Notes

Chapter 1

1. Mardin (1973), 183.2. Lerner (1958), 405.3. Huntington (1996), 149.4. Berkes (1975), 279.5. Küçükömer (1969).6. Önis (2009).7. Kuru (2009).8. Azak (2010), xi.9. Angrist (2006), 92.

10. Waltz (1979).11. Wendt (1999).12. For a constructivist study of Turkish foreign policy, see Bozdaglioglu (2003).13. Weldes (1999), 18–19.14. Hudson (2006), 11–12.

Chapter 2

1. Aydin (2007), 60.2. Gelvin (2005), 73–87.3. Ralston (1990), 65.4. Hanioglu (1995), 8.5. Quoted in Heyd (1950), 79.6. Ralston (1990), 65.7. For Selim III’s military reforms and his Nizâm-ı Cedid (new era) army, see

Shaw (1965).8. On Mahmud II’s modernization attempts, Levy (1971).9. This brief summary of the dissolution of the Ottoman period rely on sources

including Zuercher (2004), Findley (2010), and Hanioglu (2010).10. Hanioglu (2008), 25.11. Shaw and Shaw (1976), 21.12. Mardin (1962), 14.13. Hanioglu (2008), 25.

198 NOTES

14. On the lives of Christians and Jews within the Ottoman Empire, see BenjaminBraude and Lewis (1982).

15. On contributions of religious identity to the emergence of Balkan nationalism,see Arnakis (1963).

16. Hanioglu (2008), 25.17. Karpat (1972), 259.18. Ibid., 258.19. Wood (1943), 26420. Çetinsaya (2001b), 54.21. Quoted in Ibid., 57.22. On Ottoman education reforms during the Tanzimat era, see Kazamias (1966),

and Somel (2001).23. See Çankaya (1968).24. Somel (2001), 52.25. Lewis (2001), 122. For a critical view on the weight of Galatasaray graduates in

the Ottoman administrative structure, see Kazamias (1966).26. Karpat (1972), 259.27. Tehranian (2003), 87.28. Cited in Fortna (2000), 260. For a detailed examination of American mission-

ary schools in the Ottoman Empire, see the articles in Dogan and Sharkey(2010).

29. Çetinsaya (2001b), 56.30. Mardin (2001), 51. Also see Mardin (1962).31. Karpat (1972), 262.32. Ibid.33. Ibid., 263.34. Kemal and Tansel (1969), 235–236.35. “Frenklerde Bir Telas,” Ibret, July 1, 1872; quoted in Hanioglu (1995), 14.36. Karpat (1972), 266.37. Mardin (1962).38. Ibid.39. Ibid.40. Karpat (2002), 267.41. Çetinsaya (2001a), 265.42. Keddie (1983),. For an anthology of Islamist thought in Turkey, see Kara

(1997),. For a comprehensive source on Turkish Islamism, see Aktay (2004).43. Bulaç (2004), 59.44. Ibid.45. Kara (2004), 41.46. Two important works on the Young Turk movement are Hanioglu (1995), and

Hanioglu (2001).47. See Deringil (1991).48. Sultan Abdülhamid, Siyasî Hatıratım, quoted in Özcan (1997), 51.49. Eraslan (1995).,50. Bilici (2006), 322.51. van Bruinessen (1995).52. Brown (2000), 110.

NOTES 199

53. Aydin (2007), 95.54. For an authoritative study on Abdülhamid II’s diplomacy, see Yasamee (1996).55. On the sectarian politics of European powers in Lebanon in the nineteenth

century, see Makdisi (2000).56. McMurray (2001), 40. This book is a detailed examination of the German

financing of the Baghdad Railroad project.57. Sultan Abdülhamid, Siyasî Hatıratım, quoted in Arıbogan (2004), 408.58. For the story of Ertugrul, see Komatsu (1992).59. Esenbel (1996).60. Özcan (1997).61. For an examination of these events, see McCarthy (1995).62. Deringil (1991), 347.63. Karpat, The Politicization of Islam, 163–164.64. During Abdülhamid’s rule, 10,000 new sıbyan (religious elementary) schools

were opened and the number of ibtidai schools increased from 200 to 4,000,rüstiye (mid-level high schools) from 250 to 600, idadi (middle schools) from5 to 104, and teachers’ colleges from 4 to 32. Figures cited in Yavuz (2003),44–45.

65. Hanioglu (1995), 211.66. Lewis (2001), 197.67. Hanioglu (1995), 211.68. Ibid.69. Ibid.70. Gökalp (1992), 124.71. Akçura (1904).72. Thomas (1992).73. Berkes (1954), quoted in Bonnett (2002), 173.74. Quoted in McDowall (1996), 189.75. Quoted in Bonnett (2002), 174.76. Mehmet (1990), 68.77. Mehmed Akif, “Istiklal Marsı” (“The Independence March”). The first two

quatrains were adopted as the national anthem of Turkey.78. Özdalga (2005), 21.79. The debate over what happened to Armenians in the Ottoman Empire during

the First World War remains unresolved some ninety years after it began.Armenians claim that they were the victims of genocide. The official Turkishview is that Armenians died during intercommunal fighting and a wartimerelocation (tehcir) necessitated by security concerns in the context of intercom-munal violence, which erupted because of provocation from external forces,chiefly Russia, whose advancement into eastern Turkey had caused massiveconcerns throughout the previous century of the Ottoman Empire. Accordingto these claims, the Russian-supported Armenian militias carried out large-scale massacres of Turkish people in the territories they lived in. See Lewy(2005),. For a contrary perspective, see Bloxham (2005).

80. On the formation and consolidation of CUP power, see Hanioglu (2001).81. For the full text of the treaty, see Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and

Turkey (1921).

200 NOTES

82. See Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (TBMM) Gizli Celse Zabıtları (transcripts ofthe secret Sessions of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey) (1985).

83. Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations(1924), 84–90.

Chapter 3

1. Zürcher (2004), 163.2. The most authoritative work on the massacre and exile of Muslims in the

Balkans at the end of the Ottoman empire is McCarthy (1995).3. Zürcher (2004), 164.4. Mango (1968), 226.5. Mustafa Kemal, TBMM, May 1, 1920. Kemal Atatürk, Atatürk’ün söylev ve

demeçleri, Volumes 1–3, p. 74. This pluralist discourse of Atatürk can be con-trasted by the later-day rejection of the existence of Kurds altogether by theKemalist establishment. For instance, in 1960, Gürsel asserted that “there is nosuch thing in Turkey as Kurds or Kurdishness. We are a single nation in heartand spirit” (Cumhuriyet, July 19, 1960 and Times, July 20, 1960, cited in MiddleEast Record, Vol. 1, 1960 [Israel Oriental Society], p. 449).

6. Tachau (1963), 172.7. In 1966, the Istanbul Second Administrative Court referred to non-Muslim

minorities as “the citizens of Turkey from foreign origins.” In 1974, theSupreme Court of Appeals (Yargıtay) in Turkey called the Greek citizens inIstanbul as “foreigners.” See Baskın Oran, “Trabzon’daki papazi ben de gidipvurabilirdim,” Bir Gün, February 10, 2006.

8. Karpat (2001), 406.9. Quoted in Berkes (1964), 463–464.

10. Quoted in Altinay (2004), 22.11. Ibid.12. Ibid., 23.13. Çagaptay (2006), 45.14. Sulzberger (1969), 216.15. On the capital tax and the work camps, see Akar (2009).16. Aydemir, Ikinci Adam, pp. 235–236. Quoted by VanderLippe (2005), 83.17. C. L. Sulzberger, “Ankara tax raises diplomatic issues,” New York Times,

September 12, 1943. And “The Turkish minorities,” New York Times,September 17, 1943. Some important references on the capital tax include Ökte(1987), and Aktar (2000).

18. On this duality, see Ahiska (2003).19. Parla and Davison (2004), 138.20. Quoted in Criss and Bilgin (1997), online: http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/

1997/01/criss-and-bilgin.html21. Kitromilides (2006), 220.22. Strang (2003), 30.23. For a more detailed analysis of the Balkan Pact, see Türkes (1994).

NOTES 201

24. Jelavich (1983), 213.25. “Turks to build navy with aid of Britain: ready to fight Italy,” Chicago Daily

Tribune, November 8, 1935. Also see “Dardanelles armed again: Turks occupyzone forbidden by peace pact, Treaty of Lausanne goes in scrap heap,” ChicagoDaily Tribune (Associated Press), April 18, 1936. “Italy opposes Turk rearmingof Dardanelles,” Chicago Daily Tribune (Associated Press), April 23, 1936.

26. For a detailed discussion, see Çetinsaya (1999).27. “Friendship pact reached by four Moslem nations: great Asiatic political

movement seen,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 16, 1936.28. Mango (1968), 239.29. Çetinsaya (1999), 171.30. For an interpretation of the Hatay question that supports the Turkish view, see

Sönmezoglu (2004), For a study sympathetic to Syrian perspective, see Sanjian(1956).

31. “Power politics: Semitic friends,” Time, July 3, 1939.32. TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları (Turkish National Assembly, Closed Session

Records), Vol. 3, pp. 1307 and 1309. Quoted in Tan (2009), 199.33. Taha Akyol, “Musul, Inönü, Atatürk, Ecevit,” Milliyet, January 5, 2005.34. TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları (Turkish National Assembly, Closed Session

Records), vol. 3, pp. 1238–1305. Tan (2009), 198.35. Barkey (1996a), 67.36. Between 1923 and 1935, the party was named Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası (CHF).

The name was changed to the present Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (CHP) in 1935.37. Hanioglu (2008), 189.38. Peker (1935).39. Karaömerlioglu (1998), 68.40. Neville (2004), 70.41. Atabaki and Zürcher (2004), 109.42. Europaeische Revue, vol. 12, no. 6, 1936. The translation of this article was

published in Ülkü, vol .8, no. 41, July 1936.43. Koçak (2001), 119–138.44. Türkes (1998).45. For Kadro articles discussing the War of Liberation, see Sevket Süreyya, “Milli

Kurtulus Hareketlerinin Ana Prensipleri,” Kadro 8 (August 1932) and “MilliKurtulus Hareketleri Hakkinda Bizim Tezimiz,” Kadro 12 (December 1932),38–44.

46. Sadiq (1986), 331.47. Türkesö (1998), 100. Also see Hale (1980).48. Barlas (1998), 48.49. On Yön movement, see Altun (2010).50. For this point, see Hale (1997), 153.51. Köker (1993), 189–190.52. Ibid., 194–195.53. For an extensive study of this party, see Erik Jan Zürcher, Political Opposition

in the Early Turkish Republic.

202 NOTES

54. Yalman (1947), 48.55. On Kemalist criticism of the Progressive Party, see Zürcher (1991).56. Taha Akyol believes that Atatürk expressions in Nutuk should be interpreted

as a reflection of the politics of 1927 when Atatürk had bitter relations withthe Karabekir group and warm relations with Inönü, and if his speeches wererevised in 1937 he would have different views, as by then his relations with theliberal group were repaired and he began to have issues with Inönü. See Akyol(2008).

57. Yalman (1947), 49.58. Deringil (1989), 136.59. Çalis (1997), 105.60. Deringil (1989), 51.61. Ibid.62. VanderLippe (2005), 64.63. Ibid.64. Hale (2002), 63.65. Edwards (1946), 391.66. Deringil (1989).

Chapter 4

1. Sayari (2002), 70.2. “Halkın Büyük Nisbette Istirakiyle Demokratlar Her Yerde Kazanıyor,” Mil-

liyet, May 15, 1950. Also, “DP Dün Gece yarısı 41 Vilayette 370 mebuslukkazanarak ekseriyeti aldı,” Milliyet, May 16, 1950.

3. As discussed by Kemal Karpat, this description was especially prominent inprovincial publications, examples of which include Cavit Ersen, Beyaz Ihti-lal (Adana, 1953) and Acer Tuncer, Beyaz Ihtilalin Üç Büyük Lideri, Bayar,Menderes and Koraltan (Izmir, 1959). See Karpat (2004), 240.

4. For a detailed discussion of the ezan issue, see Azak (2010).5. Davison (1998), 146.6. Zürcher (2004), Also see Zürcher, (1992). For a criticism of Zürcher’s peri-

odization, see Tachau, 1995.7. “The impatient builder,” Time, February 3, 1958.8. Ibid.9. Ramachandran (1974), 9.

10. Ibid.11. Even after the war, pro-German Kemalist intellectuals did not hesitate in

expressing their sympathy with Hitler and Germany. See, for instance, PeyamiSafa, “Alman Milletinin Büyüklügünü Sezdiren Küçük Hadise,” Milliyet,October 22, 1954.

12. Kemalist Cumhuriyet and pro-DP Zafer newspapers ran stories containingstrongly worded insults against him. See Poet Ahmet Muhip Dıranas’ columntitled “Go to hell!,” Zafer, June 29, 1951. The most interesting was a picture ofHikmet published in Cumhuriyet: “Nihayet Resmi de Geldi,” Cumhuriyet, July12, 1951. The newspaper published his picture inviting its readers to spit on it.

NOTES 203

Hikmet’s escape from the military service prompted the DP government torevoke his citizenship. He died in 1963 in Moscow, and the AKP governmentin 2009 posthumously restored his citizenship.

13. Bagcı (1990), 25.14. Tevfik Rüstü Aras, “Amerika’ya Düsen Vazife,” Milliyet, July 29, 1950.15. Hale (2002), 133.16. Ramachandran (1974), 23.17. Karpat (2004), 243.18. “CENTO 115 milyon lira yardım yapacak,” Milliyet, October 10, 1959.19. Uslu (2000a), 175–176.20. Khalidi (2009), 33.21. Quoted in Bagcı (1990), 46.22. “Amerika Bize 100 Milyon Dolarlık Yardım Yapıyor,” Milliyet, October 5, 1955.23. Ihsanoglu (2000), 172.24. Mütercimler and Öke (2004), 182.25. Ibid., 186–187.26. Yesilbursa (2005), 196.27. “The Middle East after the Baghdad Pact,” Time, August 11, 1958.28. Yesilbursa (2005), 203.29. Sever (2008), 124.30. Bagcı (1990), 44–45.31. Sever (2008), 124.32. Ibid., 127.33. Shrader (1999), 168.34. Bolukbasi (1999), 23.35. “Dost Kazigi!,” Milliyet, December 14, 1957.36. Bengio (2004), 36.37. The peripheral alliance strategy suffered a setback with the overthrow of Haile

Selassie by a Soviet-backed coup in 1974 and a more serious one with theIranian Revolution in 1979. However, Trita Parsi notes that the strategy rema-ined strong in the mentality of Israeli policy makers even after the revolution.Israelis regarded Iraq as the single most important strategic threat in the regiononce Egypt was pacified after the Camp David treaty. Parsi (2007), 127–135.

38. Rabinovich and Reinharz (2008), 194.39. Shlaim (2000), 196.40. Parsi (2007), 91.41. Hale (2002), 129.42. “Suriye Hadiselerini Dikkatle Inceliyoruz,” Milliyet, September 25, 1957.43. Cumhuriyet, January 24, 1950. Quoted in Mütercimler and Öke (2004), 292.44. Quoted in ibid.45. Karpat (1975a), 186–187.46. Hürriyet, April 21, 1951. Quoted in Mütercimler and Öke (2004), 295.47. Kabasakal Arat (2007), 62–63.48. “Atamizin Evi Bomba Ile Hasara Ugradi,” Istanbul Ekspress, September 6, 1955.49. Güven (2009).50. Erol Sadi Erdinç, “Dilek Güven’e cevap,” Taraf, February 3, 2009.

204 NOTES

51. “400 kadına tecavüz edildi,” Sabah, February 1, 2009.52. “Kıbrıs Cumhuriyetini Doguran Anlasma Imzalandı,” Milliyet, February 20,

1959.53. Hale (2002), 132.54. Recueil des traités, Volumes 1301–1350, United Nations, 1983.55. Hale (2002), 132–133.

Chapter 5

1. Young socialist Kemalists enthusiastically celebrated the coup as a progressiverevolution. Milliyet’s Çetin Altan expressed his sympathetic assessment of thepublic mood: “Today all Turkish patriots feel joyfulness and enthusiasm ofthis wonderful and honorable day” (Çetin Altan, “Büyük Gün,” [Great Day]Milliyet, May 27, 1960). For another Kemalist defense of the coup, see Baykam(1994).

2. Ahmad (1993), 136.3. Özbudun and Gençkaya (2009).4. Radio announcement of the coup. Translation is provided by Ahmad

(1993), 126.5. Nur Batur discusses the America’s falling out of love with the Menderes

government in the wake of the coup utilizing British documents: “IngilizGizli Belgelerinde Menderes-Amerika Kavgası ve 27 Mayıs’a Dogru,” Milliyet,February 13–19, 1989.

6. Mufti (2009), 35.7. Caradon (1964), 166.8. Mufti (2009), 35.9. Karasapan (1989), 6.

10. Dikerdem (1977), 28.11. Quoted in Armagan, 96.12. Tek (2003), 23.13. “Ardahan’ı Rusya’ya Satmak Istemisler,” Milliyet, June 17, 1960.14. Fırat (1997), 45.15. “Eisenhower, Gürsel’e Bir Mesaj Gönderdi,” Milliyet, June 17, 1960.16. For a classic study on the missile crisis, see Allison and Zelikow (1999).17. Divine (1988), 242.18. See Metin Toker. See “Ismet Pasa Ile 4 Buhranlı Yıl, ” Milliyet, February 4,

1969.19. “Turkiye’deki Füzeler Küba’dakilere Benzemez, ” Milliyet, November 29, 1962.20. “Sancar ‘Polaris füzeleri görüsmesi müsbet yolda’ diyor,” Milliyet, January 24,

1963.21. Inönü’s memoirs, published by his son-in-law, Metin Toker. See “Ismet Pasa

Ile 4 Buhranlı Yıl,” Milliyet, February 4–9, 1969.22. For full text of the letter, “President Johnson’s Letter to Prime Minister Inonu”

(1966). Also see Armaoglu (1991), 266.23. Uslu (2000b), 98–99.

NOTES 205

24. “Amerika çıkarma yapmamızı yine önledi,” Hürriyet, June 6, 1965.25. “Gürsel: Açıklama Yapılmalı,” Milliyet, January 1, 1966. For a more detailed

discussion of the political ramifications of the letter, see Landau (1979).26. Inönü was referred by many as the second man of the Republican era. Aydemir

(1966).27. “Cyprus: a breather,” Time, August 28, 1964. Also see Necatigil, 1993.28. Necatigil, 42.29. Laçiner (2010), 206.30. Ibrahim Çamlı, “Kıbrıs Meselesinin Çözümü Üçüncü Dünyanın Içindedir,”

Yön, No. 108, April 23, 1965. “TIP Dıs Politikayı Bildiriyle Elestirdi,” Milliyet,October 14, 1964.

31. Zürcher (2004), 253.32. Arat (2002), 92.33. Demirel counters the claims that he yielded easily to military pressures

by referring to his sacking of the Chief of the General Staff in 1969; seeGüneri Civaoglu, “Ben Komutan Görevden Aldım,” Milliyet, November 10,2009.

34. DIE (TÜIK) Istatistiki Göstergeler, 1923–1998, quoted in Oran (2001c), 673.35. “Sunay Moskova’da Törenle Karsılandı,” Milliyet, November 13, 1969.36. Aykan (1993), 94.37. Fırat (1997), 41.38. Ibid., 240.39. Both statements are quoted in Ibid., 240–241.40. Radio Moscow, November 29, 1968, quoted in Middle East Record, 62.41. “Orta Dogu Yine Karıstı,” Milliyet, August 22, 1969. It is quite noteworthy

that Milliyet gave the news of al-Aqsa fire on its third page, rather than thefront page, and framed it as yet another disturbance in the Middle East. Thenext day it was brought to the front page but given a small space in the corner,“Mescid-i Aksa’yı Yakan Avustralyalı Yakalandı,” Milliyet, August 23, 1969.

42. Fırat (1997), 246.43. Abdi Ipekçi, “Islam Zirvesi ve Türkiye,” Milliyet, September 19, 1969.44. Fırat (1997), 246.45. “Turkey: never mind the noise,” Time, July 27, 1970.46. “Devrimci Kuruluslar Tutumu Destekliyor” (Revolutionary Institutions

Support the Stance), Cumhuriyet, March 14, 1971. Nadi Nadi, “DevrimciOrdunun Sesi,” Cumhuriyet, March 13, 1971. For further discussion, seeBirand and Dundar (1994), Also, Tek (2003).

47. For an insider view on the March 9 group and its coup attempt, see HasanCemal, “Darbecilikten, cuntacılıktan demokrasi kahramanlıgına . . .,” Milliyet,March 25, 2008. For an autobiographical narration of the story, see Cemal(1999).

48. Zürcher (2004), 260.49. “Idam Edildiler,” Hürriyet, May 6, 1972.50. Hale (2002), 154.51. “Çaglayangil 12 Mart’ı açıklıyor, 12 Mart’ta büyük ölçüde CIA vardır,” inter-

view with Ismail Cem, Politika, March 9, 1976-March 21, 1976.

206 NOTES

52. Hale (2002), 154 and Ahmad (1993), 154. Also see “Turkish premier vows tohalt illicit opium traffic,” New York Times, May 2, 1971.

53. Karpat (1975b), 105.54. Hale (2002), 162.55. Karasapan (1989), 8.56. Ibid.57. Emin Çölasan, “Devletin Iflasını Önlemek Için Tarım Ürünlerine Rehin Konul-

ması Kabul Edildi,” Milliyet, January 25, 1978.58. Milliyet, January 25, 1978.59. Fırat and Kürkçüoglu (2001), 794–795. This section partly benefits from the

information provided in this source.60. Ayın Tarihi, October 1979. (Office of the Prime Minister, Directorate General

of Press and Information.)61. For a more detailed discussion of the role of this department and its civilian

wing, Counter-Guerillas, see Birand, Bilâ and Akar (1999),. For a detailed dis-cussion of counter-guerilla organizations in various NATO member nations,Ganser (2005). Also see “Hat Gladio mitgeputscht?” Der Spiegel, November26, 1990.

62. Yetkin (2007), 77.63. Özbudun and Gençkaya (2009), 22.64. “Birand’dan Paul Henze’ye ‘sesli-görüntülü’ yalanlama,” Zaman, June 14, 2003.65. Gerges (2009), 73.66. Evren later stated that the decision to implement compulsory religion courses

was necessary at that time and now such courses should be made optional.“Evren: Zorunlu Din Dersi Kaldırılmalı,” Sabah, April 20, 2006.

67. Gruen (1990), 361.68. For a more detailed discussion, see al-Ahsan (2006).69. Erhan and Kürkçüoglu (2001a), 150.70. Ibid., 151.71. Oran (2001a), 32.72. Yasemin Çongar, “Rogers’ı 12 Eylül Rahatlattı,” Milliyet, December 21, 1994.73. Güldemir (1986), 91.74. Yasemin Çongar, “Rogers’ı 12 Eylül Rahatlattı,” Milliyet, December 21, 1994.75. “Carter Yunanistan’ın Askeri Kanada Dönüsü Için Bizi Tehdit Etti” (Memoirs

of Kenan Evren), Milliyet, December 21, 1990.76. M. Ali Birand, “Obama’nın Her Verdigi Söze Inanmayın,” Milliyet, April 6,

2009.77. The media reported the incident positively, as expected in the context of

the coup, as a display of goodwill: “Türkiye Yunanistan’a Iyi Niyet Gösterdi,”Tercüman, October 23, 1980.

Chapter 6

1. Statistics prepared by Angus Maddison. http://www.ggdc.net/Maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_03-2007.xls [accessed June 22, 2010].

NOTES 207

2. Aral (2001), 74.3. Ahmad (1993), 215–216.4. Dagı (2001), 159.5. Barlas (2000), 156.6. Ibid., 155.; Ibrahim and Gürbey (2000), 67.7. Barlas (2000), 121.8. Davutoglu (2001), 85.9. Sayari (1997), 45.

10. On Özal’s foreign policy perspective and his view of the United States, seeAtaman (2002).

11. Aral (2001), 82.12. For a critical analysis of Turkey’s role during the Gulf War, see Gözen (2000).13. Barlas (2000), 121.14. Wolczuk (2003), 146.15. “Turgut Ozal, 66, dies in Ankara; pugnacious president of Turkey,” New York

Times, April 18, 1993.16. Erhan and Kürkçüoglu (2001b), 137.17. Fuller (1993), 42.18. “Sevr’i Hortlatma Çabası,” Milliyet, September 14, 1988.19. Altan Öymen, “Devrim Gibi,” Milliyet, December 10, 1991.20. Rouleau (1996), 72.21. “JITEM victim families want justice after witness revelations,” Today’s Zaman,

December 29, 2009.22. Bülent Aras (2002), 57.23. For a more detailed discussion, see Fuller (1993), 41–43.24. See its official website: http://www.gap.gov.tr25. Elekdag (1995).26. Hale (2002), 177.27. http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/countries/turkey/index_en.htm28. Arikan (2006), 84.29. Önis (2003), 9.30. Yaman Törüner, “Gümrük Birligi ne getirdi?,” Milliyet, May 6, 2008.31. Oran (2001b), 30. Also see Önis (1997).32. Fuller (2008), 44–45.33. Sabah, November 30, 1998. Quoted in Oran (2001d), 224.34. For a full discussion of the political background of Refahyol coalition, see

Meyer (1998).35. Thomas Friedman, “Who lost Turkey?,” New York Times, August 21, 1996.36. Quoted by Lombardi (1997), 193.37. Robins (1997), 83.38. Thomas L. Friedman, “Who lost Turkey?,” New York Times, August 21,

1996.39. Robins (1997), 91.40. “No demons please, Turkey’s new leader is a moderate, not an Islamic radical,”

Asiaweek, September 6, 1996.

208 NOTES

41. U.S. State Department Briefing, October 12, 1996. For U.S. criticism of the gasdeal, see Thomas W. Lippman, “U.S. decries Turkey’s gas deal with Tehran,”Washington Post, August 13, 1996.

42. “Erbakan’a Gül Dikeni,” Radikal, January 22, 1998; “Abdullah Gül: HatalarımızOldu,” Zaman, August 30, 1998. Bulent Arinc, interview by Nilgün Cerrah-oglu, “Libya Gezisi Bir Felaketti” [Visit to Libya was a disaster], Milliyet,February 22, 1998.

43. The U.S. Department of State, Daily Press Briefing, October 8, 1996.44. “Turkey answers criticism from U.S.,” Boston Globe, September 10, 1996.45. Robins (1997), 89.46. Yalçın Dogan, “Don Kisot’un D’si: D-8!. .,” Milliyet, January 5, 1997.47. Yavuz (1997).48. Cevik Bir and Martin Sherman, “Formula for stability: Turkey plus Israel,”

Middle East Quarterly, 2002.49. Altunısık (2000), 183. Quoted in Bacik (2001), 53.50. Kirisci (2001), 105.51. Robins (2003), 265.52. For a more detailed discussion of the Turkish-Israeli military agreements, see

Piccoli (2001).53. There are a number of articles that highlight the geostrategic nature of the

alliance between Turkey and Israel during the late 1990s. See for instanceBarkey (1996).

54. Ambrosio (2002).55. Alan Makovsky, “Turkey: Erbakan at Six Months,” PolicyWatch, the Washing-

ton Institute for Near East Policy, no. 230, December 27, 1996.56. “28 Subat Hareketinin Basında Demirel Vardı,” [Demirel was in charge of the

February 28 movement], Zaman, February 28, 2005. For Demirel’s response,see Yavuz Donat, “Demirel’in 28 Subat’taki Rolü,” [Demirel’s role in theFebruary 28 process], and “Tanklar Kıslaya Nasıl Döndü,” [How the tanksreturned back to their barracks], Sabah, April 1, 2005.

57. “Albright warns Turkey to guard its democracy,” New York Times, June 14,1997.

58. For the text of this poem titled “Asker Duası” [Prayer of the Soldier], 1912, seeTansel (1989), 63.

59. Fuat Keyman, “Ismail Cem ve Turkiye’nin Dispolitika Vizyonu,” Radikal,February 2, 2007.

Chapter 7

1. Cizre and Çınar (2003), 309.2. See Kösebalaban (2007a).3. Ayoob (2008), 104.4. For a comparison between the AKP and European Christian democratic

parties, see Hale (2005).5. Akdogan (2006), 50.

NOTES 209

6. For an examination of globalist perspective of Fethullah Gülen, see Kuru(2005), Also, Kösebalaban (2003).

7. In an interview to The Wall Street Journal, Gülen expressed his disapprovalof the flotilla, arguing that they should have sought the Israeli permission.See “Reclusive Turkish imam criticizes Gaza flotilla,” June 4, 2010. Gülen-supported Zaman newspaper lost a circulation of nearly 50,000 immediatelyfollowing this statement.

8. For a comparison of perspectives of various Islamic groups on globalization,see Kuru (2005).

9. Dagı (2008), 28.10. Kösebalaban (2009).11. Foreign Trade Statistics Yearbook 2008. Ankara: Turkish Statistical Institute

(TÜIK).12. “Turkish economy posts strong growth,” Wall Street Journal, June 30, 2010

“Budget Deficit drops by quarter, plunges below $40 billion in 2010,” Sunday’sZaman, Sunday’s Zaman, January 18, 2011.

13. Duran (2006).14. Foreign Policy, no. 183, December 2010.; “Davutoglu most successful Turkish

Minister, says poll,” Hürriyet Daily News, January 13, 2010.15. Bülent Aras, “Davutoglu Era in Turkish Foreign Policy,” SETA Policy Brief,

May 2009, No. 32.16. Kösebalaban (2001), Also see Walker (2007).17. Davutoglu (1994).18. Davutoglu (2001), 62.19. On the concept of “central power,” see Ahmet Davutoglu, “Turkey’s Foreign

Policy Vision: An Assessment of 2007,” Insight Turkey, 10:1, January-March2008.

20. Ahmet Davutoglu, interview on TRT, July 17, 2009.21. Davutoglu (2001), 11.22. Davutoglu, interview on TRT, July 17, 2009.23. “4 Ülke Düsman Listesinden Çıkarılıyor,” ntvmsbnc, August 23, 2010.24. Aras (2009), 10.25. Rageh Omar Report: Turkey, http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/

2010/05/201051216450683494.html, May 16, 2010 [accessed July 12, 2010].26. See Oguzlu (2008).27. See Hermann (2003).28. For an examination of the Kemalist national security syndrome, see Cizre

(2003).29. Hasan Pulur, “Türkiye’de Türkiye’yi Amerika’ya Sikayet,” Milliyet, February

10, 1999.30. Dogu Perinçek, “AB’ye Serefli Giris Ne Demek?” Aydınlık, March 10, 2002.31. “AB Hıristiyan Kulübü,” Radikal, January 14, 2001.32. “A general speaks his mind,” The Economist, March 14, 2002.33. Ali Sirmen, “Kıblesi Washington Olan Islamcılık,” Cumhuriyet, March 2,

2004.34. Ismet Berkan, “Kızıl Elma’ koalisyonu,” Radikal, August 4, 2003.

210 NOTES

35. Hasan Cemal, interview by Naki Özkan, “Selçuk Fasist Bir Rejimi Savunuyor,”Milliyet, December 4, 2005. Also see Cemal (2005).

36. “2004’de Iki Darbe Atlatmısız,” Nokta, March 29, 2007.37. “Fatih Camii Bombalanacaktı,” Taraf, January 20, 2010.38. Çetin Dogan’s daughter and son-in-law, Pınar Dogan and Dani Rodrik, pro-

fessors at Harvard University, respond to these claims in their article “HowTurkey manufactured a coup plot,” Foreign Policy, April 6, 2010. Soner Çagap-tay, from the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, alleges that theDogan investigation is perpetrated by the Gülen movement (Soner Çagap-tay, “What’s really behind Turkey’s coup arrests?,” Foreign Policy, February 25,2010).

39. Statistics obtained from the European Commission Web site: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/countries/turkey/[accessed June 24, 2010].

40. Balcı, Burns and Tongun (2002).41. Interview with Tayyip Erdogan, Independent, December 13, 2004.42. “AB’yle Muzakereler Dursa da Limanlari Rumlara Acmayiz,” Hürriyet, June

17, 2006.43. For a discussion of these points, see Kösebalaban (2007b).44. “Turkey’s warning to Europe,” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/

hardtalk/highlights/8395596.stm.45. “Gates says EU pushed Turkey away,” Wall Street Journal, June 10, 2010.46. “Turkey’s circular worries,” The Economist, September 3, 2009.47. http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3907722,00.html [accessed

December 24, 2010].48. For perspectives of other parties on this identity debate, see “Parties see no

‘Kurdish problem’ in Turkey,” Today’s Zaman, July 14, 2007.49. See Köker (2010).50. “Iste 6 maddelik Kürt açılım paketi,” Bugün, May 20, 2009.51. Selahattin Demirtas, CNN-Türk, June 10, 2010.52. Ertugrul Özkök, “Birlikte Yasamak Zorunda mıyız?,” Hürriyet, July 6, 2010.53. Aslı Aydıntasbas, “PKK Israil’in taseronu mu,” Milliyet, June 21, 2010.54. “ ‘Günah benden gitti!’ sırası Erdogan’da mı?” Milliyet, June 23, 2010.55. “Can soccer heal Turkey-Armenia rift?,” Time, September 8, 2008. For an

analysis of the impact of the historical memory on Turkish-Armenian rela-tions, see Ömer Taspınar, “Turkish-Armenian traumas,” Today’s Zaman,October 12, 2009.

56. For a translation of the decision of the Constitutional Court of the Repub-lic of Armenia, see http://www.concourt.am/english/decisions/common/pdf/850.pdf [accessed June 24, 2010].

57. “Ermenistan protokolü askıya aldı,” Radikal, April 22, 2010.58. Larrabee (2008).59. Kardas (2006).60. “America’s image slips, but allies share US concerns over Iran, Hamas:

15-nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey,” The Pew Global Attitudes Project,Washington D.C., June 13, 2006. Also see Criss (2007).

NOTES 211

61. Grigoriadis (2010).62. Richard Morgan, “What Turks are watching? A new wave of anti-American

pop culture,” Slate, June 13, 2006.63. Uçar and Turna (2004).64. Murat Yetkin, “Bush Kuran’ı Arapça Okursa,” Radikal, January 21, 2005.65. “US blames Turkey for Iraq chaos,” Los Angeles Times, March 22, 2005.66. Ömer Taspınar, “Obama’s Turkey policy: bringing credibility to ‘Strategic

Partnership’,” Insight Turkey, January-March 2009.67. Address at Princeton University, March 20, 2009.68. “Confidence in Obama lifts U.S. image around the world, most Muslim

publics not so easily moved,” Pew Global Attitudes Project, http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=264 [December 29, 2010].

69. http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/views_on_countriesregions_bt/618.php [December 29, 2010].

70. “Jewish lobby sits out vote on Armenian genocide,” Forward, March 19,2010.

71. “Ermeni Tasarısı Kabul Edildi,” Sabah, March 4, 2010. “Howard BermanKim?,” Bugün, March 5, 2010.

72. Al-Quds Al-Arabi editor Abd al-Bari Atwan claims that the Israeli lobby wasbehind the approval of the resolution. See “Jewish lobby behind U.S. Armeniagenocide vote,” Haaretz, March 6, 2010. Also see Moshe Yaroni, “We now hateTurkey, so the Armenian genocide DID happen,” Palestine Note (blog), June10, 2010, palestinenote.com [accessed June 27, 2010].

73. Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan accused the United States of staying distantfrom the death of Furkan Dogan, a U.S. citizen of Turkish descent, who waskilled in the Israeli attack by five close-range shots, four of which targetedhis head. The silence of the U.S. media in this incident was broken by RogerCohen, two months after the incident. See his “Forgotten American,” NewYork Times, July 26, 2010.

74. “Top US lawmaker: Israel ‘rightfully’ raided flotilla,” AFP, June 2, 2010.75. Robert L. Pollock, “Erdogan and the decline of the Turks,” Wall Street Jour-

nal, June 3, 2010; and “When friends fall out,” New York Times, June 1, 2010.Charles Krauthammer, “Israel, disarmed,” Washington Post, June 3, 2010. Foran examination of anti-Turkish discourse among the neoconservatives, seeStephen Walt, “Turkey and the neocons,” Foreign Policy (blog), June 15, 2010,walt.foreignpolicy.com [accessed June 16, 2010].

76. On this point, see Simon Disdall, “The Iran nuclear deal and the new premierleague of global powers,” The Guardian, May 19, 2010.

77. For the text of the agreement, see http://www.mehrnews.com/en/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=1084529 [accessed July 5, 2010].

78. For a scanned copy of the original letter sent by U.S. President Obamato Brazilian President Lula da Silva, see http://www.politicaexterna.com/archives/11023#axzz0sr0oyrKF [accessed July 5, 2010].

79. “Leaning on Lula,” Newsweek, March 19, 2010.80. Thomas L. Friedman, “As ugly as it gets,” New York Times, May 25, 2010.81. Mufti (2009), 164.

212 NOTES

82. Foreign Trade Statistics Yearbook 2008. Ankara: Turkish Statistical Institute(TÜIK).

83. “Parliament approves Akkuyu nuclear power plant deal,” Today’s Zaman, July16, 2010.

84. “Exit, pursued by a Turk. Past and present intertwine in Serbia in unexpectedways,” The Economist, July 15, 2010.

85. Kardas (2010), 116.86. Anonymous personal interview.87. Fuller (2008), 72.88. “Osmanisches comeback,” Der Spiegel, May 30, 2009. Also see Der Spiegel

interview with Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoglu, “Wir Wollen Ordnung,”Der Speigel, June 22, 2009.

89. “Turkey’s Iraq plan snubbed by Arabs,” The Times (London), January 23,2003.

90. “Sakın Iran’a Gitme!,” Milliyet, September 16, 2003.91. “US welcomes Turkish parliament’s decision to send troops to Iraq,” U.S.

Department of State, Daily Press Briefing, Tuesday, October 7, 2003.92. “Turkish leader stresses strong ties with Israel in meeting with U.S. Jews,”

http://www.theturkishtimes.com/archive/03/0103/f_ties.html [accessed Febru-ary 12, 2006].

93. DEIK, Iran Ülke Bülteni (Iran Country Report), February 2010.94. “Bush: Sharon a ‘man of peace’,” Washington Post, April 19, 2002.95. Sahin Alpay, “The complexities of Turkey’s relationship with Israel,” Today’s

Zaman, January 5, 2009.96. Rice praises Turkey’s “very helpful” efforts to end Gaza crisis, Haaretz, July 6,

2006.97. Ambassador Ross Wilson’s interview with Kanal 7, http://turkey.usembassy.gov/

amb_022806.html [accessed July 29, 2009].98. David Bedein, “Hamas looks to offset dependency on Iran,” The Philadelphia

Bulletin, May 7, 2009.99. “Altından O Çıktı,” Hürriyet, February 18, 2006.

100. Fikret Bila, “Hamas Ziyaretinin Perde Arkasi,” Milliyet, February 18, 2006.101. “Rain of Fire, Israel’s Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza,”

http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/iopt0309webwcover.pdf102. “Turkey confirms it barred Israel from military exercise because of Gaza war,”

The Guardian, October 12, 2009. Also see Saban Kardas, “Postponed mili-tary exercise tests Turkish-Israeli cooperation,” Eurasia Daily Monitor (TheJamestown Foundation), Vol. 6, No. 189, October 15, 2009.

103. “Turkish military launches joint exercise with Syria on shared border,” AP,April 27, 2009.

104. April 6, 2009.105. “No one should test Turkey’s patience, PM Erdogan warns,” Today’s Zaman,

June 2, 2010.106. For instance, while Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan strongly criticized Israel

because of Gaza attacks, the Turkish air force signed a $141 million deal with

NOTES 213

Israeli firms Israeli Aerospace Industries and Elbit to supply the Turkish airforce with space imagery intelligence systems across four years. “Elbit, IAIawarded $141m deal with Turkey,” Ynet, December 26, 2008.

107. Oguzlu (2010), 277–278.108. For examples, see Larrabee (2007).109. Black and Morris (1991), 329.110. Hersh (2004), 357.111. Seymour M. Hersh, “Plan B,” New Yorker, June 28, 2004.112. Hersh (2004), 357.113. Seymour M. Hersh, “Plan B,” New Yorker, June 28, 2004.114. Aras and Polat (2008), 499.115. “Turkish president calls for stronger ties with Iran,” The Daily Star (Lebanon),

June 19, 2002.116. Kinzer (2010), 206.117. James Brandon, “PJAK Faces Turkish-Iranian Storm,” Terrorism Monitor

(The Jamestown Foundation), Vol. 5, No. 21, November 8, 2007.118. “World leaders react cautiously to Iranian elections,” June 5, 2009, Radio Free

Europe/Radio Liberty.119. Oguzlu (2007), 93. Also see Oguzlu (2008).120. Warren Wilczewski, “The Big Gas Troika: A Lot of Hot Air,” IAGS

Journal of Energy Security, December 14, 2008, http://www.ensec.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=170:the-big-gas-troika-a-lot-of-hot-air&catid=90:energysecuritydecember08&Itemid=334.

121. For a detailed analysis of these events, see Aykan (1999).122. “Ankara Rıfat’ı dinledi ama Besar’a destek verdi,” Hürriyet, June 18, 2000.123. Fadi Hakura, interviewed by Kari Lipschutz, “Turkey’s trade with Arab

neighbours,” June 28, 2010.124. Ibid.

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Index

NOTE: Locators followed by ‘n’ indicate note numbers.

Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), 6, 13, 22,35–40, 44–5, 199n53,63

Abdülmecid (1830–1861), 29, 39Acheson, Dean, 95Adalet Partisi (AP), see Justice PartyAfghanistan, 57, 110–12, 165,

176, 183Africa, 3–4, 37, 55, 81, 96, 136–7,

149, 165Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (AKP or AK

Parti), see Justice andDevelopment Party

Agaoglu, Ahmet, 43Agrı Dag (Ararat Mountain) Revolt

(1926–1930), 56Ahmad, Feroz, 89Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 183Akçura, Yusuf, 26, 40–3Akif, Mehmed, 34, 43AKP, see Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisial-Assad, Hafez, 182, 184al-Qaeda, 183Albanians, 2, 40, 49, 55, 111, 160Alienation of the System (Düzenin

Yabancılasması) (1969), 6Alevi, 1, 48, 56, 111, 128, 162

Kurds, 1, 48, 111, 162Zaza ethnic minority, 56

Algeria, 21, 37, 80–1, 96AlgerianWar of Independence

(1954–1962), 80anarchy, 16–18, 111

Anatolia, 10–11, 28, 39–41, 45, 47,49–52, 71, 124, 127, 167, 187–8

Anavatan Partisi (ANAP), seeMotherland Party

Anglo-Egyptian dispute (1951), 80Angrist, Michele Penner, 11Ankara, 3, 31, 45, 47, 54–8, 64, 67, 76,

79–83, 88, 90, 94–6, 99, 106, 110,112–14, 117, 123–5, 129–30,133–4, 136, 138, 140, 148, 154,158–60, 164–7, 170–1, 173,175–80, 183, 185, 190

Anglo-Russian Entente (1907), 44Arab-Israeli conflict, 77–8, 88, 99, 102,

110, 181Arab-Israeli war (1967), 181Arab League, 110, 177–9Arab world, 15, 18–19, 21, 33, 37, 41,

45, 49, 53, 58, 64, 70, 73, 77–82,88, 96–104, 109–11, 129–30, 133,139, 146, 160, 175–9, 181, 185,189–90, 193–4, 211n72, 212n89

diplomacy with, 101–2, 109–11Aras, Tevfik Rüstü, 74–5, 182Armenian deportation (1915), 43Armenian genocide, 139, 168–70Armenian people, 29, 34, 36, 39, 43–5,

49, 113, 123–4, 139, 146, 154, 160,162–4, 167–70, 187, 193, 199n78,210n55–6, 211n72

Armenian Secret Army for theLiberation of Armenia(ASALA), 113

228 INDEX

Asia, 2, 37–9, 76, 78, 96, 98, 117, 120,122–3, 136, 149, 152, 162, 175,191, 201n27

assassination, 28, 44, 64, 128–9, 155,163, 167, 178

“assertive secularist,” 9Association of Turkish Industrialists

and Businessmen (TÜSIAD)(Türkiye Sanayici ve IsadamlarıDernegi), 141

Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 5, 10, 12,45–51, 53–68, 75, 84, 95, 100, 105,114, 123, 133, 187–8, 194, 200n5,202n56

“Atatürk,” 10, 57foreign policy under, 53–4

Auspicious Event (vakay-i hayriye), 28Austria, 28, 30, 36, 55, 158Aydin, Cemil, 37Azak, Umut, 9Azerbaijan, 67, 123–4, 163

Baghdad Pact, 21, 73–4, 76–82,189, 194

Balkan Pact (1934), 56, 73, 189Balkan Wars (1912–1913), 43–4Balkans, 3, 12–13, 22, 27–8, 30, 33–4,

36, 39–41, 43–4, 47–9, 54, 56–7,65–6, 68, 73, 117, 120–3, 126, 132,152, 174, 188–9, 191, 198n14,200n2, 23

Bankası, Is (Business Bank), 61, 63–5Bayar, Celal, 12, 61–2, 65, 69–70,

77–8, 126Bele, Refet, 64Belgrade, 27, 174Ben Gurion, David, 82Berkes, Niyazi, 5, 42Bey, Emin, 58Bey, Mustafa Durak, 58Black Sea Economic Cooperation

(BSEC), 123–4Boran, Behice, 75

borders, 2, 43, 47, 54, 56–9, 65, 67, 77,83, 91, 102, 108, 117, 123–5, 159,163, 185, 188, 212n103

Bosnia, 2, 27, 35–6, 49, 124–6, 132,160, 174, 191

Bosnian War (1992–1995), 124–5, 132,174, 191

Brazil, 171–2Brown, Carl, 37Bush, George W., 165–8, 177, 182

Çaglayangil, Ihsan Sabri, 100–2, 104Cairo Declaration (1964), 96Çakmak, Fevzi, 66Caliphate, 13, 26, 37–8, 68Çalis, Saban, 66Carter, Jimmy, 107–8, 112, 114Caucasus, 10, 39–40, 47–9, 117, 122,

152, 162, 165Cebesoy, Ali Fuat, 64Cem, Ismail, 135, 142–3, 191–2Cemal, Hasan, 162, 205n47CENTO, see Central Treaty

OrganizationCentral Asia, 2, 37, 117, 120, 122–3,

152, 162, 175, 190–1Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 90,

104, 112, 181Central Treaty Organization (CENTO),

12, 73, 75–6, 79, 90–1, 96, 101, 194Chatterjee, Partha, 52–3Chechens, 2, 132, 160, 172China, 118, 149, 152, 167, 175CHP (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi), see

Republican People’s PartyCHP-MSP Coalition, 105–9Çiller, Tansu, 127–32

era, 127–32and Europe, 130–2and Israel, 129–30

civil society, 4–5civilization, 2, 13, 15, 19–20, 32–3,

42–3, 50, 135, 142–3, 150–1,157–8, 187, 191–3

assimilationist view of, 42–3

INDEX 229

“civilization bridge” discourse, 142–3,191–3

“clash of civilizations” discourse, 2Close Neighbors Economic and Trade

Association Council (CNETAC),185

Cold War, 2, 11, 14, 20, 67, 69, 73, 77,85, 112, 117–22, 140, 149, 151,153, 160, 164, 189–92

see also post-Cold War identitycolonialism, 30, 32, 34–7, 41, 44, 52,

62–3, 71, 76Committee of National Unity, 6Committee of Union and Progress

(CUP), 6–7, 10–12, 16, 22, 39–40,43–4, 51, 60, 69, 199n79

Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS), 124

communism, 62, 75–6, 78, 82, 95, 100,112, 134

conservative liberalism, 1–3, 11, 13–14,18, 85, 88, 140, 148, 173, 190–3

see also True Path Party (DYP)conservatism, 1–6, 10–11, 13–15, 18,

44, 60, 67, 70–1, 85, 88, 101–2,105, 110, 118–23, 132–3, 139–40,145–8, 153–8, 161, 165, 173, 182,190–4

Constitutional Court, 141–2, 163–4constitutions, 10–11, 35, 39, 43, 84, 87,

89, 93–4, 103–4, 112Cyprus’ (1960), 84, 93–41961, 87, 89, 103–41982, 112see also Second Constitutional Era

constructivism, 16–17, 19, 197n12corporatists, 53, 60–3, 72Corrie, Rachel, 14Counter-Guerilla (Kontra-Gerilla),

111, 206n61coups, see diplomatic coups; military

coupsCrimean War (1854–1856), 30Cuba, 75, 93cultural nationalism, 26, 43, 68

Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi, see CHPCUP, see Committee of Union and

ProgressCyprus crisis (1961–1965), 91–7Cyprus question, 82–5Cyprus intervention (1974), 13, 105–9

D-8 (Developing Eight), 13, 20, 134–9,175, 191–2, 194

Danish cartoon crisis (2005), 169, 193Davison, Andrew, 53Davutoglu, Ahmet, 118, 121, 146,

150–3, 162, 169, 171, 175, 185, 193Demirel, Süleyman, 2, 7, 12, 92,

97–104, 107–11, 114–15, 118,126–7, 133, 139, 141, 189–91,193–4, 205n33, 208n56

see also True Path PartyDemocratic Left Party, 7, 145, 192democratization, 1–4, 7, 10, 19, 21,

33–4, 44, 53, 60, 63, 67, 69–73, 80,87, 89, 91–2, 97, 104, 107, 115,117–22, 126–7, 129, 131–2, 139,145–8, 155–7, 161–2, 171–2, 176,178, 181–2, 189, 192

see also electionsDemokrat Parti (DP), 6–8, 12, 69–74,

80, 83, 85, 87–9, 91–2, 103,118–19, 139, 145, 189

Deringil, Selim, 39, 66diplomatic coup, 171Dulles, John Foster, 78–9Düzenin Yabancılasması (Alienation of

the System) (1969), 6

earthquake of 1999, 142Eastern Independence Tribunal (Sark

Istiklal Mahkemeleri), 59Eastern Question, 28, 37Ecevit, Bülent, 4, 6–7, 87, 92, 97, 99,

103–11, 118, 126, 140, 142, 145,192, 194

Economic Cooperation Organization(ECO), 96, 123–4, 191, 194

Edelman, Eric, 165, 175

230 INDEX

Edict of Reforms (Islahat Fermanı)(1856), 30

Education Regulation (1869), 32educational system, 27, 30–3, 37, 39,

41–2, 61, 70–1, 87, 112, 117, 138,140, 156, 161

Turkish Board of Higher EducationEgypt, 28, 34, 36–7, 78–82, 97,

102, 109–10, 136–7, 170,203n37

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 75–6, 79–80,82, 90–1, 97

elections, 2–3, 10–14, 43–4, 60, 65, 67,69–70, 72, 76, 85, 87–9, 91–2,97–8, 103–5, 107–8, 118, 120,125–7, 130, 132–4, 140–2, 145,148, 150, 159, 166, 168–9, 175–6,178, 183, 191–2

1908, 43–41911, 111912, 441946, 69–701950, 12–13, 70, 721954, 12, 701957, 12, 70post-1960, 871961, 88, 911964, 97–81965, 88, 971969, 97–81973, 98, 104–51977, 107, 1201979, 1081983, 1181989, 1301991, 126–7, 1331994, 1301995, 3, 13, 133–4, 140, 1911998, 1321999, 1922001, 1452002, 3, 145, 150, 1762003, 1412007, 145, 1482008 (U.S.), 166, 168–9

2009, 14, 159, 1832011, 145

Entente Cordiale (1904), 44Enver, Ismail, 45EOKA, see Ethnikí Orgánosis

Kipriakoú Agónos (NationalOrganisation of Cypriot Struggle)

Erbakan, Necmettin, 12–15, 105–7,118, 126, 133–41, 150, 154, 175,191–2, 194

Erdogan, Recep Tayyip, 3, 7, 14, 87,126, 130, 134, 140–1, 149, 157–8,160, 162, 166, 168, 174–5, 177–80,184–5, 194

“Ergenekon,” 155Erim, Nihat, 103–4Ersoy, Mehmed Akif, 43ethnic groups, see Albanians; Bosnians;

Chechens; Kurdsethnic identity, 29, 41–6, 160–1ethnic independence, 33–4ethnic nationalism, 1, 15–16, 26,

29–30, 41–6, 188Ethnikí Orgánosis Kipriakoú Agónos

(National Organisation of CypriotStruggle) (EOKA), 83–4, 94–6, 106

Eurasia, 67European Commission (EC), 20,

122, 132European Economic Community

(EEC), 73, 96, 107, 114, 190European Union (EU) membership,

148, 153–64Evren, Kenan, 111–14, 206n66external “others,” 18–19

Faisal of Saudi Arabia, 102fascism, 4, 12, 53–6, 60–1, 65,

154–5, 189February 28 process, 3, 13, 20, 118, 126,

136–42, 145, 147, 176–7, 208n56and “balance adjustment,” 139–42

Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi) (SP),8, 14

INDEX 231

foreign policy (Turkish)assertive (1965–1971), 97–102and domestic politics, 1–2, 187identity actors and major

decisions, 20and ideological perspectives, 4–16and isolationism (1923–1950), 47–68liberal reorientation of (1950–1960),

69–85and military interventions

(1960–1980), 87–115militarization of, 129–30perspectives of social and political

groups, 18and post-Cold War identity, 117–43theory, 1–4

France, 9–11, 21–2, 25, 28, 30–1, 37,44–5, 56, 58, 65–6, 68, 76, 80–1,158, 163, 171

Franco-Russian Alliance (1894), 44Free Republican Party (Serbest

Cumhuriyet Fırkası) (SCF), 65Friedman, Thomas, 172

Gaddafi, Muammar, 110, 136Galatasaray, Lycée de (Mekteb-i

Sultani), 31–2gas pipelines, 173–4, 183–4Gaza flotilla incident, (2010) 162,

170–1Gelvin, James L., 26–7genocide, 139, 162–4, 168–80, 199n78Gerede, Hüsrev, 66Gerges, Fawaz, 112German unification (1871), 44Germany, 11, 22, 37–8, 44–5, 52–3, 55,

57–8, 60–1, 65–7, 72, 74, 105, 158,167, 169, 183, 188–9, 202n11

globalization, 6, 14, 119, 131, 133,145–186, 191, 209n8

and AKP Foreign Policy, 150–3and Armenia, 162–4and Bush, 166–8and EU membership, 153–64ideological transformation, 146–50

and Iran, 181–6and the Kurds, 160–2and Middle East, 174–86and Obama, 168–72and Russia, 172–4and Syria, 181–6and U.S., 164–72

Gökalp, Ziya, 26–7, 40–3, 49, 141, 188Great Britain, 10–11, 22, 25, 28, 30, 34,

37–8, 44–5, 56–9, 65–6, 68–9, 78,80, 84, 106, 189, 201n25

Great Depression (1929), 60, 64Greece, 3, 10, 18, 20, 22, 27–9, 34,

45–7, 49, 54–6, 81–5, 94–6, 98,106, 114, 122, 124, 126, 130, 132,142, 152, 158–9, 167, 190, 192–3

as “other,” 18Turkish-Greek population, 47

Greek Cypriots, 81, 83, 94–6, 130, 132,158–9, 193

Greek Orthodox, 29, 46Greek revolution 1821, 28Grivas, Georgio, 83, 96, 106Gromyko, Andrei, 100Guarantee, treaty of (1960), 84–5, 94Gül, Abdullah, 14, 126, 140, 148, 150,

163, 167, 169, 178, 185Gülen movement, 15, 148Gulf War (1991), 120, 123, 125, 129,

160, 191Gürler, Faruk, 103–4

Haliç conference (1924), 59Halkevleri, see People’s HousesHalkın Sesi Partisi (HAS Parti), 14Hamas, 4, 166, 169, 178, 180, 210n60,

212n98Hanioglu, M. Sükrü, 27, 40HAS Parti, see Halkın Sesi PartisiHatay, 48, 54, 58–9, 68, 161, 184, 188,

201n30Hatt-ı Hümayûn of Gülhane, 29Helsinki Summit (1999), 132, 142HIF, see Hürriyet ve Itilaf Fırkasıhighly enriched uranium (HEU), 171

232 INDEX

Hikmet, Nazım, 72Hitler, Adolf, 58, 202n11Hobbesian culture of anarchy, 16–19Hudson, Valerie, 17Hünkar Iskelesi (1833), 28Huntington, Samuel, 2, 5Hürriyet ve Itilaf Fırkası (HIF), see

Liberal UnionHussein, Saddam, 123, 125, 172Hussein of Jordan, 102

identity discourse, see Ottomanidentity discourses

identity groups (Turkish), 8, 16–23, 187cold-shouldering others, 19four major, 8limitations, 19and identity actors, 20mapping security perceptions of,

16–19and others, 19strongly opposing others, 19strongly supporting others, 19see also subnational identities

ideological perspectives (Turkish),4–16, 146–50

parties, see left wing parties; rightwing parties

present and historical outlooks, 9spectrum of, 7and transformation, 146–50see also pro-Islamic liberalism;

pro-Islamic nationalism; secularistliberalism; secularist nationalism

ideological spectrum (Küçükömer)(1969), 7

Inan, Afet, 50India, 34, 37–8, 78, 152infrastructure, 37–8, 44, 71–2, 88Inönü, Ismet (1925–1937), 48, 52, 55,

58, 60–3, 65–7, 70, 75, 77, 88,90–7, 102–4, 123, 127, 189

final years in power, 91–7integrationism, 9, 12, 18, 72, 133, 147,

192, 194

intellectuals, 31–6, 40–2, 37, 60, 62–3,89, 102–3, 128, 143, 153–5, 159,167, 188, 190, 202n11

International Monetary Fund (IMF),142

international relations, 16–18see also anarchy; constructivism;

statismIran, 13, 18, 20, 22, 56–7, 67, 77–9,

81–2, 90, 108, 110–12, 130,136–40, 146, 152, 154, 166,169–72, 175–8, 181–5, 191, 193

Iran-Iraq War (1988), 125, 129–30Iranian Kurdish (Partiya Jiyana Azad a

Kurdistane: Party for a Free Life inKurdistan) (PJAK), 183

Iranian Revolution (1979), 79, 111,138, 203n37

Iraq, 2, 45, 57, 59, 68, 77–9, 81–2, 97,109–10, 113, 120–1, 123, 125,128–30, 136, 139, 152, 159–60,164–8, 172, 174–7, 180–5, 193,203n37

see also Iran-Iraq WarIraq War (2003), 164–6, 168, 174, 177,

181–2, 185Iraqi Kurds, 2, 121, 125, 166, 177,

180–1, 185Islamic identity, 8, 13, 138, 153Islamic liberalism, 7–8, 14–15, 18, 20,

131Islamic modernism, 42–3Islamic movements, 2, 13, 15, 110, 133,

148, 156, 190see also Refah Partisi

Islamic nationalism, 7–8, 13–15, 18, 20Islamism, 1, 3, 7–8, 13–20, 25–6, 32,

34–43, 50, 88, 110–13, 121, 131,133, 137–8, 140, 147–8, 152–3,156, 187, 190

conservative, 1, 3discourse of, 7isolationist, 147

Islamists, 13, 35, 39, 43, 128, 131, 137,148, 153, 156–7, 168

INDEX 233

Islamization, 3, 10, 42, 50, 112–13, 133isolationism (1923–1950), 47–68Israel, 4, 13–16, 18, 20, 22, 76–82, 88,

99, 101–2, 104, 110, 113, 118,129–30, 134–5, 137–9, 146, 149,162, 164–6, 170–1, 175–81, 183–5,190–4, 203n37, 208n52, 53, 209n7,211n72–5, 212n102, 106

alliance with Turkey, 137–9Arab-Israeli conflict, 77–8, 88, 99,

102, 110, 181and Middle East relations, 76–82as a victim of AKP’s “Islamist”

agenda, 176–81Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 16, 101,

113, 166, 176, 190, 194Istanbul, 3, 11, 14, 27–8, 31–2, 38,

44–5, 47, 84, 97–8, 104, 118,123–4, 129–30, 133–4, 136, 140–1,143, 148, 150–1, 156, 167, 200n7

Istanbul Lisesi, 150Istanbul Second Administrative Court,

200n7Istanbul Strait, 98, 150–1Istanbul Summit Declaration (1992),

124Istanbul Technical University, 118Italian expansionism, 54–6Italy, 45, 47, 54–7, 61, 66–8, 111, 167,

179, 194–5Izmir Economics Congress, 63–4

Janissary corps, 27–8, 31Japan, 37–8, 44–5, 55, 73–4, 76, 173Jassy (Yas), treaty of (1792), 28Johnson, Lyndon B., 88, 94–6, 99, 190Jordan, 78–9, 97, 102, 175, 185Just Order (Adil Düzen), 13Justice and Development Party (Adalet

ve Kalkınma Partisi) (AKP or AKParti), 3–4, 6–8, 14–16, 20, 87–8,118, 126–7, 142, 145–66, 168,172–8, 180, 182–4, 186, 192–5,203n12, 208n4

era, 192–5

foreign policy, 150–3EU membership, 153–64

Justice Party (Adalet Partisi) (AP), 6–8,12, 87–8, 91–2, 97–8, 102, 107–8,110, 190

Kadri, Yakup, 42, 61–2Kadro magazine, 61–2Kadro Movement, 61–4Kantian culture of anarchy, 16–19Karabekir, Kazım, 64, 202n56Karakaya Dam (1976), 98Karaosmanoglu, Yakup Kadri, 42, 62Karkuk-Yumurtalık oil pipeline, 110Karpat, Kemal, 30, 50, 202n3Kars, treaty of (1921), 163Keban hydroelectric dam (1966), 98Kemal, Ismail, 40Kemal, Namık, 32–4Kemalism, 1–2, 4–10, 12, 16, 19, 36, 39,

43, 47–68defined, 52–3Hatay and Mosul Questions, 58–9identity and contradictions, 48, 53and Inönü Period, 65–8and the Kadro movement, 62–4and Kurds, 56–7liberal challenge to, 64–5and nation-building, 47objectives of, 50post-1950, 2and rival ideological groups, 60–5and secularism, 52Statist-Solidarist, 60–2and the West, 52–3World War II, 65–8

Kennedy, John F., 93Köprülü, Fuad, 69, 77, 79, 83Korean War (1950–1953), 74–5Kosygin, Alexei, 100Küçük, Fazıl, 94Küçük Kaynarca, treaty of (1774), 27Küçükömer, Idris, 6–7

234 INDEX

Kurdish nationalist Peace andDemocracy Party (Barıs veDemokrasi Partisi) (BDP), 161

Kurdish Workers Party (PartiyaKarkeren Kurdistan) (PKK),124–5, 128–30, 152, 161–2, 166,177–8, 181–5, 192

Kurdistan, 167, 181, 187Kurds, 1–2, 12, 15–16, 36, 40–1, 45,

48–9, 51, 53–4, 56–9, 64–5, 67–8,81, 104, 111, 119–21, 125, 127–30,134, 137, 139, 146, 151, 154,160–2, 166–7, 172, 177, 180–5,188, 191, 200n5

Alevi Kurds, 1, 111ethnic nationalism, 1, 15–16, 161Kurdish question, 2, 56–7, 160–2Kurdish revolts, 1, 53–4, 56–8, 64,

67–8, 125, 127, 188and Marxism, 104, 111, 119–21reality, 127refugees, 125, 191see also Kurdish Workers Party

Kurtulmus, Numan, 14Kuru, Ahmet, 9

Latin America, 3–4, 149, 165Lausanne, treaty of (1923), 45–6, 51,

55–6, 58, 64, 68, 188, 201n25Law for the Maintenance of Order

(1925), 59League of Nations, 45, 54–5, 58–9Lebanon, 37, 78, 110, 113, 125, 130,

175, 183, 185, 199n54left wing parties, 4, 6–7

pre-1969, see Demokrat Parti; JusticeParty; Liberal Party; LiberalUnion; Progressive Party

post-1969, see MotherlandParty;Welfare Party; Justice andDevelopment Party

Lerner, Daniel, 5Lewis, Bernard, 32, 197n13liberal globalism, 4, 7–8, 146, 153, 155

liberal reorientation (of Turkish foreignpolicy) (1950–1960), 69–85

and Greece, 82–5and integrationist foreign policy,

72–85and Middle East, 76–82transition to, 70–2and U.S. and NATO, 74–6

liberal secularism, 20, 187Liberal Union (Hürriyet ve Itilaf

Fırkası) (HIF), 6–7, 11, 44liberalism, 1, 4, 8, 15, 19–20, 25–34, 53,

60, 63–6, 69–85, 87, 120, 142, 146,174, 189, 194

see also conservative liberalism;Islamic liberalism; secularistliberalism

List, Friedrich, 60Lockean culture of anarchy, 16–19low enriched uranium (LEU), 171

Mahmud II (1808–1839), 27–9, 31Makarios III, 83, 94–6, 106Mardin, Serif, 5, 34Marxism, 53, 62–4, 104, 111Mecca, 5, 119medical schools, 31–2Menderes, Adnan, 6–7, 12, 69–85,

88–91, 97–8, 100–1, 120, 139, 147,189, 193–4, 204n5

Menemencioglu, Numan, 62, 66methodology

chapter organization, xiv–xviconceptual and theoretical outline,

1–23interpretivist, 23limitations of, 19–23

MHP, see Milliyetçi Hareket Partisimilitary coups (Turkish)

of Janissaries, 281909 31March Incident, 441913 Bâb-ı Âli baskını, 11, 441950 election, “White

Revolution,” 701960, see 1960 military coup

INDEX 235

1974 Soviet-backed, 2031980, 12, 87, 92, 108, 110–14, 119,

126, 133–4, 139, 149, 155, 190other, see military coups (other)“soft” coup, see February 28 process2004 (attempt), 155Young Turk, 35

military coups (other)1952 (Egypt), 781958 (Iraq), 79–811967 (Greece), 981974 (Greece), 1061975 (Syria), 781979 Iranian Revolution, 203n37

military interventions (1960–1980),87–115

and Arab world, 101–2, 109–111and assertive foreign policy

(1965–1971), 97–102Cyprus crisis: 1961–1965, 91–71960 coup, 88–91in the 1970s, 104–11in 1971, 102–4in 1980, 111–15and Soviet Union, 100–1and the U.S., 99–100

military schools, 31–2millet system, 29, 50Milli Görüs (National Outlook

movement), 13–14see also Felicity Party

Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi (MHP)(Nationalist Movement Party), 15,92, 107, 110, 126, 163

Misak-ı Milli (the National Pact), 45,47, 49, 54, 58–9, 188

modernization, 5, 11, 13, 25–32, 35,37–42, 46, 48, 53, 57, 63, 71, 109,153–64, 187–8, 197n8

“defensive,” 26–7, 187and EU membership, 153–64

Moldavia, 27, 123–4Mosul, 45, 47–8, 54, 58–9, 68Montreux Convention (1936), 56, 67

Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi)(ANAP), 6–8, 87, 118–19,126–7, 133

MSP, see National Salvation PartyMuslimness, 36, 43, 48Muslim

anti-, 159–60, 190in Balkans, 200n2Bosnian, 132–3, 174and colonization, 36–7communalism, 10conservative movement, 105, 145–8,

154, 156, 182and Greece, 10, 45identity, 10, 157, 191intellectuals, 32, 34–5and Islam, 8, 35, 120leaders, 3, 147majority, 11, 46–9, 135–6Middle East, 77, 79, 138and millets, 29and minority status, 46, 50–1, 160and modernity, 5nations, 80, 102, 113, 169, 175,

191–4non-Arab, 77, 80–1Ottoman, 34, 39, 42, 46, 49–50population, 41, 49reformists, 32–3and secularism, 9and Soviet Union, 120, 123, 164students, 30–1as “Turks,” 46, 50unity of, see unity of Muslimsand the West, 25–6world, 18, 25–6, 35–7, 80, 96, 102,

124, 137, 140, 169,175–6

Mussolini, Benito, 55, 61

Nabucco, 173, 183–4Nakshibendi Sufi order, 120Nasser, Abdel, 78, 80national identity, 2, 10, 16, 19, 23, 25,

32, 42–3, 121, 187–8, 191

236 INDEX

National Outlook movement, see MilliGörüs

National Pact, see Misak-ı Milli

National Salvation Party (MSP), 8, 92,105, 107, 120

nationalism, 8, 25–6, 29, 39–53, 68, 88,91, 117, 121, 141, 155, 159–61,188–9, 194

Akçura, 41–3

cultural, see cultural nationalism

ethnic, see ethnic nationalism

and Gökalp, 41–3

triumph of, 43–6

and unity, 40

see also Islamic nationalism;secularist nationalism

Nationalist Movement Party, seeMilliyetçi Hareket Partisi

National Security Council (MGK), 96,104, 112, 138, 140, 142, 154,

nationality, 41, 45–6

natural gas, 173–4, 183–4

Nazi Germany, 52, 60, 72, 188

New Turkey Party, 91

The New York Times, 57, 172

Nicosia treaties (1960), 84

Nigeria, 136–7, 191

1980 military coup, 12, 87, 92, 108,110–14, 119, 126, 133–4, 139, 149,155, 190

1960 military coup, 2, 4, 12, 63, 76,87–92, 100, 103–4, 126, 139, 189

non-Muslim minorities, 4, 10–11, 26,30–4, 37–9, 46–7, 51–2, 200n7

North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO), 21, 73–6, 80–2, 89–91,95, 99, 101–2, 105–7, 111, 114,137, 152, 169, 179, 189–90, 193–4,206n61

nuclear competition, 180, 183

nuclear energy, 173–4, 183

nuclear standoff (Iranian), 170–1

Nursi, Said, 34

Obama, Barack, 159, 162, 164–6,168–72, 180, 194–5

Öcalan, Abdullah, 161, 181, 184, 192OIC, see Organization of the Islamic

Conferenceoil, 59, 109–10, 122–3, 133, 139, 149,

173, 182Okyar, Ali Fethi, 65Önis, by Ziya, 7, 131“open ballot – secret tally” principle,

69–70opium, 99–100, 104, 106, 190Orbay, Rauf, 64Organization of the Islamic Conference

(OIC), 12, 21,113, 143, 175–6, 194Organization of the Petroleum

Exporting Countries (OPEC),109–10

Orthodox Christians, 10, 27, 39“others,” 16–19Ottoman Empire, 1, 6, 9–11, 13, 22–3,

25–40, 47–51, 55, 58, 64, 67, 72,74, 78, 88, 118, 121, 130, 135–6,153–5, 162–3, 173, 175, 187–9,191, 197n13, 198n21,24,27,199n78, 200n2

Caliphate, 26CUP, see Committee of Union and

Progressdecline of, 9, 13, 25–38, 187; see also

Tanzimat reformsideology, 6identity discourses, 26–40; see also

Islamism; nationalism;Ottomanism

Islamism, 26Liberal Union, see Liberal

Unionand patriotism, 26–34

Ottoman fatherland, 33Ottoman Islamism, 26Ottoman liberal intellectuals, 11Ottoman Parliament (1908–1912), 11Ottomanism, 25–34, 118

INDEX 237

Özal, Turgut (1983–1993), 2–3, 7, 12,87, 98, 114–15, 118–28, 130, 133,135, 139, 145–8, 153, 156, 160,191–4

and democratic transformation,118–20

liberal foreign policy vision of, 120–7Öztorun, Necdet, 119

Pact of Friendship, Neutrality,Conciliation and JudicialSettlement (1930), 55

Pakistan, 77–8, 113, 136–7, 170, 191Palestine, 4, 16, 45, 101–5, 110, 113,

166, 176, 178–80, 183, 190, 194Palestinian Liberation Organization

(PLO), 104, 110pan-Islamism, see unity of Muslimspan-Turkism, 41–2Paris, treaty of (1856), 30, 34Parla, Taha, 53Pasa, Ibrahim, 28Pasa, Mahmud Sevket, 44Pasa, Osman, 38Pasa, Ziya, 32Pasha, Enver, 45Pasha, Fuad, 31, 44Pasha, Kamil, 44Pasha, Mehmed Ali, 28“passive secularism,” 9Peker, Recep, 51, 60–3People’s Houses

(Halkevleri/Halkodaları), 61, 70–1Pittard, Eugène, 51PKK, see Kurdish Workers PartyPolatkan, Hasan, 89political parties, 4–16post-Cold War identity (and Turkish

foreign policy), 117–43, 190–2alliance with Israel, 129–30democratic transformation, 118–20end of civilian control, 127–32and ethnic groups, see ethnic groupsEuropean integration, 130–2and February 28 process, 139–42

liberal and multidimensional visionof, 120–7

Islamic leadership role, 134–9D-8 Project, 134–9quest for, 190–2and triple coalition period, 142–3and Welfare Party, 132–9

Progressive Republican Party (TCF)(Terakkiperver CumhuriyetFırkası), 64

Prussia, 28, 30

racism, 4, 50–2, 188Rasmussen, Anders Fogh, 169, 193Refah Partisi (RP), see Welfare PartyRepublic of Hatay, 58Republic of Turkey, 18, 26, 29, 45–6,

47, 59, 61, 188Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet

Halk Partisi) (CHP), 4–8, 10–12,15, 21, 51–2, 60–1, 63–7, 69–77,82, 85, 87–8, 91–2, 95, 97–8, 100,102–9, 126, 134, 142, 145, 155,162–3, 168, 178, 188–9, 201n36

and authoritarianism, 4–5military-bureaucratic establishment,

4–5Rice, Condoleezza, 165, 178Richardson, Eliot, 99–100right wing parties, 7

pre-1969, see The RepublicanPeople’s Party (CHP)

post-1969, see Social DemocraticPeople’s Party; Democratic LeftParty; Motherland Party

Rogers, Bernard W., 114Rumsfeld, Donald, 165, 167Rusk, Dean, 94–5Russia, 172–4Russian expansionism, 11, 25, 30, 37, 77Russo-Japanese War (1905), 38Russo-Turkish wars

1768–1774, 271787–1792, 271877–1878, 36

238 INDEX

Saadet Partisi (SP), see Felicity PartySabahaddin, Prince, 7, 11Saudi Arabia, 97, 102, 175Second Constitutional Era

(1908–1918), 10–11, 39, 43Sadabad Pact (1937), 56–7SALT II arms agreement, 108Saraçoglu, Sükrü (1942–1946), 52,

62, 66SCF (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası), see

Free Republican PartySecond National Front coalition,

107, 109secularism, 1, 4–13, 15–16, 18–20, 23,

29–30, 42–3, 46, 47–50, 52, 54, 56,60–71, 89, 102–7, 112, 119–20,125, 128, 130, 133–9, 145–6, 149,153–4, 157, 168, 175–6, 182,187–95

see also secularist liberalism;secularist nationalism

secularist liberalism, 4, 7–9, 11–13secularist nationalism, 7–10, 15–16,

18–20, 189see also Kemalism

security perceptions (of identitygroups), 16–19

Selim I, 36Selim III (1789–1807), 27–8, 197n7September 11, 2001, 164–5, 171, 174Serbia, 27–8, 30, 36, 126, 174, 193,

212n84Serbian revolt of 1804, 30Sèvres, treaty of (1920), 9–10, 45, 48,

53, 125, 151, 154, 167, 187–8Sezer, Ahmet Necdet, 142, 168,

182, 184Sheikh Said Revolt (1925), 56, 59,

64, 68Shiite, 182Sinasi, Ibrahim, 32Social Democratic People’s Party,

7, 127Social Theory of International Relations

(Wendt), 16

socialism, 4, 6, 12, 52, 60–6, 72–3,96–7, 100–4, 110, 112, 122, 132,153–5, 190, 204n1

Society for Turkish Cyprus (KıbrısTürktür Cemiyeti) (KTC), 83

“soft” coup, see February 28 processSouth Korea, 73, 76, 149Southeastern Anatolian Project

(Güneydogu Anadolu Projesi)(GAP), 98, 130

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO), 76, 78

Soviet Union, 5, 12, 15, 18, 22, 54, 57,60, 63, 65–7, 69, 72–80, 82, 85, 88,90–1, 93, 95, 97–101, 108–12, 117,120, 122–4, 163–5, 173, 188–91,203n37

State Hydraulic Works Department(DSI), 97

State Planning Organization(Devlet Planlama Teskilatı)(DPT), 118

statism, 16–17, 60–3, 65, 73, 147Stratejik Derinlik (Strategic Depth)

(Davutoglu), 150structural realism, 16Sublime Porte raid (Bâb-ı Âli baskını)

(1913), 44subnational identities, 17, 19Sudan, 81Suez crisis (1956), 77, 80–2Sunay, Cevdet, 100–2Sunni, 1, 111–12, 128, 178, 182Sufi orders, 13–14, 120Syria, 20, 28, 45, 54, 58–9, 78,

81–2, 97–8, 102, 109, 113, 124–5,129–30, 139, 159, 166, 169,175–82, 184–5, 192–3,201n30,103

tablescontending post–Cold War foreign

policy orientations, the 1990s, 135foreign policy perspectives of Turkish

social and political groups, 18

INDEX 239

identity actors and major decisionsin Turkish foreign policy: anoverview, 20–2

mapping foreign policy perspectivesof Turkish social and politicalgroups, 18

post-1980 Turkish governments, 126three perceptions of the others, 16turbulent years of Turkish politics:

prime ministers andgovernments, 92

Tachau, Frank, 50Tanpinar, Ahmet Hamdi, 32Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876), 6, 11,

22, 26, 29–32, 34–7, 39, 51, 121,198n21

and intellectuals, 31–2and military and medical schools,

31–2taxation, 51–2TCF (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet

Fırkası), see ProgressiveRepublican Party

Temo, Ibrahim, 40terrorism, 83, 104, 108–11, 113, 124,

128, 152, 162, 165–6, 174, 178,180, 183

31 March Incident (1909), 44three currents (Üç Cereyan), 42three Ottoman identity discourses,

26–40three perceptions of the others, 16three ways of politics (üç tarz-ı

siyaset), 26Time magazine, 58, 71treaties, see Guarantee; Hünkar Iskelesi;

Jassy; Kars; Küçük Kaynarca;Lausanne; Nicosia; Sèvres

triple coalition period, 142–3TRT al-Turkiyya (Arabic channel), 84,

160–1, 179True Path Party (DYP), 127, 133,

140–1Türkes Alpaslan, 105Turkes, Mustafa, 62

Turkey: A Modern History (Zürcher), 71Turkey-Iraq Friendship (1926), 59Turkic world, 2, 5, 18, 41–2, 66, 122,

124, 160, 163Turkish

foreign policy, see foreign policyidentity groups, see identity groupsideological perspectives, see

ideological perspectivesnationalism, see nationalism

Turkish Board of Higher Education(Yüksek Öˇgretim Kurumu)(YÖK), 161

Turkish Federative State of NorthernCyprus (1975), 106

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus(1983), 106

Turkish-Greek population exchangeagreement, 10, 47

Turkish History Thesis, 50–1Turkish-Iranian border agreement

(1932), 56–7Turkish Labor Party, 95Turkish National Assembly, 58Turkish national identity, 2, 32, 187,

191Turkish nationalism, see nationalismTurkish Peace-Lovers’ Association

(Türk Barısseverler Cemiyeti), 75Turkish Republics, 10, 32, 43, 45, 47,

57, 106, 158Turkish Union of Chambers and

Commodity Exchanges (TürkiyeOdalar ve Borsalar Birligi)(TOBB), 105

Turkism, 25–6, 32, 40–6see also nationalism

“Turks,” 46, 50

ul-Haq, Zia, 113Union and Progress party, see

Committee of Union and ProgressUnited Nations, 75, 81, 96, 101–2, 113,

137, 170–1, 176, 179, 193

240 INDEX

United Statesnormalization with, 99–100in post-Cold War era,

164–72and Turkish liberalism,

74–6unity of Muslims (ittihad-ı Islam), 13,

26, 34–42

Valley of the Wolves: Iraq(film), 167

VanderLippe, John M., 66–7Vatan, 69Venizelos, Eleftherios, 54–5Venizelos, Sofoklis, 83Vietnam War, 88, 99Village Institutes (Köy

Enstitüleri), 71von Papen, Franz, 66–7

Wallachia, 27War of National Independence, 47–9,

52–3, 67, 69, 188War of National Liberation,

45, 64Weldes, Jutta, 17Welfare Party (Refah Partisi)

(RP), 3, 6–8, 12–13, 126–7, 130,132–9, 141

Wells Fargo, 109Wendt, Alexander, 16–17, 19

the Westand Kemalism, 52–3“West versus Islam” dichotomy,

14–15see also colonialism; Westernization

West Germany, 74Westernization, 5–6, 10, 23, 26–7,

31–2, 34, 40, 43, 48, 50, 148, 150,153, 187–8

“White Revolution” (Beyaz Ihtilal)(1950), 70

World Bank, 118, 142World War I, 10, 30, 43–5, 47, 49, 53,

187, 199n78World War II, 4, 22, 51, 57, 62, 65–9,

72, 74, 76, 188

Yalman, Ahmet Emin, 65Yalta Summit (1998), 124YÖK (Yüksek Öˇgretim Kurumu), see

Turkish Board of HigherEducation

Yön movement, 63, 96Young Ottoman movement, 32–5, 39,

187“Young Turk era,” 71Young Turk revolution, 31, 35–6, 40,

71, 198n45Yugoslavia, 2, 55–6

Zorlu, Fatin Rü 69, 78, 83–4, 88–90Zürche, Erik, 49, 71