfsii Sacc., Rhizoctonia solani

Kuhn and Alternaria alternata

(Fr.) Keissl.

Bonaldo et al. (2007)

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus tereticornis

Sm.

Leaves extract Field Black mould disease Gupta et al. (2012)

Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and

canker/Xanthomonas



Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. Leaves extract Field Anthracnose

disease/Colletotrichum

lindemuthianum

Amadioha (2003)

Piperaceae Piper guineense Schum &

Thom

Seeds extract Field Cowpea

antrachnose/Colletotrichum

destructivum

Enyiukwu and Awurum (2011)

Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus

(DC.) Stapf

Fresh leaves Field Southern blight



Santalaceae Viscum orientaleWilld. Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and

canker/Xanthomonas



Sapotaceae Achras zapota L. Leaves extract Field Bacterial blight, common blight,

fiscous blight and canker

/Xanthomonas campestris

(Pammel) Dowson


Solanaceae Datura metel L. Leaves extract Field Sheath blight and bacterial blight

diseases

Kagale et al. (2004)

Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Leaves extract Field Early blight disease/Alternaria

solani Sorauer

Nashwa and Abo-Elyousr (2012)

Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta

K.Schum.

Dried seeds Field Southern blight



Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale Roscoe Fruits Field Tomato rot/Fusarium

moniliforme (Sheld.s.str),

Rhizopus stolonifer [(Ehrenb.

Ex. Fr) Lind.] and Geotrichum

candidum (Link)

Chuku et al. (2010)

Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale Roscoe Fresh leaves and seeds Field Cowpea root rot disease/Pythium

aphanidermatum

Suleiman and Emua (2009)


Diversity of plants used to control farm weed

Family Species Plants part(s)/formulation Application Weeds controlled Source

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Fresh leaves aqueous

leaves extracts

Field Parthenium hysterophorus L. Shafique et al. (2005)

Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.)

R. Br.

Aqueous extracts of dry

leaves

Field Phalaris minor Retz Javaid et al. (2006)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Ageratum conyzoides L. Root and stem aqueous

extracts

Field Phalaris minor Retz., Poa annua L.

andMedicago polymorphai L.

Akhtar et al. (2001)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (L.)

Scop.

Root and stem aqueous

extracts

Field Phalaris minor Retz., Poa annua L.

andMedicago polymorphai L.

Akhtar et al. (2001)

Compositae/

Asteraceae

Tagetes minuta L. Dried leaves powder Field Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv.

and Cyperus rotundus L.

Batish et al., (2007)

Leguminosae Medicago sativa L. Leaves and stems Field Doparium junceumHamilt.,

Lindernia pyxidaria L., Elatine

trianda Schk., Eleocharis

acicularis (L.) Roem. & Schult.,

Rotala indica Koehne and

Echinochloa oryzicola Vasinger

Xuan et al. (2001)

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.

Juss.


leaves


Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.

Juss.


leaves extracts


Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. Fresh leaves aqueous

leaves extracts


Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Fresh leaves aqueous

leaves extracts



Hook.


leaves


Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.)

Skeels


leaves extracts


Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis Sims Aqueous extract Field Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv.

andMonochoria vaginalis

(Burm.f.) C.Presl ex Kunth

Khanh et al. (2006)

Poaceae Cenchrus pennisetiformis

Steud.

Roots and shoots

aqueous extracts

Field Parthenium hysterophorus L. Javaid and Anjum (2006)

Poaceae Dichanthium annulatum

(Forssk.) Stapf

Roots and shoots

aqueous extracts


Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Phytotoxic residues Field Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv.,

Cyperus difformis L. and Ludwigia

octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven

Pheng et al. (2010)

Poaceae Sorghum halepense (L.)

Pers.

Roots and shoots

aqueous extracts


Poaceae+Compositae

[Sorghum bicolor (L.)

Moench]+ [Helianthus

annuus L.]

Herbage extract mixture Field Avena fatua L. and Phalaris minor

Retz

Mushtaq et al. (2010)

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