Notes

Introduction

1. Islam is a central narrative presence in other Anglophone West African novels, espe-cially those written by northern Nigerian authors. Among these are Ibrahim Tahir’s The Last Imam (1985) and Mohammed Umar’s Amina (2005). These novels, how-ever, are rather isolated cases and are not part of a sustained tradition of literary engagement with Islam in Africa.

2. Georg Lukács, Theory of the Novel: A Historico- Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 88.

3. Somalia also experienced Italian and, in places, French rule. Moreover, Germany was a colonial power in eastern Africa (Tanganyika) but eventually relinquished its holdings to the British after its defeat in the First World War.

4. David Punter, Modernity (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 77– 78. 5. Dipesh Chakrabarty states, “The everyday paradox of third- world social science is

that we find these [western] theories, in spite of their inherent ignorance of ‘us,’ eminently useful in understanding our societies.” Provincializing Europe: Postcolo-nial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 29.

6. Arif Dirlik’s “The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism and the Age of Global Capitalism” is one of his pieces that makes this case very strongly. Critical Inquiry 20, no. 2 (Winter 1994): 328– 56. He has a book of the same title published by Westview Press, 1998.

7. See the quarrel between Frederic Jameson and Aijaz Ahmad in their respective arti-cles in Social Text 1986– 1987, which had a profound impact on the conversation about postcolonial/third world literatures.

8. For a solid and fresh discussion on novels written in Kiswahili, see Said A. M. Khamis’ article, “Signs of New Features in the Swahili Novel,” Research in African Literatures 36, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 91– 108.

9. Amin Malak, Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English (Albany: State Univer-sity of New York Press, 2005), 56.

10. Angela Smith, East African Writing in English (London: Macmillan, 1989), 10. 11. Somalia and Tanzania, for example, are usually grouped within different regions

of Africa, the former in the “Horn” and the latter in East Africa. The Horn refers to Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Djibouti. “East Africa” (Afrika ya Mashariki) has historically referred to the Kiswahili speaking countries of Kenya, Uganda,

170 Notes

Tanzania, and sometimes Burundi and Rwanda. I will, throughout this project, opt for “eastern Africa(n)” because it is more fluid, less official, and broader in its geocultural scope, stretching from the Horn to northern Mozambique.

12. Ngugi, “Learning From Our Ancestors,” in Writers and Politics: A Re- Engagement with Issues of Literature and Society (London: Heinemann, 1981), 149.

13. Tirop Simatei, The Novel and the Politics of Nation Building in East Africa (Bayreuth: Bayreuth African Studies, 2001), 22.

14. Abdulrazak Gurnah, “Interview by Emad Mirmotahari in Canterbury, England, July 2005,” Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies 32, no. 3 (2006): 11– 29.

15. David Damrosch, What is World Literature? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 26.

16. Catherine Gallagher, “The Rise of Fictionality,” in The Novel, ed. Franco Moretti (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 337. See also Ian Watt’s dated but still useful The Rise of the Novel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974). In the first chapter, he connects “realism” to philosophical currents in the eigh-teenth century.

17. M. Keith Booker, The African Novel in English: An Introduction (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1998), 20.

18. This is perhaps owing to the very particular nature of French colonial philoso-phy: its assimilationist orientation, one of its differences with English colonialism. French West African colonials were far more concerned with Islam as an obstacle to the social order that they were creating, and conversion to Roman Catholicism was a far more institutionalized effort.

19. Dinaw Mengestu, The Beautiful Things That Heaven Bears (New York: Riverbend Books, 2007), 199.

20. Melville J. Herskovits, “The Cattle Complex in East Africa,” American Anthropolo-gist, n.s., 28, no. 4 (1926): 633– 64. Herskovits is widely regarded as the founder of African studies in the United States.

21. Albert Hourani, Islam in European Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 7.

22. Chinweizu, “Why Black Africa Should Resist Arab domination of the AU,” Van-guard (September 2006).

23. Awi Kwei Armah, Two Thousand Seasons (Senegal: Per Ankh, 1973), 24. 24. Soyinka attacked Ali Mazrui in his article “Religion and Human Rights,” which

can be found in Index to Censorship 17, no. 5 (1998): 82– 85. Soyinka objected to what he thought to be Mazrui’s alienated and Arabizing agenda in his book The Africans: A Triple Heritage and its accompanying filmic documentary series. Mazrui then responded with an essay titled, “Wole Soyinka as a Television Critic: A Parable of Deception,” which can be found in Transition 54 (1991): 165– 77. Wole Soy-inka’s Myth, Literature, and the African World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976) develops a thesis about Islam’s collision with African spiritual and cul-tural systems; see the chapters titled “Ideology and the Social Vision: The Religious Vision” and “Ideology and the Social Vision: The Secular Ideal.”

25. Martin W. Lewis, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

Notes 171

26. Ahmed Bangura, Islam and the West African Novel: The Politics of Representation (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 2000), 31.

27. Camara Laye, L’enfant noir (Paris: Pocket, 1954), 102. 28. Camara Laye, Dark Child, trans. James Kirkup and Ernest Jones (New York: Farrar,

Strauss, and Giroux, 1954), 93. 29. Laye, L’enfant noir, 173– 74. 30. Laye, Dark Child, 150– 51. This passage has been segmented. It does not appear

like this in the text. It is also noteworthy that while the French text refers to Mamadou as a “musulman,” the English translation refers to Mamadou as a “Mohammaden,” a problematic and antiquated designation for Muslims because it emphasizes the person of Mohammad (perhaps, mistakenly, as divine) just as Christianity signifies Christ.

31. Ibid., 166. 32. Edward W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (Edinburgh: African

Heritage Books, reprint 1967), 14. 33. Ibid., 14. 34. Ibid., 11. 35. Bangura, Islam and the West African Novel, 55. 36. Ibid., 1– 2. I have removed “not only” from the passage to form a coherent sentence. 37. Simon During, “Literature– Nationalism’s Other?” in Nation and Narration, ed.

Homi Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990), 139. 38. Salman Rushdie, “In Good Faith,” in Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism

1981– 1991 (London: Granta Books, 1991), 404. 39. Ibid., 409. I italicized the word “culture” for emphasis. 40. Granted, the Ottoman Empire had economic reasons for refraining from con-

verting its Orthodox Christian and Roman Catholic subjects. As dhimmis, reli-gious minorities (millets), these religious groups paid special taxes to the Ottoman bureaucracy that helped fund the empire’s maintenance and expansion, especially in the Balkans.

41. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage, 1993), 242. 42. Ibid., 243. 43. James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 257. Nilufer Gole, “Snapshots of Islamic Modernities,” Daedalus 129, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 91– 117.

44. It should be noted that the concept of “resemblances” has also been in the service of Christianization, not only in an African context, but also in a Latin American context. The similarities between Christian paradigms and “pagan” ones have been employed to attract believers from the latter, to ease them into Christianity by iden-tifying correspondences between “pagan” deities and doctrines and Christian ones. Most notably, one sees the discourse of resemblances at work in Spanish appropria-tions and translations of the Quiché Mayan Popol Vuh. Francisco Ximénez’ transla-tion (adaptation, rather) is a case in point.

45. Ngugi, The River Between (Oxford: Heinemann, 1965), 19. 46. Ibid., 53. 47. Ngugi, Weep Not, Child (Oxford: Heinemann, 1964), 72.

172 Notes

48. See Nehemia Levitzion and Randall Pouwels, eds. History of Islam in Africa (Ath-ens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000).

49. Ali Mazrui, “Religion and Political Culture in Africa,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 53, no. 4 (1985): 818.

50. Cheikh Hamidou Kane, L’aventure ambiguë (Paris: Domaine Étranger, 1961), 13. 51. Cheikh Hamidou Kane, Ambiguous Adventure, trans. Katherine Woods (Oxford:

Heinemann, 1963), 3. 52. Ibrahim Tahir, The Last Imam (London: KPI, 1984), 77. 53. To European colonials, Muslims in Africa were considered to be more civilized

owing to their Islamic faith. Islam bestowed literacy and writing on those Africans who embraced it, as well as an Abrahamic religion, making their culture much more recognizable to Europeans.

54. Malak, Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English, 3. 55. Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth- Century

Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), 275. 56. J. M. Coetzee, Elizabeth Costello (New York, NY: Penguin, 2003), 51.

Chapter 1

1. The writings of Fernando Ortiz and Ángel Rama are central to the development of the concept of “transculturation,” a precursor, perhaps, to the idea of hybridity in the postcolonial project in western Europe and North America. The former wrote extensively on African- Cuban music in La Africania de la Musica Folklorica de Cuba, for example, and Angel Rama’s Transulturación narrativa en América Latina is a key text in the development of the idea of transculturation.

2. Ali Mazrui, The Africans: A Triple Heritage (Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1986), 89.

3. In his essay “Islam and Secularity in Swahili Literature,” Ibrahim Noor Sharif argues that the emphasis on the religious character of Swahili literature (though he claims that there is actually more Swahili literature with a secular content) has to do with the fact that the written literature available to western scholars is religious in nature. Writing and literacy were limited to persons who had a formal education on the eastern African coast, much of which was done in madrassas (religious schools). Therefore, the content of that literature was largely religious. This essay is in Ken-neth Harrow’s edited collection Faces of Islam in African Literature (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1991).

4. Susheila Nasta, “Paradise” In The Popular and the Canonical: Debating Twentieth Century Literature 1940– 2000, ed. David Johnson (London: Routledge, 2005), 319. Nasta’s essay does offer a compelling discussion of Paradise in the context of the United Kingdom’s prestigious Booker Prize and the shifting politics that impact the way recipients are determined. Gurnah’s novel was shortlisted for the prize in 1994 but was not chosen.

5. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart (New York: Anchor Books, 2008), 209. 6. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), 23– 24. 7. J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in East Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 57. 8. Abdulrazak Gurnah, Paradise (London: Penguin, 1994), 6.

Notes 173

9. Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 263.

10. Gurnah, Paradise, 84. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., 84– 85. 14. Ibid., 84. 15. Ibid., 27. 16. Ibid. 17. See Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein’s Race, Class, and Nation: Ambiguous

Identities, trans. Chris Turner (London: Verso, 1991). 18. Jonathon Glassman, “Slower Than a Massacre: The Multiple Origins of Racial

Thought in Colonial Africa,” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 2004): 720– 54.

19. See Harry Garuba’s essay “Race in Africa: Four Epigraphs and a Commentary,” PMLA 123, no. 5 (October 2008): 1640– 48.

20. Gurnah, Paradise, 105. 21. Ibid., 130– 31. 22. Ibid., 60. 23. Ibid., 62. 24. Ibid., 181. 25. Ibid., 99– 100. 26. There were conversion efforts by Muslims in eastern Africa but they not did not

have a formal infrastructure and were not as methodical as European Christianizing efforts. Conversion happened gradually and often through marriage.

27. Gurnah, Paradise, 115. Emphasis on “tempted” is mine. 28. Ibid., 121. 29. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, 7. 30. Terry Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory (London:

NLB, 1976), 134. 31. Ibid., 134– 35. 32. Chinua Achebe, “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness,” in

Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays (New York: Anchor Books, 1988). 1- 20, 10. 33. Theodor Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, trans. C. Lehnart (London: Routledge & Kegan

Paul, 1984), 274. This translation/edition has been replaced by a newer one. 34. Sikhism crystallized in the sixteenth century during the rule of the Mughal empire

in India, and its first “gurus” articulated its principles through contact and borrow-ing from Sufi Islam, though Sikh nationalists will make impassioned arguments to the contrary and so, inevitably, will Muslim radicals.

35. Gurnah, Paradise, 84– 85. 36. Ibid., 87. 37. J. A. Kearney, “Abdulrazak Gurnah and the ‘Disabling Complexities of Parochial

Realities,” English in Africa 33, no. 1 (May 2006): 47– 58. 38. Gurnah, Paradise, 96. 39. Ibid.

174 Notes

40. Ibid., 181. I have altered the arrangement of the dialogue. 41. Ibid., 71– 72. 42. Ibid., 2. 43. Things Fall Apart is not entirely a narrative set in a “precolonial” world either, as

there are traces of European presence throughout the first section, like rumors of destruction of entire Igbo villages, guns, and “iron horses.” But the opening section of the narrative is still a quasi- anthropological reconstitution of “precolonial” Igbo society, and the characters in the world of the novel live accordingly.

44. Gurnah, Paradise, 120. Aziz uses the term “nation”— “‘one of the famed breakers of nations’”— which is odd given the time setting of the novel. While the concept of nations existed in much of the colonized/third world, it is not entirely clear to which “nation” Aziz is referring and how he is using this tool.

45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., 245. 47. Jean and John Comaroff, “Africa Observed: Discourses of the Imperial Imagina-

tion,” in Perspectives on Africa: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation, ed. Roy Richard Ginker and Christopher B. Steiner (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publish-ing, 1997), 693.

48. Ibid., 694. 49. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, 44. 50. Ibid., 23. 51. Ibid., 49. 52. Gurnah, Paradise, 33. 53. Ibid., 156– 57. 54. Ibid., 157. 55. Ibid., 137. 56. Ibid., 160. 57. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, 30. 58. Ibid., 61. 59. Ibid., 9. I have sectioned the passage. It is not the complete passage as it appears in

the text. 60. Ibid. 61. Achebe, Things Fall Apart, 2. 62. Gurnah, Paradise, 168. 63. Amin Malak, Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English (Albany: State Univer-

sity of New York Press, 2005), 57. 64. Gurnah, Paradise, 80. 65. Ibid., 48. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., 158. 68. Ibid., 87. 69. Ibid., 186.

Notes 175

Chapter 2

1. For a thorough historical discussion of the African diaspora in the Indian Ocean world, see Edward Alpers, “Recollecting Africa: Diasporic Memory in the Indian Ocean World,” African Studies Review 43, no. 1 (2000): 83– 99. See also Joseph Harris, ed., Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1993). Harris’s own essay, “Africans in Asian History,” surveys these populations. For an older (and pioneering) perspective, consult Joseph Har-ris’s The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the Eastern African Slave Trade (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1971). See also Patrick Manning’s Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Behnaz Mirzai has an important and unique article about the black population of Iran titled “African Presence in Iran: Iden-tity and Its Reconstruction in the 19th and 20th Centuries,” in Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre- mer 89, nos. 336– 37 (2002): 229– 46.

2. New African Diasporas, edited by Khalid Koser (London: Routledge, 2003), makes vital contributions to diaspora studies but it does not include any chapters that address the Indian Ocean or Mediterranean diasporas.

3. Joan Dayan’s “Paul Gilroy’s Slaves, Ships, and Routes: The Middle Passage as Meta-phor” and Laura Chrisman’s “Journeying to Death: Gilroy’s Black Atlantic” are par-ticularly strong and well- known critiques of Gilroy’s book. Chrisman, for example, argues that Gilroy’s model, in its rejection of nationalism and socialism, itself con-structs a mystical, transcendent category of blackness that is not too dissimilar from the ones he is claiming to combat. She is also concerned that Gilroy’s discussion of slavery removes it from economic contexts.

4. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 3.

5. W. E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa (New York: International Publishers, 1965), 7.

6. Thomas J. Kitson, “Tempering Race and Nation: Recent Debates in Diaspora Identity,” Research in African Literatures 30, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 88– 95.

7. Charles Piot, “Atlantic Aporias: Africa and Gilroy’s Black Atlantic,” South Atlantic Quarterly 100, no. 1 (Winter 2001): 156.

8. John C. Hawley, India in Africa, Africa in India: Indian Ocean Cosmopolitanisms (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 8. This volume is a great addition to the scholarship on the African diaspora in India specifically from both contem-porary and historical perspectives. See the essays in section two of this collection, “Africa in India,” And see endnote 4. Hawley’s collection is not without precedent, though; see The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean, eds. Shihan de Silva Jana-suriya and Richard Pankhurst (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003).

9. Hayes Brent Edwards, “The Uses of Diaspora,” Social Text 66 19, no. 1 (Spring 2001), 45– 73. See also his The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).

10. Abdulrazak Gurnah, Admiring Silence (New York: New Press, 1996), 9– 10. 11. Ibid., 22. 12. Abdulrazak Gurnah, By the Sea (London: Bloomsbury, 2001), 15. 13. Ibid., 14.

176 Notes

14. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 87.

15. Gurnah, By the Sea, 63. 16. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 134. 17. Eileen Julien, “The Extroverted African Novel,” in The Novel, ed. Franco Moretti

(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 677. See also Julien’s full- length work on this subject, African Novels and the Question of Orality (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).

18. Simon Gikandi has argued that while the oral influences of African novels are not as evident as the oral influences in poetry, they are present nonetheless. See “The Growth of the East African Novel,” in The Writing of East and Central Africa, ed. G. D. Killam (London: Heinemann, 1984).

19. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 35. 20. Ibid., 62. 21. Gurnah, By the Sea, 18. 22. Farouk Topan, “Being a Muslim in East Africa: A Swahili Perspective,” in Africa,

Islam, and Development: Islam and Development in Africa— African Islam, African Development, eds. Thomas Salter and Kenneth King (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 2000), 286– 7.

23. Ibid., 286– 7. 24. Hassan was Mohammad’s first grandson and the second imam according to the

Shi’a tradition. Hussein was his younger brother, the third imam, who died fight-ing Yazid at the Battle of Karbala (680 on Gregorian calendar, 61 on the Islamic calendar).

25. Amin Malak, Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English (Albany: State Univer-sity of New York Press, 2005), 60.

26. David Lloyd, Ireland After History (Bloomington, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1999), 25.

27. According to Benedict Anderson, nations appeared in the form that we recognize them now in the eighteenth century, when capitalism and its manifold institu-tions really started taking root. Novels (and print culture in general) captured and produced nations by suspending communities in “homogenous empty time,” but this was not necessarily calculated. The African novel, on the other hand, has often consciously cast itself as a tool for fostering national consciousness. See Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nation-alism (London: Verso, 1983). Not ironically, the African novel has also been the biggest vehicle of critique of the nation as well.

28. Anthony Appiah, In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 151.

29. Dominic Thomas, Nation- building, Propaganda, and Literature in Francophone Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 23.

30. Franz Fanon, “Sur la culture nationale.” Les damnés de la terre (Paris: Le Décou-verte, 2002), 200.

31. Franz Fanon, “On National Culture,” in Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove Press, 1963), 209.

32. James Giblin and Gregory Maddox, eds., In Search of Nation: Histories of Authority and Dissidence in Tanzania (Oxford: James Currey, 2005), 1.

Notes 177

33. Ibid., 2. 34. Simon During, “Literature— Nationalism’s Other? The Case for Revision,” in

Nation and Narration, ed. Homi Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990) 139. 35. Ibid. 36. Benita Parry’s “Resistance Theory/Theorising Resistance, or Two Cheers for Nativ-

ism” acknowledges the problems of nationalism as it emerged after colonialism, but does not dismiss affirmative movements either, insofar as they accommodate and recognize change. This essay can be found in Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 172– 96.

37. Paul Gilroy, Black Atlantic, 34. 38. Gurnah, By the Sea, 193. 39. Paul Gilroy, Between Camps: Nations, Cultures, and the Allure of Race (London:

Routledge, 2004), 82. 40. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 142. 41. Gurnah, By the Sea, 143. 42. J.M. Coetzee’s Waiting for the Barbarians accomplishes this in a masterly way. 43. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 156– 57. 44. Ibid., 157. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., 66. I have modified and sectioned the passage. 47. Marlow, Conrad’s narrator in Heart of Darkness, says, “I watched the coast. Watch-

ing a coast as it slips by a ship is like thinking about an enigma. This one was almost featureless, as if still in the making” (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), 15.

48. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 16. 49. Ibid., 67. 50. Lloyd, Ireland After History, 20; emphasis mine. 51. Jean and John Comarroff, “Africa Observed,” 689. 52. Gurnah, By the Sea, 157. 53. Ibid., 106. 54. Gurnah, Admiring Silence, 73. I have modified and sectioned the passage. It does

not appear as such in the original text. 55. Gurnah, By the Sea, 65.56. Although Cheikh Anta Diop, a Senegalese scholar, is also a key figure in the devel-

opment of the idea that Egypt was a black African civilization. See, for example, his The African Origins of Civilization: Myth of Reality, trans. Mercer Cook (New York: L. Hill, 1974).

Chapter 3

1. In Britain and much of the Commonwealth, the term for the Caribbean and its peoples is West Indies/West Indians.

2. Edward Said, “Intellectual Exile: Expatriates and Marginals,” in The Edward Said Reader, eds. Moustafa Bayoumi and Andrew Rubin (New York: Vintage Books, 2000), 375.

3. Abdulrazak Gurnah, Memory of Departure (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), 5. 4. Ibid., 7.

178 Notes

5. The five duties of all Muslims, “the five pillars,” are (1) shahadah, which is the profession of faith; (2) salah, or prayer five times per day; (3) sawm, or fasting dur-ing the month of Ramadan; (4) zakat, or almsgiving; and (5) hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime if health and finances permit.

6. Ibid., 8. 7. Ibid., 10. 8. Ibid., 18. 9. Ibid., 22. 10. Ibid., 23. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 33. 13. Ibid., 152. 14. Ibid., 16. 15. Ibid., 18– 19. 16. Ibid., 39. 17. Ibid., 28. 18. Ibid., 29. 19. Ibid., 42. 20. Ibid., 64. 21. Ibid., 97. 22. Ibid., 121. 23. Ibid., 97. 24. Ibid., 98. 25. In 1961 British rule came to an end in Tanganyika and Julius Nyerere, the leader of

TANU (Tanganyika African National Union), became the country’s first president. Shortly thereafter, Tanganyika merged with Zanzibar in 1964 to form Tanzania. Zanzibar itself experienced a revolution in 1963, which overthrew its ruling sultan. Widespread discontent on the left (the Umma Party) culminated in violent repri-sals against Arabs and Indians. Anti- Arab and anti- Indian sentiment persisted in the newly formed Tanzania as well, as Nyerere implemented socialism and began nationalizing banks and commerce.

26. This comes from George Steiner’s essay “Our Homeland, the Text,” Salmagundi 66 (1985): 4– 25.

27. Gurnah, Memory of Departure, 157. 28. Ibid., 157. 29. Ibid., 158. 30. Ibid., 158– 59. 31. Edward Said, Reflections on Exile (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,

2000) 177. 32. Ibid., 182. 33. Abdulrazak Gurnah, Pilgrims Way (London: Jonathan Cape, 1988) 10. 34. Ibid., Pilgrims Way, 54. 35. Eva Hoffman, “New Nomads,” in Letters of Transit: Reflections on Exile, Identity

Language, and Loss, ed. André Aciman (New York: New Press, 1997), 44. 36. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 112.

Notes 179

37. Simon Lewis, “Impossible Domestic Situations: Questions of Identity and Nation-alism in the Novels of Abdulrazak Gurnah and M. G. Vassanji,” Thamryis 6, no. 2 (Autumn 1999), 217. I have modified parts of the text in order to cut out unneces-sary references to other authors in similar cultural and political predicaments about whom Lewis also writes.

38. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 19. 39. Ibid., 114. 40. Ibid., 201. 41. Ibid., 83– 84. 42. Ibid., 100. 43. Ibid., 109. 44. Oliver Roy, Globalized Islam: A Search for a New Ummah (New York: Columbia

University Press, 2004), 124. 45. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 124. 46. Ibid., 203. 47. Ibid., 161. 48. C. L. R. James, “Africans and Afro- Caribbeans: A Personal View,” in Writing Black

Britain, ed. James Proctor (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 62. 49. W. E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa (New York: International Publishers, 1965)

7. 50. George Lamming, The Pleasures of Exile (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,

1992), 34. 51. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 95. 52. Ibid., 167. 53. Ibid., 176– 77. 54. Ibid., 33. 55. V. S. Naipaul’s Among the Believers: An Islamic Journey (1981) has incurred much

criticism on the charge that it mischaracterizes and simplifies Islam, especially in the aftermath of the revolution in Iran in 1979, which swept the clergy into power. Most notably, Salman Rushdie attacks Naipaul’s work in his essay “Among the Believers,” in the collection Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981– 1991 (London: Granta Books, 1991).

56. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 33. 57. Ngugi discusses this curricular model in “The Quest for Relevance,” in his essay col-

lection Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language African Literature (Oxford: James Curry, 1988).

58. Gurnah, Pilgrim’s Way, 13. 59. Ibid., 23. 60. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New

York: W. W. Norton, 2006). 61. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 5. 62. Ibid., 59– 60. 63. Ibid., 59. 64. Ibid. 65. Biafra is a region in southern Nigeria, populated mostly by the Igbo, and had a

short period of independence between 1967 and 1970.

180 Notes

66. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 59, and 85. 67. Ibid., 185. 68. Ibid., 124. 69. Ibid., 124– 25. 70. Ibid., 30. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid. 73. The Qur’an also emphasizes belief over race as the main criterion of being a Mus-

lim. “O men! verily, we have created of a male, and a female; and we have divided you into peoples and tribes that ye might have knowledge one of another. Truly, the most worthy of honour in the sight of God is he who feareth Him most” (Qur’an, 49:13).

74. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 30. 75. Pilgrims Way challenges the portrait of Pan- African unity portrayed to some extent

in Samuel Selvon’s Lonely Londoners (Essex: Longman, 1956). Selvon’s novel was set in an earlier period (the 1950s), and features characters from various parts of the Caribbean and one Nigerian who cohere around a common experience of being black and economically destitute in England. But even as early as the 1960s, the tensions and dislikes between the different segments of black Britain are manifest in fiction; see Andrew Salkey’s Escape to an Autumn Pavement (Leeds: Peepal Tree Press, 1960/2009). Sobert is somewhat close to the other West Indians, but has contempt for Shakuntala Goolam, the Indian student.

76. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 105– 6. This block quote does not appear as such in the text. I have edited together Daud’s train of thought about the cathedral and what it represents.

77. Ibid., 230. 78. Frantz Fanon, Les damnés de la terre (Paris: Le Découverte, 2002), 202. 79. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York:

Grove Press, 1963), 211. 80. James Proctor, ed., Writing Black Britain 1948– 1998: An Interdisciplinary Anthol-

ogy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 96. 81. Ibid., 96. 82. See Talal Asad’s essay “Multiculturalism and British Identity in the Wake of the

Rushdie Affair,” Politics and Society 18, no. 4 (1990): 455– 480. 83. Hall’s essay is in Race, Culture, and Difference, eds. A. Rattansi and J. Donald (Lon-

don: Sage Press, 1992), 252– 60. 84. Ibid., 255. 85. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 183. 86. Said, “Intellectual Exile,” 369. 87. Gurnah, Pilgrims Way, 128. 88. The “Rushdie affair” was stirred by misperceptions of The Satanic Verses both in

the West, where it was greeted as an “insider’s” critique of Islam, and by Muslim reactionaries who, by self- admission, had not even read the novel. I am not, therefore, using the affair to validate the Muslim response to Rushdie’s novel, but to show that Islam often cuts across other subjectivities as a unifying paradigm.

Notes 181

Chapter 4

1. V. S. Naipaul, A Bend in the River (New York: Vintage, 1979), 10. 2. Ibid., 3. 3. Pratap Bhanu Mehta, “Naipaul and the Burdens of History,” in V. S. Naipaul:

An Anthology of Recent Criticism, ed. Purabi Panwar. Delhi: Pencraft International, 2003. 44.

4. V. S. Naipaul’s experiences as related in A Congo Diary inform his depictions of Africa in A Bend in the River, a relationship that recalls the one between Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Conrad’s own short “Congo Diary.”

5. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 141. 6. Ibid., 17. 7. Ibid., 11. 8. Ibid., 15. 9. Ibid., 234. 10. Ibid., 238. 11. Ibid., 244. 12. Ibid., 155. 13. Ibid. 14. V. S. Naipaul, “‘The Last Lion’: Interview with Ahmed Rashid,” in Conversations

with V. S. Naipaul, ed. Feroza Jussawalla (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997).

15. V. S. Naipaul, Beyond Belief: Islamic Excursions among the Converted Peoples (New York: Vintage, 1999), xi.

16. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 16. Naipaul is distant from Hinduism, as he men-tions in The Enigma of Arrival, but sort of returns to it upon his sister’s death at the end of the narrative. After the publication of Among the Believers, many held Naipaul to be anti- Islamic in his general outlook, and he has been critiqued on the basis of that. Salman Rushdie’s essay on Naipaul’s book, in his collection Imaginary Homelands (1991), certainly makes this case. For a thorough and recent discussion of Naipaul’s relationship with Islam, see R. N. Sarkar’s Islam Related Naipaul (New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2006). The book makes no mention of A Bend in the River.

17. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 14. 18. Ibid., 14– 15. 19. Ibid., 121. 20. Ibid., 16. 21. Ibid., 154. 22. Ibid., 142. 23. Ibid., 11. 24. Ibid., 151. 25. Edward Said, “Intellectuals in the Post- Colonial World,” Salmagundi 70– 71

(Spring– Summer 1986): 53. 26. Helen Hayward, The Enigma of V. S. Naipaul (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,

2002), 184. 27. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 229. 28. Ibid., 21.

182 Notes

29. Ranu Samantrai, “Claiming the Burden: Naipaul’s Africa.” Research in African Lit-eratures 31, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 50– 62.

30. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 85. 31. Ibid., 11– 12. 32. Ibid., 182. 33. Chinua Achebe, “The African Writer and the English Language,” in The Routledge

Language and Cultural Theory Reader, eds. Lucy Burke, Tony Crowley, and Alan Girvin (London: Routledge, 2000), 427.

34. Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey (New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 1818/2005), 33.

35. Peter Nazareth coined this term in his article of the same name. 36. M. G. Vassanji, The Gunny Sack (Oxford: Heinemann, 1989), 228. 37. Ibid., 7. 38. Peter Kalliney, “Eastern African Fiction and Globalization,” in Teaching the African

Novel, ed. Gaurav Desai (New York: MLA, 2009), 264. Martin Genetsch’s study Texture and Identity: The Fiction of M. G. Vassanji, Neil Bissoondath, and Rohinton Mistry (Toronto: TSAR, 2007) is also couched in a discussion of globalization, and specifically, its noneconomic aspects.

39. Jonathon Glassman, “Slower Than a Massacre: The Multiple Origins of Racial Thought in Colonial Africa” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 2004): 720– 54.

40. Vassanji, The Gunny Sack, 12. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid., 234. 43. Ibid., 236. 44. Ibid. Sona’s letter is italicized in the novel. 45. Ibid., 201. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid., 202. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid., 228. 50. Ibid., 268. 51. Ibid., 268– 69. 52. M. G. Vassanji, The Book of Secrets (New York: Picador, 1994), 4. 53. Genetsch, The Texture of Identity, 45. 54. Vassanji, The Book of Secrets, 1. The emphasis on “our” is mine. 55. Quoted in Peter Novick’s That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the

American Historical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 27– 28. Novick’s understanding of Ranke comes from Theodore H. von Lue’s Leo-pold Ranke: The Formative Years (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950). Novick also draws from Leopold von Ranke’s The Secret of World History: Selected Writings on the Art and Science of History, ed. and trans. Roger Wines (New York: Fordham University Press, 1981).

56. Vassanji, The Book of Secrets, 91. 57. Ibid., 92.

Notes 183

58. Ibid., 6. I have joined a paragraph with the first line of the next. This passage does not appear in the novel in the way I have cited it here.

59. Ibid., 7. 60. Martin Genetsch suggests that the Shamsis are fictional renderings of the Ismailis

of Gujarat, the Khojas. See his Texture of Identity. 61. Vassanji, The Book of Secrets, 52. 62. Ibid., 285. 63. Ibid., 140. 64. Ibid., 124. 65. Ibid., 261. 66. Ibid., 237. 67. For all dialogue in this section see ibid., 39. 68. Ibid., 332. The emphasis on “must” is mine. 69. I suspect that Vassanji’s The Book of Secrets was a distant model for Abdularazak

Gurnah’s 2005 novel Desertion. There are striking parallels between the possible affair between Corbin and Mariamu and the one between Martin Pearce and Rehana.

70. Ibid., 125. 71. Ibid., 72. 72. Ibid., 80. 73. Vassanji, The Gunny Sack, 7. 74. Ibid., 10. 75. Ibid., 8. 76. Ibid., 208. 77. Ibid., 210. 78. Naipaul, A Bend in the River, 258. 79. Ibid., 258– 59. I have sectioned these passages. 80. M. G. Vassanji, The In- Between World of Vikram Lall (Toronto: Doubleday Canada,

2003), 395. 81. Vassanji, Vikram Lall, 396. 82. Ibid., Vikram Lall, 399. 83. Amin Malak, “Ambivalent Affiliations and the Postcolonial Condition: The Fiction

of M. G. Vassanji,” World Literature Today 67, no. 2 (Spring 1993): 277– 82.

Chapter 5

1. The essay “Religious Polyphony in the Novels of Nuruddin Farah” by Norman Cary, in John C. Hawley’s edited collection Through a Glass Darkly: Essays on the Religious Imagination, makes a more careful argument about Farah’s first novel, recognizing both the prohibitive and empowering impact of religion on Ebla.

2. Anouar Majid, Unveiling Traditions: Postcolonial Islam in a Polycentric World (Dur-ham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 29– 30.

3. Ibid., 36. 4. Ahmed Bangura’s Islam and the West African Novel: The Politics of Representation

grapples with similar issues in West African literature and the critical tradition that has developed around it.

184 Notes

5. Juliet I. Okonkwo, “Nuruddin Farah and the Changing Roles of Women,” World Literature Today 58, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 217.

6. Ibid. 7. Nuruddin Farah, From a Crooked Rib (New York: Penguin Books, 1970), 142. 8. G. H. Moore, “Nomads and Feminists: The Novels of Nuruddin Farah,” in Emerg-

ing Perspectives on Nuruddin Farah, ed. Derek Wright (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2002), 157.

9. Florence Stratton, “The Novels of Nuruddin Farah,” in Wright, Emerging Perspec-tives, 146; see also Stratton’s full- length study, Contemporary African Literature and the Politics of Gender (London: Routledge, 1994).

10. “Recently Banned Books,” World Literature Today 80, no. 5 (September– October 2006): 25.

11. Stratton, “The Novels of Nuruddin Farah,” 146. 12. Ibid., 136. 13. Amin Malak, Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English (Albany: State Univer-

sity of New York Press, 2005), 46. 14. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 11. 15. Majid, Unveiling Traditions, 129. 16. This practice might stem from rearticulations of the hadiths, stories of the prophet’s

lives and teachings that serve as corollaries to the Qur’an. 17. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 137. 18. See the essay “The Little Foxes That Spoil the Vine: Revisiting the Female Critique

of Female Circumcision” by L. Omede Obiora, in the collection African Women and Feminism: Reflecting on the Politics of Sisterhood, ed. Oyeronke Oyewumi (Tren-ton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003). What is especially interesting in this essay is Obiora’s attention to the importance of a literary text, Alice Walker’s Possessing the Secret of Joy (1992), for supposedly launching the global debate on female circumci-sion in Africa. Obiora points out feminist ignorance about particular African cus-toms and meanings behind the practice. She does not discredit, however, the efforts to examine and address female circumcision as a practice. Instead, she suggests that it should be done in collaboration with activists and leaders from those societies in which it is practiced. See also the 2009 collection Empathy and Rage: Female Genital Mutilation in African Literature, edited by Tobe Levin and Augustine H. Asaah, for individualized studies of this issue.

19. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 130. 20. “And if ye are apprehensive that ye shall not deal with orphans, then, of other

women who seem good in your eyes, marry but two, or three, or four; and if ye still fear that ye shall not act equitably, then one only” (Qur’an, 4:3).

21. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 140. 22. Ibid., 142. I have segmented this passage. 23. Ibid., 114. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid., 75. I have segmented this passage. 26. Ibid., 147. I have segmented this passage. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., 50.

Notes 185

29. Askar and Misra in Farah’s Maps (1986) are the two characters in which this strength flourishes most visibly.

30. Derek Wright, “Fabling the Feminine in Nuruddin Farah’s Novels,” in Essays on African Writing, 1, ed. Abdulrazak Gurnah (Oxford: Heinemann, 1993), 60.

31. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 143. 32. Ali Behdad, “Une Pratique Sauvage: Postcolonial Belatedness and Cultural Politics,”

in The Preoccupation of Postcolonial Studies, eds. Fawzia Afzal- Khan and Kalpana Seshadri- Crooks (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 82.

33. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 60. 34. Ibid., 161. 35. Ngugi, “The Language of African Literature,” in Decolonising the Mind: The Politics

of Language African Literature (Oxford: James Currey, 1986). 36. Farah, From a Crooked Rib, 115. 37. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,

1983), 57. 38. From a Crooked Rib is written in the same spirit that sparked the project taken up

by Ranajit Guha in his Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983) and by Dipesh Chakrabarty in his studies of the Bengali working classes and their cultures in Rethinking Working- Class History: Bengal, 1890– 1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), respectively.

Chapter 6

1. The demographics of Tanzania, where Muslims comprise less than half of the total population, differs from Somalia, which is almost entirely Muslim. Thus Islam’s involvement in political life in the former would always encounter the obstacles that are inherent in a multiethnic and multireligious state.

2. Donal Cruise O’Brien’s Symbolic Confrontations: Muslims Imagining the State in Africa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) offers an interesting discussion of the ways Muslims conceptualize the state, though the discussion remains confined to Senegal.

3. This period is roughly contemporaneous with Mohammad Siad Barre’s rule (1969– 91), which was initiated by a coup d’etat. Siad Barre’s party was the Somali Revolu-tionary Socialist Party.

4. The terms “clan” and “tribe” in a Somali context are not stable organizing units of identity, nor do they correspond to ethnic differences in any consistent sense of the term. They are circumstantial and temporary alliances of people who are related by blood and/or who have common political and economic interests.

5. Ahmed Bangura, Islam and the West African Novel: The Politics of Representation (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner Publishers, 2000), 55– 56.

6. Nuruddin Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk (Minneapolis, MN: Graywolf Press, 1992), 187.

7. This phenomenon operates elsewhere in the Islamic world. Iran, an Islamic theoc-racy, is a case in point. In Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic, Ervand Abra-hamian discusses the employment of Marxist and socialist language and symbolism by the Islamic Republic in its early years to both marginalize the leftist opposi-

186 Notes

tion and integrate into its ranks aspects of populism that are commensurable with Islamic doctrines. For example, both Islam and Marxism promise a utopia, either a metaphysical or a proletarian state, at the end of history.

8. Ousmane Sembène, Les bouts de bois de Dieu (Paris: Les Livres Contemporains/Pocket, 1960), 83.

9. Ousmane Sembène, God’s Bits of Wood, trans. Francis Price (Oxford: Heinemann, 1962), 44.

10. Nuruddin Farah, Sardines (Minneapolis, MN: Graywolf Press, 1992), 84. 11. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree

(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991), 360. 12. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk. 5. 13. Farah, Sardines, 32. 14. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 24. 15. Ibid., 53. 16. Ibid., 69. 17. Ibid., 83. 18. Farah, Sardines, 57. 19. Ibid., 125. 20. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 83. 21. Ibid., 84. 22. Ibid., 132. Merca was and is an important port city in Somalia on the Indian

Ocean. 23. Farah, Sardines, 142. 24. A “sayyid” in Islam is a title held by those who are direct descendants of the Prophet

Mohammad. A “dervish” (the original Persian is darvish) generally is an adherent to Sufi Islam and practices mendicancy. Dervishes are also scholarly sages and poetic. When capitalized, Sayyid, I am referring specifically to Mohammad Abdallah Has-san, just as the narrative does.

25. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 27. 26. Farah, Sardines, 83. 27. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 91. 28. Farah, Sardines, 62. 29. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage, 1993), 278. 30. Ibid. 31. Farah, Sardines, 215– 16. 32. Ibid., 216. 33. Ibid., 217– 18. 34. Ibid., 218– 19. 35. Ibid., 31. 36. Nuruddin Farah, “Why I Write,” Third World Quarterly 10, no. 4 (October 1988):

1591– 99. 37. Farah, Sardines, 170. 38. Ibid., 168– 69. 39. Derek Wright, “Orality and Power in Sweet and Sour Milk,” in Emerging Perspectives

on Nuruddin Farah, 346. 40. Nuruddin Farah, Maps (New York: Penguin, 1986), 210.

Notes 187

41. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 136– 37. Emphasis on “think” is mine. 42. Ibid., 116. 43. This slogan, ostensibly Soyaan’s on his deathbed, is capitalized throughout the

novel to capture its declarative and emphatic nature. 44. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 110. 45. Ibid., 232. 46. Nuruddin Farah, Close Sesame (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 1992), 199. 47. The Sayyid, Mohammad Abdullah Hassan, was a pioneering Somali national figure

who was the head of a dervish order and who fought the British, the Italians, and the Ethiopians. He is also important because his vision and leadership encouraged transcendence of tribal affiliations. There is an extensive exposition of the Sayyid and his life in Close Sesame, page 189.

48. Ibid., 98. 49. Raymond Ntalindwa, “Linkages of History in the Narrative of Close Sesame,”

Journal of African Cultural Studies 12, no. 2 (December 1999): 187– 202. 50. Angela Smith, East African Writing in English (London: Macmillan, 1989), 38. 51. Farah, Close Sesame. 8– 9. 52. Mu’awiyah, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. 53. Farah, Close Sesame, 13. 54. Ibid., 214. 55. Ibid., 99. Jews are referred to as “Ahl’al Kitab” in the Qur’an, which is what com-

prises the reference “People of the Book.” The figurative meaning of “kitab” is the Qur’an.

56. Ibid., 180. 57. Ibid., 181. 58. Ibid., 230. 59. Ibid., 161. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid., 159. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid., 160. 64. Ibid., 221. 65. Ibid., 236. 66. Ibid. 67. Farah, Sweet and Sour Milk, 133. 68. Ibid., 152. 69. Farah, Close Sesame, 231. 70. Ibid., 236. 71. Mohammad Mossadeq and Gamel Abdel Nasser had placed considerable dis-

tance between their policies and political personae and religion. However, their nationalizing goals (of Iranian petroleum and the Suez Canal respectively) invited interventionism and sabotage at the hands of the French, the British, and the United States. The two men were also feared because of leftist nature of their ide-ologies at the very beginning of the Cold War. The west feared the two strategic countries falling into the sphere of Soviet influence.

188 Notes

72. Bernard Lewis is generally know as an Ottoman historian, but his What Went Wrong: The Clash Between Modernity and Islam in the Middle- East (2002) illustrates most lucidly the idea of modernity as a determinate historical condition, one that is at odds with religion and religiosity. His fifth chapter, “Secularism and the Civil Society,” evidences the problematic and dated ideas of “secularity,” ideas that are on the wane because of far stronger and more rigorous scholarship on the matter. The central claim of Lewis’s book is that the Islamic world suffers from self- inflicted problems that result in its inability to keep pace with the west. The fact that it was published right after 9/11 is itself noteworthy, as its claims lend themselves quite well to rationalizing the hawkish American political and military posture toward the Middle- East.

73. Farah, “Why I Write.” 74. Farah, Close Sesame, 191. 75. Patricia Alden, “How Can We Talk of Democracy? An Interview with Nuruddin

Farah,” Emerging Perspectives on Nuruddin Farah, ed. Derek Wright (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2002.

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Index

Absent City (Piglia), 123Abyssinians, 136Achebe, Chinua, xi, 27, 29, 37, 39, 42,

46, 50, 70, 135, 136“English Language and the African

Writer, The,” 105– 6No Longer at Ease, 60Things Fall Apart, 22, 27, 29, 37, 42,

46, 50, 57, 127, 135, 174n43Aciman, Andre, 97Adorno, Theodor, 39, 74Aeschylus, 73Africa, 27, 52– 53, 55, 60– 63, 67– 69,

71– 72, 81, 84– 87, 89– 91, 97, 99– 100, 102– 8, 110, 118– 19, 121, 133, 143, 151, 165– 66, 167, 169n1

division between north and sub- Sahara, 7– 8, 20

north, 8, 90sub- Saharan, 7– 10, 13– 14, 15, 20, 27,

30, 31, 41, 68, 106, 118west, 12– 13, 20, 51, 143, 169n1,

170n18, 183n4See also Eastern Africa(n)

African(s), 2, 10, 17, 23, 25, 27– 32, 38– 39, 40, 42– 45, 49, 54, 55, 58– 60, 65, 74, 84, 85– 87, 93– 95, 101– 2, 104– 5, 110– 11, 116– 18, 120– 21, 129, 136– 38, 147, 150– 52, 156, 163, 167, 170n20, 171n44

Africanness, 52, 59, 64, 69, 71, 83, 89, 102

black, 4, 8, 9– 10, 13, 18, 22, 24, 28, 34– 36, 63, 66, 77– 79, 106, 177n56

definition of, 9, 22, 27, 35, 36– 37, 50, 64– 65, 72, 78, 88, 97, 162, 167

Muslims, 28, 47, 55, 80, 85, 102, 114, 116– 17, 167, 172n53

African literature and literary studies, 1, 4, 5, 7, 10, 13, 18, 19, 21– 25, 27, 29, 47, 50, 56– 60, 71, 73, 75, 89– 90, 105, 106, 116, 123, 125, 129, 137, 145, 154, 167, 170n24, 176n29, 183n83

Africanist, Africanism, 85, 89– 90, 104, 105, 154

African National Congress (ANC), 162“African Presence in Iran” (Mirzai),

175n1Afrikaans, 106Afro- Caribbean, 54– 55, 87

See also CaribbeanAfrocentrism, 71Afro- Indian(s), 97– 99, 102, 105, 107,

112, 114– 21See also India(ns)

Ahmad, Aijaz, 169n7Aidoo, Ama Aita, 4Alden, Patricia, 165Algeria, 8allegory, 28, 32, 59, 156, 158Al- Zahawi, 153Americas, 52– 53, 54, 72, 87, 98, 115,

121See also North American studies;

United StatesAmharic, 154Amin, Idi, 66Amina (Umar), 169n1Anderson, Benedict, 60, 154

Imagined Communities, 16, 176n27Anglophone literature, 4, 19, 71, 75,

169n1

200 Index

Angola, 94animalization, 41– 43, 91anticolonialism, 20, 38, 83, 149Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 60

Cosmopolitanism, 90Arab Bank for Development in Africa, 20Arabia and Arabs, 28– 36, 41, 46, 50, 55,

64, 65, 77– 80, 88– 89, 97, 99– 104, 108, 114, 115, 120, 132– 33, 136, 148– 49, 153– 54, 159, 167

anti- Arabic sentiment, 65, 88, 98, 178n25

conflation with Islam, 28, 33, 35, 79, 89, 99, 100

Arabic (language), 28– 29, 32– 34, 41, 57, 83, 121, 132, 148– 49, 152, 153– 54, 167

Arabization, 32, 41, 170n24Arguedas, José Maria, 5Armah, Awi Kwei, 9, 154

Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born, The, 127

Two Thousand Seasons, 10Armenian Orthodox and Apostolic

Church, 154Asturias, Miguel Angel, 90Atlas of the European Novel 1800– 1900

(Moretti), 5– 6Atwood, Margaret, 3

Balibar, Etienne, 34Bambara, 19, 20Bangura, Ahmed, 143

Islam and the West African Novel, 10, 13– 14, 183n4

banks, 20, 178n25Barre, General Mohammad Siad, 23,

135, 142, 144, 146– 47, 150, 155– 56, 158, 161– 63, 185n3

Bartleby the Scrivener (Melville), 70Beautiful Things That Heaven Bears, The

(Mengestu), 7Belet Wene, 125, 129, 132, 136Bengali, 185n38Benin, 19Benjamin, Walter, 56Berbers, 20

Beti, Mongo, 5, 127Bible, 28, 32, 47, 57

See also Old Testamentbin Raban, Bilal, 10black Africa, 4, 8, 9– 10, 13, 18, 22, 24,

28, 34– 36, 63, 66, 77– 79, 106, 177n

See also Africa: sub- SaharanBlack Atlantic, The, 51, 53– 54, 63– 64

See also Gilroy, PaulBlack Britain, 86, 88, 94– 95, 180n75blackness, 52– 54, 59, 63– 66, 69, 73– 74,

77, 79– 80, 82– 84, 86– 88, 90, 92, 93– 95, 175n3

See also African(s): AfricannessBooker, M. Keith, 7Borges, Jorge Luis, 32Brathwaite, Edward Kamau, 3, 87Brecht, Bertolt, 153Burkina Faso, 19Burton, Richard, 56Burundi, 169– 70n11Byzantines, 20

Cameroon, 19Camus, Albert, xicanon, 5, 89, 167Caribbean, 9, 52, 54, 71, 87, 177n1

See also Afro- CaribbeanCasanova, Pascale, xiCésaire, Aimé, 87Chad, 19Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 169n5

Provincializing Europe, 2Rethinking Working Class History,

185n38Chichewa, 29Chinweizu, 9, 50, 152

“Why Black Africa Should Resist Arab Domination of the AU,” 9– 10

Christian Goan Indians, 60, 105, 116– 17, 121

Christianity, 9, 13, 15, 17– 18, 19, 28– 29, 34, 37, 39, 46, 47, 74, 84, 90, 91, 93, 116– 17, 121, 124, 126, 141, 143, 147, 151, 154, 158, 171n30, 173n26

Index 201

Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (Blyden), 13

Cicero, 97circumcision, 17, 120, 123, 128– 29, 147,

184n18Cixous, Hélène, 3“Claiming the Burden” (Samantrai), 103Clifford, James, 17Clueless in Academe (Graff ), 106Coetzee, J. M., 25colonialism, 1, 8– 9, 10, 14, 16– 17, 22,

23, 27– 28, 29, 30, 36– 38, 40– 42, 44, 46– 50, 53, 56– 60, 67– 71, 73, 79– 80, 83, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93– 94, 96, 98, 103– 6, 108, 110– 12, 114– 18, 121, 129, 133– 34, 143– 45, 148– 51, 157, 159, 170n18, 172n53, 174n44, 177n36

See also anticolonialism; decolonization; empire; imperialism; neocolonialism; postcolonialism; precolony

Coltrane, John, 153Columbus, Christopher, 106Comaroff, Jean and John, 69

“Africa Observed,” 43Congo River region, 34, 43, 46, 60, 67Conrad, Joseph, 30, 33, 39– 40, 42, 43,

44, 46, 50, 89“Congo Diary,” 181n4Heart of Darkness, 22, 29– 30, 33, 34,

38– 40, 42– 44, 45– 46, 47, 50, 67– 68, 103, 110– 11, 117– 18, 177n47, 181n4

Cuba, 87

Dakar, 136Damrosch, David, 5– 6Danticat, Edwidge, 5Danto, Arthur, 21decolonization, 9, 16, 103, 135– 36Delany, Martin, 51de las Casas, Bartolomé, 106Desai, Anita, 3de Sepulveda, Juan Gines, 106Dialogic Imagination (Bakhtin), 31diaspora(s), 51– 54, 59, 72, 97, 175n1

African, 51– 52, 54, 59, 63, 72, 175n1black Atlantic and Caribbean, 22,

52– 54, 63Indian Ocean, 22, 51, 53, 54, 175n2

Dickens, Charles, 89, 90dictatorship, 23, 68, 69, 104, 105, 106,

116, 138, 141, 142, 144, 147, 155, 158– 59, 161, 163, 165– 66

Diop, Cheikh Anta, 177n56Dirlik, Arif, 2

Postcolonial Aura, The, 169n6Divine Comedy (Dante), xiDjiboutians, 18, 169n11dreams, 48, 160Du Bois, W. E. B., 52– 53

World and Africa, The, 52, 87During, Simon, 62– 63Dutch, 108dystopia, 60

Eagleton, Terry, 38– 39Eastern Africa(n), 1, 3, 5, 23, 28, 30, 31–

32, 33– 36, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46– 50, 51, 55– 56, 58, 62, 66, 69, 71– 72, 75, 97, 102, 105, 107– 8, 111– 17, 119, 121, 167, 169n3, 170n13

Muslims, 72, 59, 73, 116, 173n26“Eastern African Fiction and

Globalization” (Kalliney), 108Eden, 47– 49, 133Edwards, Brent Hayes, 54Egypt, 8, 20, 31, 46, 72, 164, 177n56Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in

Colonial India (Guha), 185Ellison, Ralph, 82Emecheta, Buchi, 127Emerging Perspectives on Nurrudin Farah

(Moore), 126empire, 62– 64, 66, 70, 102, 105– 6, 108,

110, 148, 151, 164, 170n40England. See Great BritainEnglish (language), 1, 29, 31– 34, 44– 45,

56, 69– 71, 75, 86, 92, 105– 6, 121, 123, 125, 136– 37, 153, 154

Enigma of V. S. Naipaul, The (Hayward), 103

Enlightenment, 7, 13, 15, 17, 43

202 Index

Eritrea, 169n11Ethiopia, 6, 18, 20, 71, 136, 137, 154,

158, 164, 169n11, 187n47Ethiopian/Abyssinian Orthodox Church,

18Europe(ans), 6, 9– 10, 13, 15, 22, 23,

27– 28, 30, 34– 49, 53, 55, 58, 60, 67– 68, 71, 74– 75, 78, 84, 89, 90, 93, 95, 99, 103– 4, 105– 6, 108, 110, 116– 18, 121, 125, 135, 136, 150– 51, 172n53, 173n26, 174n43

Europhone literature, 13, 14exile, 2, 4, 22, 29, 49, 54, 55, 68, 69,

73– 74, 80– 82, 95– 96, 97, 124, 163, 165

Farah, Nuruddin, 1, 2– 3, 4– 5, 14– 15, 16– 17, 24– 25, 100, 123, 125– 29, 134, 138– 39, 153– 54, 157, 163– 66, 167, 183n1

Blood in the Sun trilogy, 2– 3, 123Close Sesame, 23, 136, 142– 43, 149,

153, 155, 157, 161, 187n46From a Crooked Rib, 23, 123– 39, 143,

146, 147, 148, 149, 159, 165, 185n31

Knots, 23, 163Links, 23, 163Maps, 3, 137, 154, 185n29Sardines, 3, 127, 142– 43, 145– 49,

151– 52, 160,Sweet and Sour Milk, 23, 142, 144– 47,

149– 50, 155– 56, 158– 60, 162Variations on the Theme of an African

Dictatorship trilogy, 3, 14, 23, 123, 136, 138, 141, 142– 49, 153– 55, 161, 163– 65

female(s). See womenFormations of the Secular (Asad), 15– 16France, French, 38, 54, 71, 82– 83, 85,

87, 98, 106, 108, 141, 145, 169n2, 170n18

Francophone literature, 19French West Africa, 20, 170n18Fuentes, Carlos, 73

Gandhi, Indira, 94

Gambia, 19Garvey, Marcus, 87Ge’ez, 6Genetsch, Martin, 183n60

Texture of Identity, The, 112German(s), 37, 41– 42, 48– 50, 115, 117,

121, 169n3Ghana, 19, 67Ghosh, Amitav, 3Gikandi, Simon, 6, 165

“Growth of the East African Novel, The,” 176n18

Gilroy, Paul, 22, 52– 53, 55, 63– 65Black Atlantic, The, 52, 175n3

Glassman, Jonathon, 34– 35, 108globalization, 107– 8, 182n38Globalized Islam (Roy), 85Goethe, 6Gole, Nilufer, 17Great Britain, 22, 25, 50, 54, 55, 69– 71,

73– 76, 80– 91, 94– 96, 99, 100, 109, 111, 115, 136, 158, 164, 169n3, 177n1, 187n47

colonialism, 1, 18, 86, 90, 108, 110– 13, 120, 121, 170n18, 179n57

Guevara, Ernesto Che, 146, 152Guillén, Nicolas, 87Guinea, 19, 68Guinea Bissau, 19Guinea- Conakry, 20Gujarat, 56Gurnah, Abdulrazak, 1, 2– 3, 4– 5, 14– 15,

16– 17, 22, 24– 25, 27– 29, 35, 44, 49, 50, 51– 53, 58– 61, 63– 66, 68– 70, 73– 75, 80, 83, 89, 107, 144, 153, 159, 167, 172n4

Admiring Silence, 22, 51– 54, 56– 58, 65– 69, 71, 83, 86, 89, 95

By the Sea, 22, 51– 56, 58– 59, 64– 66, 69– 71, 83, 89, 95, 109– 10

Cambridge Companion to Salman Rushdie, The, 3

Desertion, 183n69Dottie, 23interview with, 5Memory of Departure, 22, 50, 73– 81,

90

Index 203

Paradise, 3, 14, 21– 22, 27– 42, 44– 50, 68– 73, 118, 148

Pilgrims Way, 22, 66, 73– 74, 76, 80– 86, 87– 96, 180n75

Hardwick, Elizabeth, 97Harris, Joseph

African Presence in Asia, The, 175n1“Africans in Asian History,” 175n1Global Dimensions of the African

Diaspora, 175n1Hassan, Muhammad Abdullah, 136Hausa, 19Hawley, John C., 183n1

India in Africa, Africa in India, 53, 175n8

Head, Bessie, 3, 127Hebrew, 32Hegel, 60, 145, 151Herskovits, Melville, 170n20

“Cattle Complex in East Africa, The,” 8

Hindus, 94, 99, 101, 116, 118– 21, 181n16

historiography, 21– 22, 39, 50, 63, 113history, 27– 29, 31– 32, 38– 41, 45, 47,

49, 51, 53, 54, 57– 58, 60, 63, 68, 69, 73, 78, 86, 91, 97– 100, 102– 4, 106– 7, 109– 17, 119, 121, 135, 136, 138, 145, 152, 154, 156– 59, 162, 165, 175n1, 186n7, 188n72

History of the World, The, 70Hoffman, Eva, 82Huntington, Samuel, 138

imperialism, 102, 105– 6, 148, 151, 164“Impossible Domestic Situations”

(Lewis), 83India(ns), 23, 28, 41, 48, 50, 55, 64,

65– 66, 77, 78, 80, 85, 88, 94, 97– 100, 102, 104– 5, 107– 8, 110– 12, 114– 21, 137, 173n34

anti- Indian sentiment, 98, 178n25Indian Ocean (Basin), 55– 56, 97, 104,

108, 114, 118, 186n22diaspora, 54, 175n2

In a Brown Mantle (Nazareth), 60, 105

In Search of Nation (Maddox and Giblin), 61– 62

“interior,” 34, 36– 37, 39, 41, 43– 47, 49, 98, 102– 3, 110, 120

intertextuality, 5Iran(ians), 1, 65, 164, 175n, 179n1,

185– 86n7, 187n71irony, 33, 67, 74, 78, 79, 145, 150, 163Islam, 28, 29– 38, 40– 42, 44, 47– 50,

59, 64, 73– 77, 79– 80, 90, 95, 99, 101– 2, 107, 114, 118, 123– 26, 128, 130– 32, 134– 36, 138, 142– 46, 148– 49, 152– 53, 156, 158– 64, 169n1, 170n18, 179n55

critique of, 40– 41, 75, 76, 89, 148, 180n88

history of, 31– 32, 35– 36, 38, 58, 59, 153, 158

in Africa, 28, 30, 34, 35, 41, 47, 49– 50, 55, 80, 102, 114, 116– 17, 167, 172n53

as political force, 90, 94, 114, 127, 141– 45, 149, 153, 156, 163– 64, 185n1

Shamsi, 114, 116, 118– 19Shi’a, 59, 158, 176n24Sufi, 107, 114– 15, 173n, 186n24Sunni, 54– 55, 59

“Islam and Secularity in Swahili Literature” (Sharif ), 172n3

Islam and the Secular State (An- Na- im), 15

Islam in European Thought (Hourani), 9Islamic

anti- Islamic sentiment, 40, 49, 124– 25, 128, 142– 43, 158, 164, 181n16

culture, 29, 44, 56, 58, 64, 74, 92, 94, 96, 147, 154, 158– 60, 163, 167, 185– 86n7, 188n72

conflation with Arab, 28, 33, 35, 79, 89, 99

identity, 73– 74, 79, 91, 93– 94, 96, 136, 153, 157

militancy and radicalization, 59, 173n34

Islamic Courts Union, 164

204 Index

Islamic Development Bank, 20Islamic Party of Kenya, 21Islam Related Naipaul (Sarkar), 181n16Italy and Italian(s), 136, 137, 144, 148,

150– 51, 153– 54, 158, 169n3, 187n47

Ivory Coast, 19

James, C. L. R., 87Jameson, Fredric, 169n7Jews, 100, 159, 187n55“Journeying to Death” (Chrisman),

175n3Joyce, James, 90Judeo- Christianity, 46, 47, 133Julien, Eileen, 6, 57, 154

“Extroverted African Novel, The,” 56– 57

Kawa, 46Kearney, J. A., 40– 41Kebra Negast, 6Kenya, 18, 21, 59, 68, 86, 89, 90, 120–

21, 136, 169– 70n11Kenyatta, Jumo, 21, 67Kibera, Leonard, 90

Voices in the Dark, 60Kikuyu, 17, 29, 89, 90, 111Kipling, Rudyard, 70Kiswahili, 20– 21, 28– 29, 32– 34, 37, 45–

46, 78, 121, 169n8Kurdish, 153

Lagos, 136La grève des Bàttu (Fall), 7Lamming, George, 87, 153

Pleasures of Exile, The, 87language, 27– 29, 31– 34, 42– 46, 52, 76,

106, 109, 137, 148, 155Last Imam, The (Tahir), 7, 19– 20, 169n1Latin America(n), 106, 171n44L’aventure ambiguë (Kane), 7, 12, 19, 75Le devoirs de violence (Ouluguem), 7L’enfant noir (Laye), 7, 11– 12, 75, 80les Marabouts, 12Levi, Primo, xiLewis, Bernard, 164

What Went Wrong, 188n72Liberia, 60Libya, 8literacy, 153– 56“Little Foxes That Spoil the Vine, The”

(Obiora), 184n18Lloyd, David, 69

Ireland After History, 60Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 141Lukács, Georg, 1Lumumba, Patrice, 67

Macleod, Alastair, 3the Maghreb, 7– 9, 85Majid, Anouar, 128

Unveiling Traditions, 124Malak, Amin, 3, 21, 47, 121, 128, 143

Muslim Narratives and the Discourse of English, 59

Malawi, 18Malaysia, 92– 93Malcolm X, 146Mali, 19, 67Malinké (Mandingo), 11, 19, 20Marxism, 9, 20, 61, 93, 133, 135,

142– 44, 146, 148, 150– 52, 162, 185– 86n7

Mau- Mau, 18, 111Mauritania, 7, 8, 19Mazrui, Ali, 170n24

Africans, The, 28Mda, Zakes, 5Mecca, 8, 75, 96, 149, 178n5memory, 31, 36, 49, 52, 54, 89, 107,

110, 148Middle Passage, 81Mimesis (Auerbach), 124Mobutu, Sese Seko, 98modernism, 39– 40modernity, 15– 17, 23, 24, 27– 28, 43,

53, 55, 63, 82, 100, 103, 124, 128, 139, 188n72

Modernity (Punter), 2Mogadiscio, 124, 125, 129, 136, 150Mohammad, 8, 10, 29, 32, 48, 75,

125, 130, 153, 161, 163, 176n24, 186n24

Index 205

Moi, Daniel Arap, 21Mombasa, 18Morocco, 8Mozambique, 18, 55, 169– 70n11Mughal empire, 173nMuscat, 46, 107Muslim(s), 40, 47, 49, 50, 54, 66, 72,

73– 75, 77, 79– 80, 83, 85, 89, 91– 93, 96, 99– 101, 104, 108, 114, 116– 17, 119, 121, 125– 26, 128, 132, 134– 35, 138– 39, 146– 47, 149, 151, 153– 54, 156– 61, 164, 172n53, 173n26, 178n5, 180n73, 185n1

colonial discourse of, 37, 41, 44See also African(s); Islam: in Africa

Naipaul, V. S., 89, 97– 103, 105– 6, 109, 114, 181n4

Among the Believers, 101, 179n55Bend in the River, A, 23, 97– 106, 108–

9, 113– 14, 117, 118– 19, 120, 121, 181n4

Beyond Belief, 101Congo Diary, A, 181n4Enigma of Arrival, The, 100, 181n16

“Naipaul and the Burden of History” (Mehta), 98

Nairobi, 18, 75, 79, 136Narration and narrative, 28, 32– 33, 35,

39– 46, 50, 51– 52, 54– 59, 66– 69, 78, 80, 82– 83, 91, 98– 99, 102, 104, 106, 107, 109, 111– 13, 115, 117, 120– 21, 124, 127, 128, 131, 134, 153, 155– 57, 159– 60, 162– 63, 167, 169n1, 174n43

Nasta, Susheila, 29, 172n4nation, 2, 4, 8, 15– 17, 22, 23, 24, 34,

59– 62, 65, 66, 68, 79, 84, 89, 90, 92, 124, 135, 136, 139, 142, 149, 157, 165, 174n44, 176n27

See also stateNation Building (Thomas), 60– 61nationalism, 9, 20, 28– 29, 32, 35, 49,

59, 62– 64, 66, 69, 81, 83, 93, 96, 135, 137, 154, 158– 59, 164, 173n34, 175n3, 177n36, 187n47

national literatures, 5– 6, 89– 90Nations and Nationalisms (Gellner), 137Nation of Islam, 63, 72“native,” 57negritude, 9, 71, 87neocolonialism, 4– 5, 89, 129, 134, 151Neruda, Pablo, 145– 46New African Diasporas (Koser), 175n2“New Ethnicities” (Hall), 94– 95Nietzsche, Friedrich, 51, 76, 153Niger, 19, 20Nigeria(n), 19, 24, 60, 67, 91, 94,

169n1, 179n65Nkrumah, Kwame, 67north Africa, 8, 90

division from sub- Sahara, 7– 8North American studies, 9, 172n1Northanger Abbey (Austen), 106novel(s), 1, 5– 7, 17, 24– 25, 27– 32, 39,

47, 53, 56– 60, 61– 62, 64, 69– 70, 73, 75, 81, 83– 85, 92, 100– 101, 107, 111– 12, 120, 121, 123– 28, 132, 133, 135– 39, 143, 147, 153– 54, 157, 162– 63, 164– 66, 167, 169n8, 176n18

“Novels of Nuruddin Farah, The” (Statton), 126– 27

Ntalindwa, Raymond, 157Nubia, 71“Nuruddin Farah and the Changing

Roles of Women” (Okonkwo), 125– 26

Nyerere, Julius, 66– 67, 88, 178n25

Obama, Barack, 141Okri, Ben, 5, 90Old Testament, 28, 32, 47, 107

See also BibleOman, 561001 Arabian Nights, 56, 59, 107, 155Origin of Species (Darwin), 70Organization for African Unity (OAU),

20Organization of the Islamic Conference

(OIC), 20orality, 6, 29, 56– 58, 110, 153– 56, 163,

176n18

206 Index

Orientalism, 13– 14, 46, 84Ortiz, Fernando, 172n1otherness, 35, 37, 41, 110, 133Ottoman Empire, 14, 15, 171n40,

188n72Ousmane, Sembène, 4, 9, 127, 136

Les bouts de bois de Dieu, 7, 143, 145Oyono, Ferdinand, 3

Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger, 30, 50

Padmore, George, 87, 152Pan- Africanism or Communism?, 151

Pakistan(is), 85, 94Pan- Africanism, 4, 9, 22, 61, 67, 88, 95,

150, 152, 158– 59, 180n75parable, 29, 57, 154, 156patriarchy, 23, 130, 133, 142– 43, 147,

150, 158, 161“Paul Gilroy’s Slaves, Ships, and Routes”

(Dayan), 175n3p’Bitek, Okot, 90Pemba, 18Persia(ns), 15, 28, 56– 57, 65, 97, 99,

102, 104, 159Piot, Charles, 53poetry, 29, 59, 82, 113, 152, 153, 154–

55, 158– 59, 163, 176n18Portugal, Portuguese, 54, 97, 106, 108postcolonialism, 1– 2, 4, 5, 23, 39, 61,

83, 101, 104, 106, 136– 38, 143, 151, 165, 172n1

Postcolonial Representations (Lionnet), 129postcolonial studies, 3, 108, 124– 25,

128– 29, 134– 35, 137– 38, 157, 165, 167, 169n7

“Prayer for My Daughter, A” (Yeats), 150, 153

precolony, 22, 27– 28, 30, 38, 42, 69, 174n43

primitivism, 13, 57, 93Public Religions and the Modern World

(Casanova), 142publishing, 2, 39Puel, 19

Punjab(i), 32, 33, 46

Qays, Abdi, 153Qonof, Nuri, 153Qur’an, 12, 15, 19, 20– 21, 27, 28, 29,

31– 33, 41, 47, 48, 56, 59, 101, 114– 15, 125, 128, 130, 132, 144, 145, 153, 156, 162, 163, 180n73, 184n16, 187n55

translation of, 31– 33

Rabah, Bilal bin, 10race and racism, 10, 17, 22, 24, 28, 30,

34– 36, 39, 44, 49, 55, 59, 60– 66, 69– 72, 74, 77– 79, 81– 84, 86, 88– 93, 95– 96, 99– 100, 115, 151, 180n73

Rama, Ángel, 172n1Ramadan, 11, 75, 178n5Ranke, Leopold van, 112, 113, 182n55rationalism, 15, 43realism, 6– 7, 111, 164, 170n16“Recollecting Africa” (Alpers), 175n1regional literature, 5– 6, 89– 90religion, 14, 15– 19, 29– 30, 37, 40–

41, 47– 48, 62, 74– 77, 91– 92, 100– 101, 105, 114– 17, 119– 20, 124– 26, 128, 135– 36, 138– 39, 141, 144, 152, 154, 157, 162– 64, 172n53, 183n1, 188n72

“Religious Polyphony in the Novels of Nuruddin Farah” (Cary), 183n1

Renan, Ernst, 51“Resistance Theory/Theorising

Resistance” (Parry), 177n36“Rise of Fictionality, The” (Gallagher), 6Rise of the Novel, The (Watt), 170n16Rodwell, J. M., xiiiRowe- Evans, Adrian, 100Rushdie, Salman, 3, 5, 14– 15, 52, 95,

96, 164, 179n55, 180n82, 181n16“In Good Faith,” 14– 15Midnight’s Children, 107Satanic Verses, 14, 180n88

Rwanda, 60, 165, 169– 70n11

Index 207

Said, Edward, 74, 96, 102, 116Culture and Imperialism, 150– 51Reflections on Exile, 81– 82Representations of the Intellectual, 124World, the Text, and the Critic, The,

124Salkey, Andrew, 87

Escape to an Autumn Pavement, 180n75

Sanskrit, 121satire, 60, 66, 164savage, 22, 31, 34, 36– 37, 44, 46, 50Sayyid, the (Mohammed Abdullah

Hassan), 158– 59, 162, 186n24, 187n47

Scheherazade, 56– 57, 107scholarship, 2– 10, 13– 14, 18, 21, 23– 25,

27, 28, 50, 53– 58, 71, 104– 8, 110– 12, 118, 133– 35, 137– 38, 143, 152, 154, 164, 165, 172n3, 183n4, 188n72

“Secularism in the Framework of Heterodoxy” (Viswanathan), 15– 16

secularity, 1, 9, 15– 16, 20, 23, 29, 124, 125– 26, 135, 141, 142, 172n3, 188n72

Secularization and Cultural Criticism (Pecora), 15

Selvon, Samuel, 86– 87Lonely Londoners, 180n75

Senegal, 19, 20, 67, 185n2Senghor, Leopold, 87sexuality, 76, 85, 95, 130– 32Shakespeare, William, 89, 90sharia law, 164Sierra Leone, 19, 60, 89“Signs of New Features in the Swahili

Novel” (Khamis), 169n8Sikhs, 33, 40, 94, 116, 119, 173n34Simatei, Tirop, 4– 5Singh, Kushwant, 5slavery, 9, 41, 49– 50, 52, 63– 64, 77– 78,

86, 108Slavery and African Life (Manning),

175n1

Smith, Angela, 3– 4, 157Somalia, 6, 18, 20, 23, 24, 55, 60, 67,

123– 25, 129– 30, 132– 33, 135– 36, 142, 144, 147– 50, 152– 59, 161, 169n3, 185– 87n

Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party, 185n3

South Asia(ns), 74, 94Soyinka, Wole, 4, 9, 10, 89, 170n24Spain, Spanish, 54, 93Spivak, Gayatri, xii

“Can the Subaltern Speak?,” 134state, 147, 150, 155, 162, 163, 165, 167,

185n1See also nation

structuralism, 5Sudan(ese), 18, 24, 60, 115Swahili

culture, 28, 29, 58– 59, 65, 115, 172n3

language, 6, 36, 121coast region, 27, 31, 33– 35, 41, 46,

58, 60Symbolic Confrontations (O’Brien), 185n2syncretic thesis, 10– 13, 118

Tagore, Rabindranath, 153Tanganyika, 20, 64, 67, 68, 80, 83, 88,

169n3, 178n25Tanzania, 18, 59, 60, 66, 68, 74, 81,

84, 86, 88, 93, 121, 169– 70n11, 178n25, 185n1

Tayari, 46“Tempering Race and Nation” (Kitson),

53“third” world, xi, 2, 62, 67, 124, 134,

137, 169n5, 174n44Thomas, Dylan, 153Togo, 19Topan, Farouk, 58Touaregs, 20Toure, Ahmed Sekou, 67translation, 2, 31– 34, 45, 56, 150, 152Tremaine, Louis, 165– 66Trimingham, J. Spencer, 30

208 Index

Tunisia, 8Turkey and Turkish (language), 57, 159

Uganda, 18, 66, 67, 169– 70n11“Une Pratique Sauvage” (Behdad), 134Une si longue lettre (Bâ), 7United States, 24, 52, 63, 64, 70, 71, 82,

87, 109, 115, 129, 141, 170n20, 187n71

See also Americas; North American studies

utopia(n), 27, 31, 93, 186n7

Vassanji, Moyez Gulamhussein, 1, 2– 3, 4– 5, 14, 17, 24– 25, 50, 105, 107, 120– 21, 167

Book of Secrets, 21, 23, 50, 111– 18, 119– 20, 183n61

Gunny Sack, The, 23, 107– 11, 112, 114, 119

In- Between World of Vikram Lall, The, 111, 120– 21

Uhuru Street, 120Village in Uhuru, A (Ruhumbika), 60,

137violence, 31, 34, 35, 38, 44, 49, 68, 82,

91, 158, 161, 163, 165Vuh, Popol, 171n44

Wahhabi, 55Walker, Alice

Color Purple, The, 129Possessing the Secret of Joy, 129, 184n18

wa Thiong’o, Ngugi, 3– 4, 5, 89– 90, 129, 135, 136– 37, 152, 154

Grain of Wheat, A, 60, 127, 137“Language of African Literature, The,”

137River Between, The, 17– 18, 37Weep Not, Child, 17– 18, 143

West Africa, 12– 13, 20, 51, 143, 169n1, 183n4

See also French West Africathe west, 2, 9, 15, 18, 24, 34, 37– 40, 49,

51, 52– 53, 60, 62– 64, 68, 69, 71, 87, 102, 109, 111, 125, 129, 130– 31, 133, 134, 138, 142– 43, 151, 153– 54, 164– 65, 172n1, 180n75, 187n71, 188n

West Indies, West Indians, 52, 74, 82, 87– 88, 90, 92– 95, 177n72

White, Hayden, 21Wolof(s), 19, 20Woolf, Virginia, 90women, 65– 66, 101, 119– 20, 123, 125–

35, 138– 39, 141, 147– 48, 160– 61, 184n20

Wretched of the Earth, The (Fanon), 61, 94

Writing Black Britain (Proctor), 94Wright, Derek, 134, 154

Ximénez, Francisco, 171n44

Yao, 18

Zaire, 98Zanzibar(is), 18, 20, 30, 41, 46, 54, 55,

57, 64, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86– 87, 88, 98, 107, 178n25