182

Notes

Introduction

1 . Vladimir Nabokov (1977) ‘A Definition of Poshlost’ ’, in Eugene K. Bristow (trans. & ed.), Anton Chekhov’s Plays (New York: W. W. Norton & Co.), 322. See also Anna Wierzbicka’s discussion of poshlost’ in Wierzbicka (1997) Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German and Japanese (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 2–5.

2 . Teixeira de Pascoaes and António Sérgio, ‘A polémica com António Sérgio’, a series of eight letters first published in A Águia between October 1913 (vol. 5, 2nd series, no. 22) and July 1914 (vol. 6, 2nd series, no. 31) and reprinted in an anthology of Pascoaes’ writings on the theme of saudade : Pascoaes (1988) in Pinharanda Gomes (ed.), A Saudade e o Saudosismo (dispersos e opúsculos) (Lisbon: Assírio & Alvim), 97–154.

3 . Milan Kundera (1980) The Book of Laughter and Forgetting , trans. M. H. Heim (Harmondsworth: Penguin). The novel was written in Czech in 1978 (as Kniha smíchu a zapomnění ), but first published in France in 1979 (as Le Livre du rire et de l’oubli ). The English version consulted here is Heim’s 1980 translation from the original Czech manuscript into English. The Czech version was published in 1981.

4 . Orhan Pamuk (2005) Istanbul: Memories and the City , trans. M. Freely (London: Faber & Faber). Originally published in 2003 as İstanbul: Hatıralar ve Şehir (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları).

1 Emotions into History

1 . Walter Benjamin (1992) ‘The Task of the Translator’, in Illuminations , trans. H. Zohn (London: Fontana Press) [1923].

2 . Anna Wierzbicka (1997) Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German and Japanese (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 5.

3 . Dale Pesmen (2000) Russia and Soul: An Exploration (Ithaca: Cornell University Press). See also Anna Wierzbicka (1992) Semantics, Culture, and Cognition: Universal Human Concepts in Culture-Specific Configurations (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 48–59. The word dusha and its cognates derive from proto-Slavic, lending fuel to the related – and much politicised – notion of the ‘Slavic Soul’.

4 . Pesmen, Russia and Soul , 16. 5 . Ibid., passim. 6 . Georg W. F. Hegel (1997) Phenomenology of Spirit , trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford:

Oxford University Press) [1807], 70 (chap. II, sec. 116) and 104–5 (chap. IV, sec. 167).

7 . Johann Gottfried Herder (2004) ‘On the Characters of Nations and Ages’ in Another Philosophy of History and Selected Political Writings , trans. I. D. Evrigenis and D. Pellerin (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co.) [1766], 118–9.

Notes 183

8 . Anna Wierzbicka (1994) ‘Emotion, Language, and Cultural Scripts’, in Emotion and Culture: Empirical Studies of Mutual Influence , eds Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Rose Markus (eds) (Washington: American Psychological Association), 139.

9 . Ibid., 139. See also Jean Starobinski (1966) ‘The Idea of Nostalgia’, Diogenes , vol. 14 (18), 81–2.

10 . The word hüzün is sometimes used in a clinical sense to describe apathetic depression, for example, post-partum hüzün . Saudade is also used, albeit less commonly, as a symptomatic term.

11 . Ana Maria Galdini Raimundo Oda (2008) ‘Escravidão e nostalgia no Brasil: o banzo’, Revista Latinoamericana de Psicopatologia Fundamental , vol. 11 (4), 737–8.

12 . Rubim de Pinho (2003) ‘A psiquiatria transcultural no Brasil: Rubim de Pinho e as “psicoses” da cultura nacional’, Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria , vol. 25 (1), 61; Joseph Calder Miller (1988) Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press), 424–5. For a concise summary of various hypotheses on banzo (including psychopathological, suicidological, sociological, psychological/psychoanalytical ones), see Hannes Stubbe and Chirly Dos Santos-Stubbe (1990) ‘Banzo – eine afrobrasilianische Nostalgie?’, Curare , vol. 13, 123–32.

13 . Luís Antônio de Oliveira Mendes (2007) ‘Mémoria a respeito dos escravos e tráfico da escravatura entre a costa d’Africa e o Brasil’ was presented to the Real Academia das Ciências de Lisboa in 1793, but was not published until 1812. Selected extracts in Revista Latinoamericana de Psicopatologia Fundamental , vol. 10 (2), 362–76.

14 . Valente, Luiz Fernando (2001) ‘Brazilian Literature and Citizenship: From Euclides da Cunha to Marcos Dias’, Luso-Brazilian Review , vol. 38 (2), 18, 21.

15 . From the French chagrin . David Vine (2009) Island of Shame : The Secret History of the U.S. Military Base on Diego Garcia (NJ: Princeton University Press), chap. 10.

16 . See James O. Breeden (1976) ‘States-Rights Medicine in the Old South’, Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine , vol. 53 (3), 358–60.

17 . Starobinski, ‘The Idea of Nostalgia’, 85–6. 18 . Ibid., 84. Heimweh was even referred to as die Schweizer Krankheit – the Swiss

sickness. (Peter Blickle (2002) Heimat: A Critical Theory of the German Idea of Homeland (Rochester, NY: Camden House), 67–8.)

19 . Starobinski, ‘The Idea of Nostalgia’, 87. 20 . See Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds) (2003) The Invention of Tradition

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 21 . See, for example: Allan V. Horwitz and Jerome C. Wakefield (2007) The Loss

of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into a Depressive Disorder (Oxford: Oxford University Press); Barbara Ehrenreich (2010) Smile or Die: How Positive Thinking Fooled America and the World (London: Granta).

22 . For a summary of the various ways in which melancholia has been defined, see the Introduction to Jennifer Radden (2000) The Nature of Melancholy: From Aristotle to Kristeva (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

23 . See, for example: Robert M. Stelmack and Anastasios Stalikas (1991) ‘Galen and the Humour Theory of Temperament’, Personality and Individual Differences , vol. 12 (3), 255–63; Noga Arikha (2007) Passions and Tempers: A History of the Humours (New York: Ecco).

184 Notes

24 . Humoral medicine today exists in some cultures. Chinese traditional medi-cine, for instance, is humoral and also based on notions of equilibrium and vital essences. Disharmonic emotions are considered the cause of somatic disorders, but not – significantly – disorders in themselves. Gi qing zhi bing are the ‘seven emotions that induce disease’. See Thomas Ots (1990) ‘The Angry Liver, the Anxious Heart and the Melancholy Spleen: The Phenomenology of Perceptions in Chinese Culture’, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry , vol. 14, 29.

25 . Benedict Anderson (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso) [revised in 2006].

26 . Wallerstein’s ideas were developed over several years. For an early exposition, see Wallerstein (1974) The Modern World-System (3 vols) (New York: Academic Press). On some major theorists of the Western centre, see Jacinta O’Hagan (2002) Conceptualizing the West in International Relations: from Spengler to Said (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). On the South as European periphery – its ‘internal Other’, see Roberto M. Dainotto (2007) Europe (In Theory) (Durham: Duke University Press); On Central Europe, see Christopher Lord (ed.) (2000) Central Europe: Core or Periphery? (Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press), esp. Iver Neumann’s essay ‘Forgetting the Central Europe of the 1980s’, 219–31.

27 . See, for example, Christopher S. Browning and Pertti Joenniemi (2008) ‘Gibraltar, Jerusalem, Kaliningrad: Peripherality, Marginality, Hybridity’ in The Geopolitics of Europe’s Identity: Centers, Boundaries and Margins , ed. Noel Parker (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 143–4.

28 . Gaetano Cipolla (2005) Siciliana: Studies on the Sicilian Ethos (Mineola, NY: Legas), 18.

29 . Robert Burton (2002) The Essential Anatomy of Melancholy (abridged version of The Anatomy of Melancholy [1621] (New York: Dover Publications), 103.

30 . Sigmund Freud (2005) ‘Mourning and Melancholia’ in On Murder, Mourning and Melancholia , trans. S. Whiteside (London: Penguin) [1917], 204.

31 . Julia Kristeva (1989) Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia , trans. L. S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press), 4.

32 . Svetlana Boym (2001) The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books), 9–10. 33 . Pascoaes, Teixeira de (1988) ‘O Paroxismo’ [1914], in Saudade e Saudosismo ,

ed. P. Gomes, 176. [‘ O voo do aeroplane corresponde ao voo da alma? ’] 34 . W. E. B. Du Bois (1990) The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Vintage Books) [1903]. 35 . Boym, Future of Nostalgia , 14. 36 . Primordialism contends that nations are not modern constructs, but

ancient in their origins. See Anthony D. Smith (1986) The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell); and Aviel Roshwald (2006) The Endurance of Nationalism: Ancient Roots and Modern Dilemmas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), amongst others.

37 . Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1989) ‘On the Laws in their Relation to the Nature of the Climate’ in The Spirit of the Laws , trans. A. M. Cohler, B. C. Miller and H. S. Stone (New York: Columbia University Press) [1748], 278–84.

38 . Ibid., 234. 39 . See Part 1 of Norbert Elias (2000) The Civilizing Process : Sociogenetic and

Psychogenetic Investigations , trans. E. Jephcott (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers), esp. 9–11.

Notes 185

40 . Herder, ‘On the Characters of Nations and Ages’, 118–9. 41 . Friedrich Meinecke (1970) Cosmopolitanism and the National State , trans. R. B.

Kimber (Princeton: Princeton University Press) [1907], esp. Book I. 42 . Eric Gidal (2003) ‘Civic Melancholy: English Gloom and French

Enlightenment’, Eighteenth-Century Studies , vol. 37 (1), 24. The term has also been used to describe syphilis.

43 . Barbara Ehrenreich (2007) Dancing in the Streets: A History of Collective Joy (London: Granta) 133–4.

44 . Heracles, Plato and Socrates were some examples given. Attributed to Aristotle (1957) Problems, vol. 2, Books XXII–XXXVIII , trans. W. S. Hett (London: William Heinemann Ltd), 155–6 (book 30, problem 1). Also cited in Radden, Nature of Melancholy , 56.

45 . Aristotelian Problems , 163. 46 . Wolf Lepenies identifies these as ‘the psychopathological, medically

oriented, negative view and the cosmological, philosophically informed, positive view.’ (Lepenies (1992) Melancholy & Society , trans. J. Gaines and D. Jones (Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press) [1969], 7). For a concise summary of melancholy, genius and creative energy, see Radden, Nature of Melancholy , 12–17.

47 . The obverse was that some people, being more suited to physical labour, were therefore better suited to servitude; melancholy, it seems, was the price to be paid for education.

48 . Roger Bartra (1992) The Cage of Melancholy: Identity and Metamorphosis in the Mexican Character , trans. C. J. Hall (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), 37. The association between melancholy and genius in Renaissance Europe is dealt with thoroughly in Winfried Schleiner (1991) Melancholy, Genius, and Utopia in the Renaissance (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz).

49 . George Cheyne (1735) The English Malady: Or, a Treatise of Nervous Diseases of all Kinds; In Three Parts , 6th edn (London).

50 . See Laurinda Dixon (1995) Perilous Chastity: Women and Illness in Pre-Enlightenment Art and Medicine (Ithaca: Cornell University Press), esp. 197–220.

51 . Lepenies, Melancholy and Society , 56–62. 52 . Roy Porter (1990) Mind Forg’d Manacles: A History of Madness in England

from the Restoration to the Regency (Harmondsworth: Penguin), 84, cited in Ehrenreich, Dancing in the Streets , 133.

53 . Scottish Union with England had occurred roughly half a century earlier, in 1707. For a social analysis of the Ossianic controversy, see: Daffyd Moore (2003) Enlightenment and Romance in James Macpherson’s ‘The Poems of Ossian’ – Myth, Genre and Cultural Change (Hampshire: Ashgate). This episode preceded a similar one in which right-wing Czech nationalists promoted a series of manuscripts of supposedly medieval origin that proved continuity of the Czech spirit. Statesman Tomáš Masaryk dismissed them as forgeries, choosing instead a more ancient and humanistic example in the priest Jan Hus. Derek Sayer (1998) The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 155–6.

54 . Gidal, ‘Civic Melancholy’, 24. 55 . Ibid., 33. 56 . Ibid., 27.

186 Notes

57 . Jean Pierre Grosley (1772) A Tour to London; or, New Observations on England and its Inhabitants (London: Lockyer Davis), quoted in Gidal, ‘Civic Melancholy’, 34.

58 . Bartra, Cage of Melancholy , 5. 59 . Octavio Paz (1985) The Labyrinth of Solitude , trans. L. Kemp, Y. Milos and R. P.

Belash (New York: Grove Press) [1950]. 60 . Bartra, Cage of Melancholy , 30. 61 . Rolando Andrade agrees with Paz, citing also the prevalence of fatalism in

Mexican culture. Andrade (1995) ‘Fatalism in the Mexican Music’, Latino Studies Journal , vol. 6 (2), 3–21.

62 . Bartra, Cage of Melancholy , 38. 63 . Bernhard Giesen (1998) Intellectuals and the Nation: Collective Identity in

a German Axial Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 6. See also Anthony D. Smith (2003) Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 35–7, for an examination of the cult of the peasant; and Roshwald, Endurance of Nationalism , 68–73, on nationalists’ fascination with the peasantry.

64 . Paz, Labyrinth of Solitude , 158–9.

Introduction to Part I

1 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários às duas cartas de António Sérgio’, first published in A Águia , vol. 5 (2nd series, issue 22) of October 1913, 104–9, reprinted in an anthology of Pascoaes’ writings on the theme of saudade ; Pascoaes (1988) in Pinharanda Gomes (ed.), A Saudade e o Saudosismo ( dispersos e opúsculos) (Lisbon: Assírio & Alvim), 108. [ Esta nossa divina palavra, não me canso de repiti-lo, contém o sonho da nossa Raça, o seu íntimo e transcendente móbil messiânico e redentor, por isso, ela é intraduzível, portuguesa, e explica os nossos grandes acontecimentos históricos, a alma dos nossos grandes homens, e criará o nosso sonho do futuro, uma Aspiração nacional que una os portuguesas de aquém e de al ém-mar. ]

2 . For a more detailed account of contemporary usage, see Patrick Farrell (2006) ‘Portuguese Saudade and Other Emotions of Absence and Longing’ in Bert Peeters (ed.), Semantic Primes and Universal Grammar: Empirical Evidence from the Romance Languages (Amsterdam: John Benjamins), 235–58.

2 Proudly Alone?

1 . Duarte Nunes de Leão, ‘Origem da Língua Portuguesa’ [1606], 4th ed., (ed.) J. P. Machado, Lisbon, 1945, 309, in Dalila L. Pereira da Costa & Pinharanda Gomes (eds) (1976) Introdução à Saudade: Antologia Teórica e Aproximação Crítica (Porto: Lello & Irmão), 7. [ Saudade – este afecto como é proprio dos Portugueses que naturalmente são maviosos, e afeiçoados não ha língua em que da mesma maneira se possa explicar, nem ainda per muitas palavras que se declare bem. ... temos saudade de ver a Terra em que nascemos, ou em que nos criámos, ou em que nos vimos em algum posto, ou prosperidade. ... é lembrança de alguma cousa com desejo dela. ]

2 . António de Sousa de Macedo, ‘Flores de Espanha e Excelências de Portugal’, Lisbon, 1631. chap. XIII, exc. XV, in da Costa & Gomes, 8. [ É palavra somente portuguesa, e nenhuma outra nação a tem ... ]

Notes 187

3 . Ibid. 4 . It has been proposed that saudade developed out of the Latin solitatem (soli-

tude), from which the Spanish word soledad also derives, or from the Latin salutate (health), or from the Arabic saudá – meaning black bile – and is therefore related to humoral medicine. For an anthology of a diverse range of theories see: Costa and Gomes (eds), Introdução à Saudade , 7–13. See also Estela Vieira (2007) ‘ “Saudade” and “Soledad”: Fernando Pessoa and António Machado on Nostalgia and Loneliness’, Romance Notes , vol. 48 (1), 127.

5 . Martin Heidegger (1996) Being and Time ( Sein und Zeit ), trans. J. Stambaugh (New York: State University of New York Press) [1927], 174–5 (part 1, chap. 6).

6 . Pascoaes, ‘Justiça social. Os lavradores caseiros’ [1910], in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 3.

7 . Maria das Graças Moreira de Sá (1992) Estética da Saudade em Teixeira de Pascoaes (Lisbon: ICLP [Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portuguesa]), 86.

8 . In his poem ‘Camões’. João Baptista da Silva Leitão de Almeida Garrett, Visconde de Almeida Garrett (1858) ‘Camões’, 4th ed. (Lisbon: Casa da Viúva Bertrand e Filhos) [1825], 1.

9 . Dom Francisco Manuel De Melo (1676) ‘Epanaforas de Vária História Portuguesa’, Lisbon, ‘Epanafora Amorosa,’ III, 286–8, in Costa & Gomes (eds), Introdução à Saudade , 20. [ Mimosa paixão da alma, suave fumo do fogo do amor, parte do natural apetite da união de todas as coisas amáveis e semelhantes .]

10 . José Ortega y Gasset (1992) quoted in Sá, Estética da Saudade, 89 (no further citation given). [ Una oscilación entre el aquí y el allí .]

11 . On the example of Britain, see Paul Gilroy (2005) Postcolonial Melancholia (New York: Columbia University Press), 90. Similar arguments have been made about post-Soviet Russia: Serguei Alex. Oushakine (2009) The Patriotism of Despair: Nation, War, and Loss in Russia (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press).

12 . Peter Fritzsche (2004) Stranded in the Present: Modern Time and the Melancholy of History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 5–6. In a similar vein, Svetlana Boym comments that ‘Nostalgic manifestations are side effects of the teleology of progress.’ ( Future of Nostalgia , 10.) On progress and loss of hope, see also Wendy Brown (2001) Politics Out of History (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 7. Harold Mah links German ‘cultural disloca-tion’ following the disillusioning chaos of its national identity to the rise of Marx’s culture-free proletariat: Mah (2003) Enlightenment Phantasies : Cultural Identity in France and Germany, 1750–1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), 4.

13 . See, for example, Eduardo Lourenço (1982) O Labirinto da Saudade: Psicanálise Mítica do Destino Português , 2nd ed. (Lisbon: Publicações Dom Quixote) [1978]; (1999) Portugal como Destino seguido de Mitologia da Saudade, Lisbon, Gradiva.

14 . Maria Teresa de Noronha (2007) A Saudade: contribuições fenomenológicas, lógicas e ontológicas (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda), 23.

15 . António Dias de Magalhães (1955) ‘Da História à Metafísica da Saudade’, Cidade Nova , Sept. 1955, in A. Botelho and A. Braz Teixeira (eds) (1986) Filosofia da Saudade (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda), 266, quoted in Sá, Estética da Saudade , 91. [ A saudade é o sentimento da experiência espiritual da contingência .]

188 Notes

16 . The first significant study of the twentieth century was produced by the Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos, the only prominent female member of the Renascen ça Portuguesa , in 1922: Vasconcellos (1922) A Saudade Portuguesa: Divagações filológicas e literar- históricas em volta de Inês de Castro e do cantar velho ‘Saudade minha – ¿Quando te veria?’ , 2nd ed. (Porto: Renascença Portuguesa). Her concise and much cited work not only examines saudade ’s rise apropos the Discoveries (during the sixteenth century, in particular), but is also devoted to the matter of its disputed etymology. Introdução à Saudade (1976) offers a valuable anthology of definitions and critical representations, adding phenomenological interpretations to the standard philologies: D. L. Pereira da Costa & P. Gomes (eds) (1976) Introdução à Saudade ( Antologia teórica e aproximação crítica) (Porto: Lello & Irmão). A more recent addition is Noronha (2007) A Saudade .

17 . The word fado means ‘fate’. Michael Colvin (2008) The Reconstruction of Lisbon: Severa’s Legacy and the Fado’s Rewriting of Urban History (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press), 14. The Estado Novo lasted from 1933–74. Saudade is also a common theme in the music and popular culture in Brazil and – as sodade – in morna, the music of the former Portuguese colony of Cape Verde.

18 . Ibid., 25. 19 . Lila Ellen Gray (2007) ‘‘Memories of Empire, Mythologies of the Soul: Fado

Performance and the Shaping of Saudade’’, Ethnomusicology , vol. 51 (1), 109. 20 . Jaime Cortesão (1951) ‘No 40° aniversário da Renascença Portuguesa’, Primo

de Janeiro , vol. 28 (7), quoted in Fernando Farelo Lopes (1983) ‘António Sérgio na ‘Renascença Portuguesa,’ Revista de História das Ideias , vol. 5 (1), 408.

21 . Abdoolkarim Vakil (1995) ‘Representations of the ‘ “Discoveries” ’ and the Imaginary of the Nation in Portuguese Integralism’, Portuguese Studies , vol. 11, 136.

22 . Lopes, ‘António Sérgio na “Renascença Portuguesa” ’, 415. 23 . Sérgio, ‘Epístolas aos Saudosistas’, October 1913, in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes

(ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 99. [ Dizem que o saudosismo está de acordo com o espírito contemporâneo. Essa pretensão, como todas as do saudosismo, é precisa-mente o contrário da verdade. Não poderia ser o desacordo mais perfeito, nem o absurdo mais sensível. ]

24 . Sérgio, ‘Epístolas aos Saudosistas’, in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 98. [ Um sujeito vê um dia um cão e bate-lhe. O cão foge, desmoralizado pelo ines-perado do ataque. Decorridos dias o nosso homem passa outra vez pelo cão, sem dar por ele. Ao cão vem-lhe um desejo naturalíssimo de sentir a carne do agressor comprimida entre os seus caninos e ... zás, estão daí vocês a ver a cena. Que se passara na conciência? Nada de extraordinário: uma velha lembrança gerando um novo desejo: – a saudade (definição por Pascoaes). ]

25 . Ibid., 98. 26 . Ibid. [‘ teve ... suas causas sociais, as quais hoje já não existem .’] 27 . Ibid., 98–9. 28 . Ibid., 100. [ ‘imobilismo, inércia, contemplação do passado, amor de cristalizar ou

mummificar o que já foi..’ ] 29 . Ibid. [ ‘Poderia haver maior contradição com todas as tendencias sociais, filosóficas

e religiosas do nosso tempo?’ ] 30 . Galician, or galego , the language of the Western Spanish region, is more closely

related to Portuguese than Castillian. Estela Vieira asserts that in Galicia ‘although the word “saudade” exists, “morriña” is the correct counterpart to

Notes 189

the Portuguese “saudade” because it has acquired a similar usage and equiva-lent implications’; this is debatable. (Vieira, ‘“Saudade” and “Soledad” ’, 127.)

31 . Sérgio, ‘Epístolas aos Saudosistas’, 101. Dor is also a bittersweet longing that could be said to have the opposite coordinates to saudade . Whereas saudade refers to ‘horizontal’ longing, such as of sailors on the wide open seas, dor is related to the ‘vertical’, an emotion of the mountains and shepherds who are far from home.

32 . Ibid. The original passage is found in Pascoaes’ 1912 essay ‘O espírito lusi-tano ou o saudosismo,’ [1912], in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 51. The emphasis on ‘perhaps’ is the doubting Sérgio’s own addition. [ Nós somos, na verdade, o único povo que pode dizer que na sua língua existe uma palavra intraduzível nos outros idiomas, a qual encerra todo o sentido da sua alma colectiva. A alma lusitana concentrou-se numa só palavra, e nela existe e vive, como na pequena gota de orvalho a imagem do sol imenso. Sim: a palavra saudade é intraduzível. O único povo que sente a Saudade é o povo português, incluindo talvez o galego, porque a Galiza é um bocado de Portugal sob as patas do leão de Castela ... ]

33 . Ibid., 102–3. Perhaps the most notable example is the work of the celebrated nineteenth-century Galician poet Rosalía de Castro, in which saudade was a strong theme.

34 . Lopes, ‘António Sérgio na “Renascença Portuguesa” ’, 406–7. 35 . Pascoaes, ‘Renascença (O espírito da nossa raça),’ in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e

Saudosismo , 39. [ A Saudade é a eterna Renascença, não realizada pelo artifício das Artes, come aconteceu na Itália, mas vivida dia a dia, hora a hora, pelo instinto emotivo dum Povo .]

36 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários às duas cartas de António Sérgio’, in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo, 105. [ Não há grande Poeta português que não viva dramaticamente esta Saudade. É ela a dolorosa essência metafísica da nossa autêntica literatura, incluindo a Poesia popular. É a Saudade do céu, divina sede de perfeição e Redenção, o eterno Sebastianismo da alma portu-guesa e a sua transcendente e poética attitude perante o Mistério infinito! ]

37 . Alcácer-Quibir to the Portuguese. 38 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários’, 106. 39 . Ibid., 108. [‘ nossa divina palavra.’ ] 40 . Ibid., 109. [‘ A Europa deu-lhe cepticismo de mistura com electricidade e carvão de

pedra ... ’] 41 . Ibid., 109. 42 . Sá, Estética da Saudade, 257. 43 . Leah Greenfeld (1993) Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press), 12–15 and passim . The original concept of ressenti-ment is Friedrich Nietzsche’s.

44 . Lourenço, ‘Portugal and Its Destiny’, 123. 45 . Eduardo Lourenço is arguably the foremost theorist of Portuguese identity;

his O Labirinto da Saudade is one of the seminal works on the topic. See also: Francisco da Cunha Leão (1960) O Enigma Português (Lisbon: Guimarâes); João Medina (2006) Portuguesismo(s): (acerca da identidade nacional) (Lisbon: Centro de Histôria da Universidade de Lisboa); Boaventura de Sousa Santos follows the post-1974 trend of focusing on political and socioeconomic aspects of Portuguese identity over the mythic. See, for example, Pela mão de Alice: o social e o polìtico na pós-m odernidade (1996) and Portugal: ensaio contra a autoflagelação (2011).

190 Notes

46 . Lourenço, Labirinto da Saudade , 41–5. 47 . Ibid. 48 . Eduardo Lourenço (2002) ‘Portugal and Its Destiny’, in C. Veloso (ed.) Chaos and

Splendor and Other Essays (Dartmouth: University of Massachusetts), esp. 111. 49 . Luís Vaz de Camões (1952) The Lusiads , trans. W. C. Atkinson

(Harmondsworth: Penguin) [1572]. Os Lusiadas means ‘The sons of Lusus’ (i.e., the Portuguese).

50 . Ronald W. Sousa (1981) The Rediscoverers: Major Writers in the Portuguese Literature of National Regeneration (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press), 2.

51 . William C. Atkinson, Introduction to Camões’ Lusiads , 10. 52 . Ibid., 16. 53 . Luís de Sousa Rebelo (1997) ‘Identidade nacional: As retóricas do seu discurso’,

in (eds) Fernando Cristóvão, Maria de Lourdes Ferraz, Alberto Carvalho, Nacionalismo e regionalismo nas literaturas lusófonas (Lisbon: Cosmos), 22.

54 . José Manuel Sobral (2008) ‘Race and Space in Interpretations of Portugal: The North-South Division and Representations of Portuguese National Identity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, in Sharon R. Roseman and Shawn S. Parkhurst (eds), Recasting Culture and Space in Iberian Contexts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press), 213.

55 . Tiago Saraiva (2007) ‘Inventing the Technological Nation: the Example of Portugal (1851–1898),’ History and Technology , vol. 23 (3), 264.

56 . Ibid., passim . 57 . Lopes, ‘António Sérgio na “Renascença Portuguesa” ’, 405. 58 . Sá, ‘ Estética da Saudade, 27. 59 . Philipp Blom (2008) The Vertigo Years: Europe 1900–1914 (New York: Basic

Books), 3, 17. 60 . Lopes, ‘António Sérgio na “Renascença Portuguesa” ’, 405. 61 . Jorge Borges de Macedo (1983) ‘Significado e evolução das polémicas de

António Sérgio’, Revista de História das Ideias , vol. 5 (1), 475. 62 . Ibid., 475–6. 63 . Salazar was Prime Minister from 1932–68. His speech of 18 February 1965 in

defence of Portugal’s continuing colonial status declared that the Portuguese would fight ‘proudly alone’ [‘ orgulhosamente sós ’].

64 . Sá, Estética da Saudade , 22. 65 . Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2002) ‘Between Prospero and Caliban: Colonialism,

Postcolonialism, and Inter-identity’, Luso-Brazilian Review , vol 39 (2), 9. 66 . Ibid., passim , and Kathleen C. Schwartzman (1989) The Social Origins of

Democratic Collapse: The First Portuguese Republic in the Global Economy (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas) 77. Appendix A of the same book (193–6) offers a useful guide to ‘Defining the semiperiphery’.

67 . Sá, Estética da Saudade , 23. 68 . Lourenço, ‘Portugal and Its Destiny’, 145. 69 . Ibid., 145–6. 70 . See, for example, Pascoaes, ‘Justiça social’, 3. On his assertion that Catholicism

was actually Spanish, see Pascoaes, ‘Última Carta?’ [1914], in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 135.

71 . Pascoaes, ‘A fisionomia das palavras’ [1911], in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e Saudosismo .

Notes 191

72 . Malcolm Jack (2007) Lisbon, City of the Sea: A History (New York: I. B. Tauris), 153–4. Portugal’s national anthem, ‘A Portuguesa’, was composed in the wake of the Ultimatum.

73 . Pascoaes, ‘O espírito lusitano’, 44. 74 . José I. Suárez (1991) ‘Portugal’s Saudosismo Movement: An Esthetics of

Sebastianism’, Luso-Brazilian Review , vol. 28 (1), 135. 75 . Pascoaes, ‘Última Carta?’, 139. 76 . Pascoaes, ‘O saudosismo e a “renascença” ’, [1912], in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e

Saudosismo , 60.

3 Modernity and Martyrdom

1 . Pascoaes, ‘Ainda o saudosismo e a “renascença” ’, [1912] in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e Saudosismo , 63.

2 . Pascoaes, ‘O espírito lusitano’, 48. [‘ O Saudosismo (nome que eu dou à Religião da Saudade) ... ’]

3 . Rolando M. Gripaldo, ‘ Bahala na [Come What May]: A Philosophical Analysis’, in Rolando (ed.), Filipino Cultural Traits: Claro R. Ceniza Lectures (Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2005) 203–220. The Portuguese expression Oxalá and Spanish Ojalá , both deriving from Insh’allah , have become secular expressions of hope. For the Japanese, shikata ga nai is a kind of retrospective fatalism: ‘It couldn’t be helped, or it was meant to be’. See Susan Orpett Long, ‘Shikata ga nai: Resignation, Control, and Self-Identity’, in Susan Orpett Long (ed.), Lives in Motion: Composing Circles of Self and Community in Japan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 11–26.

4 . Pascoaes (1972) Regresso ao Paraíso , in (ed.) Jacinto do Prado Coelho, Obras Completas de Teixeira de Pascoaes (vol. IV) (Lisbon: Livraria Bertrand), 112, cited in Mário Garcia (1976) Teixeira de Pascoaes: Contribuição para o Estudo da sua Personalidade e para a Leitura Crítica da sua Obra (Braga: Publicações de Faculdade de Filosofia), 162. [ Sim, o nome dum ser é o próprio ser Miraculosamente transfundido Para sonora imagem cristalina. ]

5 . Pascoaes ‘O génio português na sua expressão filosófica, poética e religiosa’ [1913], in Gomes (ed.), A Saudade e o Saudosismo , 71. [‘ “Onde quer que estejais reunidos em meu nome, eu serei convosco”, disse Jesus, referindo-se a sua presença de saudade ... ’]

6 . Fernando Arenas (2003) Utopias of Otherness: Nationhood and Subjectivity in Portugal and Brazil (London; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), xv.

7 . Pascoaes, ‘O génio português’, 71. [ Nesta sublime cancão do Povo, a Saudade é já a Virgem redentora, Mãe de misericórdia e esperança, anunciando aos homens uma nova vida eterna: – a Eternidade em espírito, activo, impondo-se à morte domi-nada, e não a eternidade no tempo, fora do esforço humano, simples dádiva dos Deuses ... ]

8 . Ruth Levitas (1990) The Concept of Utopia (London: Philip Allan), 193–6. 9 . Douglas L. Wheeler (1978) Republican Portugal: a Political History, 1910–1926

(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), 62. 10 . See Jeffrey S. Bennett, When the Sun Danced: Myth, Miracles, and Modernity in

Early Twentieth- Century Portugal (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012).

192 Notes

11 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários às duas cartas de António Sérgio’, 108. [‘ Eu creio num destino messiânico da minha raça, e sinto, por isso, a Saudade.’ ]

12 . Pascoaes, ‘O espírito lusitano’, 45, 47. 13 . Pascoaes, ‘O génio português’, 76. 14 . Pascoaes, ‘O espírito lusitano’, 52. [ A palavra luar não é somente o clair de

lune francês ou o moonlight inglês, isto é, a luz da lua. A propria forma sónica da palavra, feita duma sílaba muda e uma sílaba aberta, dá a fusão da luz e da sombra, da alegria e da tristeza das cousas. No luar há saudade, como na saudade há luar ... ]

15 . Abdoolkarim Vakil (1995) ‘Representations of the “Discoveries” and the Imaginary of the Nation in Portuguese Integralism’, Portuguese Studies , vol. 11, 136.

16 . Aubrey Bell (1915) Portugal of the Portuguese (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons), 4–5.

17 . Leão, O Enigma Português , 161. 18 . Gilberto Freyre (1986) The Masters and the Slaves ( Casa-Grande e Senzala):

A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization [1933], trans. S. Putnam (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).

19 . See Miguel Vale de Almeida (2004) An Earth- Colored Sea. Race, Culture and the Politics of Identity in the Post-Colonial Portuguese- Speaking World (New York: Berghahn Books), esp. chapters 3 and 4.

20 . Almeida Garrett, ‘Camões’, 1. [ Saudade! Gosto amargo de infelizes, Delicioso pungir de acerbo espinho, Que me estás repassando o intimo peito Com do que os seios d’alma dilacera, – Mas dor que tem prazeres – Saudade! ]

21 . Pascoaes, ‘[Unamuno e Portugal]’ [1911], in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e Saudosismo , 25. [‘ Não me canso de afirmar que Portugal deve progredir dentro, absolutamente dentro, da sua tristeza.’]

22 . Mikuláš Teich & Roy Porter (1990) ‘Introduction’ to Teich & Porter (eds), Fin de Siècle and Its legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 1–9. For a rich discussion of the gloomy ‘public mood’ in Russia in the early twentieth century, see Mark D. Steinberg (2008) ‘Melancholy and Modernity: Emotions and Social Life in Russia Between the Revolutions’, Journal of Social History , vol. 41 (4), 813–41.

23 . Pascoaes, ‘[Unamuno e Portugal]’, 24–5. 24 . Ibid. 25 . Ibid., 25. [ ... o amor carnal espiritualizado pela Dor, ou o amor espiritual materi-

alizado pelo Desejo: é o casamento do Beijo com a Lágrima: é Vénus e Maria numa só Mulher: é a síntese do Céu e da Terra: o ponto onde todas as forças cósmicas cruzam: é o centro do Universo ... ]

26 . Pascoaes, ‘O génio português’, 77. [‘ um crepúsculo de alegria ’] 27 . On Bergson’s influence and subsequent backlash, see Frederick Burwick

and Paul Douglass (1992) ‘Introduction’ to F. Burwick & P. Douglass (eds), The Crisis in Modernism: Bergson and the Vitalist Controversy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), esp. 1–3, 7.

28 . Peter Rietbergen, Europe: A Cultural History (London: Routledge, 1998), 391–3.

29 . George Rousseau (1992) ‘The Perpetual Crises of Modernism and the Traditions of Enlightenment Vitalism: With a Note on Mikhail Bakhtin’, in Burwick & Douglass (eds), The Crisis in Modernism, 20–4. See also Maria de

Notes 193

Issekutz Wolsky and Alexander A. Wolsky’s essay in the same volume entitled ‘Bergson’s Vitalism in the Light of Modern Biology.’ (153–70.)

30 . Bergson developed his ideas on durée réelle over the course of several essays and articles, beginning with Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience ( On the immediate data of consciousness) , 1889. Published in 1910 in English as Time and Free Will, an Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness , trans. F. L. Pogson (London: George Allen & Unwin).

31 . Pascoaes (2001) Livro de Memórias, (Lisbon: Assírio & Alvim) [1928]. 32 . Maria Todorova (2009) Imagining the Balkans , 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press), 12. 33 . Pascoaes, ‘Última Carta?’, 136. 34 . Almeida Garrett (1988) Viagens na Minha Terra (Lisbon: Europa-América)

[1846], quoted in Saraiva, ‘Inventing the Technological Nation,’ 266. 35 . Pascoaes, ‘Renascença’ [1912] in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 35–41. 36 . Ibid., 36. 37 . Ibid. [‘ Viriato, Afonso Henriques e Camões desmaterializados, reduzidos a um

sentimento, postos em alma estreme .’] 38 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários’, in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes (ed.) Saudade e

Saudosismo , 109. [ ‘O meu caro amigo deseja eliminar Camões! Que loucura!’ ] 39 . Suárez, José I. (1991) ‘Portugal’s Saudosismo movement: An Esthetics of

Sebastianism’, Luso- Brazilian Review , vol. 28 (1), 129. 40 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários’, 104. [ Nada quero saber do carácter de Duarte

Nunes. Só me interesse a vida do seu espírito que nele, como em todos os seres, é sempre intangível e inocente .]

41 . Pascoaes, Arte de Ser Português , 48–9. [‘ Empregamos este termo como significando o homem animal, biologico.’ ]

42 . Pascoaes, ‘Resposta a António Sérgio’ [1914], in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 125. [ O meu caro amigo não crê no génio dos povos; creio eu. Sim: eu creio que um homem de génio que aparece num Povo é um enviado desse Povo, uma sua síntese individual. Todo o Povo está nele; e, por intermédio dele, cria as suas novas aspirações e o processo de as realizar. Há momentos em que um só homem é um Povo: Camões. ]

43 . Macedo, ‘Significado e evolução’, 478. [‘ t écnico-funcionalista ’] 44 . Alfredo Margarido (1961) Teixeira de Pascoaes: A Obra e o Homem (Lisbon:

Editora Arcádia), 317. 45 . Sérgio, ‘Despedida de Julieta’, [1914] in ‘A polémica’, in Gomes (ed.), Saudade

e Saudosismo , 128. [‘a outra estrada aos jovens leitores d ’A Águia e da Vida Portuguesa : a estrada n ão-saudosista, não isoladora, ou não purificadora. ’]

46 . Ibid. [ o culto da acção criadora e das ideias sólidas, ao apreço de educação que fez da Inglaterra ... nação mais adiantada na evolução económica, na justiça social, na expansão pacífica, e na dignidade inviolável do cidadão. ]

47 . Sérgio, ‘Regeneração e tradição, moral e economia’ [1914], in Gomes (ed.), Saudade e Saudosismo , 118–19. [‘ ... o progresso moral de um povo está dependente do seu progresso económico. ’]

48 . Walter Benjamin (1992) ‘Theses on the Philosophy of History’, [1940] in Illuminations , trans. H. Zohn, London: Fontana Press) [1968], 246.

49 . Pascoaes, ‘Última Carta?’, 140–1. [ o pensamento saudosista [é] de muito mais alcance social, filosófico e religioso do que esse que o António Sérgio lhe quer atribuir. Lembre-se de que o Brasil é hoje e desde muito tempo, a causa principal da

194 Notes

nossa existência. A paisagem portuguesa é muito bela; mas os seus campos são de terra pobre ... Pouco valem as máquinas, os processos científicos da cultura, etc., em secas terras arenosas, que só as chuvas do céu fecundam ... As margens dos nossos rios, quase todos alcantiladas, morrem de sede à vista da água, como o Tântalo. A nossa agricultura nunca poderá satisfazer as nossas próprias necessidades ... Temos de emigrar, meu caro António Sérgio. E esta visão fatal do destino, tornou-se na alma portuguesa em génio de aventura; deu-lhe velas para navegar em busca de outras regiões mais felizes ] .

50 . Pascoaes, ‘O espírito lusitano’, 55. 51 . Lourenço, ‘Portugal and Its Destiny’, 163. 52 . Miguel Esteves Cardoso, introduction to Pascoaes’ Arte de Ser Português , 9.

[ Quando Pascoaes inventou Portugal não se deu conta do que tinha feito; pensou que se tinha limitado a descobri-lo. Quando imaginou os Portugueses, entregando-lhes as palavras e as visões que só a ele pertenciam, enganou-se. Os Portugueses não queriam ser quem ele queria. Os Portugueses de Pascoaes nem sequer existiam. Pascoaes nunca percebeu que era tudo invenção dele. ]

53 . Pascoaes, ‘Renascença’, 39. [‘ ignorância em que os portugueses vivem de si próprios. ’]

54 . Margarido, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Obra e Homem , 315–16. 55 . Garcia, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Contribuição, 3. 56 . See Pascoaes’ Livro de Memórias , passim. On his health, see Garcia, Teixeira de

Pascoaes: Contribuição , 71. 57 . Pascoaes, Livro de Memórias , 101 [‘ Ainda hoje me não conformo; e o meu desejo

seria habitar uma caverna ou esconder-me entre o tojo bravo, como em criança, quando vinham pessoas de cerimónia a nossa casa. ’]

58 . Ibid., 45. 59 . Margarido, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Obra e Homem , 326. 60 . Vieira, ‘Saudade and Soledad’, 128–9. 61 . A Águia, 1a série, no. 1, 1–12–1910 , 8, cited in Garcia, Teixeira de Pascoaes:

Contribuição, 159. 62 . Ibid. [‘ “ alma excepcional, instintivamente naturalista e mística, que criou a

Saudade, promessa duma nova Civilização Lusitana.” ’] 63 . Pascoaes (1914) ‘A era lusíada’ (Porto: Renascença Portuguesa), 45, quoted in

Margarido, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Obra e Homen , 47. 64 . Pascoaes, Conferência [1922], 3, quoted in Margarido, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Obra

e Homem , 87–8 (no further citation given). [ Não sou mais do que um obscuro cantor da minha aldeia; um pobre cantor das vagas melancólicas emanadas da terra e das almas de que eu descendo ... ]

65 . See Medina, Portuguesismo(s) , 213–14. ‘Zé’ is short for José, and Povinho, Povo ‘the people’, with the affectionate diminutive suffix of ‘-inho.’ The name is also used in Brazil as a kind of ‘Joe Everyman’ or ‘Joe Bloggs’.

66 . Margarido, Teixeira de Pascoaes: Obra e Homen , 101, quoting Pascoaes ‘Conferência’ [1922], 13.

67 . Ibid. 68. Bernd Jager (1989) ‘About Desire and Satisfaction’, Journal of Phenomenological

Psychology, vol. 20 (2), 145–150. 69 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários’, 105, and ‘Resposta a António Sérgio’, 121. 70 . Pascoaes, ‘Última Carta?’, 132–3. [ ‘contra a frágil e trémula saudade.’ ] 71 . Josep R. Llobera (2004) Foundations of National Identity: From Catalonia to

Europe (New York: Berghahn Books), 73–4.

Notes 195

72 . Collectively, they were known as the ‘Geração d’Orpheu’. 73 . Pascoaes, ‘Saudade y Quijotismo’ [1920] in Gomes (ed.) A Saudade e o

Saudosismo , 190–1. [‘ el alma luso-galaica-catalana’ ]

Conclusion to Part I

1 . Pascoaes, ‘Os meus comentários’, 107 [‘ Ela [saudade] constrói o Futuro com a matéria do Passado .’]

2 . Zygmunt Bauman (2000) Liquid Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press), 10. 3 . João Leal (1999) ‘ Saudade , la construction d’un symbole: “Caractère national”

et identité nationale’, Ethnologie Française , vol. 29 (2), 183–6; Feldman-Bianco, (1992) ‘Saudade, imigração e a construção de uma nação (portuguesa) desterrito-rializada’, Revista Brasileira de Estudos da População , Campinas, vol. 9 (1), 35–49.

4 . Such as in Malacca and Singapore – the Portuguese Creole Papiá Kristang has the transitive verb saudadi (‘to miss’ or ‘to long for’).

Introduction to Part II

1 . Kundera, Book of Laughter and Forgetting , 150. 2 . Ibid. 3 . Charles Sabatos, ‘Criticism and Destiny: Kundera and Havel on the Legacy of

1968’, Europe-Asia Studies , vol. 60 (10), 2008, 1838. 4 . Ibid., 1834. 5 . Úděl can also be translated as ‘fate’ or ‘lot’. ‘Czech Destiny’ was originally

published in the journal Listy 1 (no. 7–8, Prague), 1, 5, in December 1968. I refer to Josette Baer’s English translation in Baer (ed.) Preparing Liberty in Central Europe: Political Texts from the Spring of Nations 1848 to the Spring of Prague 1968 (Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2006), 143–50; Kundera, ‘The Tragedy of Central Europe’, trans. E. White, New York Review of Books, vol. 31 (7), 26 April 1984, 33–8. A similar proposition on the placing the philosophy of lítost between the two essays has been put forward by Tim West. (West, ‘Destiny as Alibi: Milan Kundera, Václav Havel and the ‘Czech Question’ after 1968’, The Slavonic and East European Review , vol. 87 (3), 2009, 401–18.)

6 . Kundera, ‘Czech Destiny’, 143. 7 . Václav Havel, ‘Czech Destiny?’, originally published in the magazine Tvář 4

(2), Prague, January 1969. This chapter again references Baer’s translation in her volume Preparing Liberty in Central Europe (150–6).

8 . Kundera, ‘Radicalism and Exhibitionism’, originally published in Host do domů, vol. 15 (15), Brno 1968–9. I refer to Baer’s English translation in Preparing Liberty in Central Europe , 156–64.

4 Evolution of a Fatalism

1 . Kundera, ‘Radicalism and Exhibitionism,’ originally published in Host do domů, vol. 15 (15), Brno 1968–9. I refer to Baer’s English translation in Preparing Liberty in Central Europe , 121.

2 . Ibid. Note: the rendering of the word in both the French and English trans-lations of The Book of Laughter and Forgetting is ‘ litost ’ in italics, but without

196 Notes

an acute accent over the ‘i’. In Czech, the correct spelling of the word is ‘ lítost ’ with an accent – this čárka marks the ‘long and stressed’ first syllable, and is in fact a separate grapheme. In this volume, I use the Czech orthog-raphy ( lítost ) except when quoting from the English translation. However, its manifestation in translations without an acute – rendering it a neologism of sorts – seems perfectly acceptable, since it refers to a concept that is quasi-invented anyway.

3 . Michelle Woods (2006) Translating Milan Kundera (Clevedon; Buffalo: Multilingual Matters), 110.

4 . Kundera, Book of Laughter and Forgetting , 122, 149, 150, 152, 154. 5 . Ibid., 150. 6 . ‘Lítost’ (1960) Slovník Spisovného Jazyka Českého, vol. 1 (Prague: Nakladatelství

Československé Akademie Věd), 1124. 7 . Kundera, Book of Laughter and Forgetting, 121. 8 . Ibid., 122. 9 . Ibid., 122–3.

10 . Woods, Translating Milan Kundera , 113. 11 . Eugene Narrett (1992) ‘Surviving History: Milan Kundera’s Quarrel with

Modernism,’ Modern Language Studies , vol. 22 (4), 20. 12 . Francine du Plessix Gray (1999) ‘Journey into the Maze: An Interview with

Milan Kundera,’ in Peter Petro (ed.), Critical Essays on Milan Kundera (New York: G. K. Hall & Co.) 47–8.

13 . Ibid., 48. 14 . Jordan Elgrably (1987) ‘Conversations with Milan Kundera,’ Salmagundi , vol.

73, 7. The interviews took place in August 1984 and April 1985. 15 . Franz Kafka and Robert Musil, for example. 16 . Tomáš and Tereza, the doomed couple of The Unbearable Lightness of Being , are

an exemplar of this. Their fate is revealed about halfway through the novel. From that point, the potential impact of this knowledge is undermined by the pair’s passivity and resignation to their circumstances in general. The reader is thus encouraged to accept their violent and untimely demise as part of the ‘natural order of things’. Kundera (1984) The Unbearable Lightness of Being , trans. M. H. Heim (London; Boston: Faber and Faber).

17 . West, ‘Destiny as Alibi’, 421–2. 18 . See Kieran Williams (1997) The Prague Spring and Its Aftermath: Czechoslovak

Politics 1968–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 19 . Ibid., 39–40. 20 . Kundera, ‘Czech Destiny’, 143. 21 . Milan Kundera (1967) Speech made at the Fourth Congress of the

Czechoslovak Writers, 27–9 June 1967, at: http://www.pwf.cz/export/clanek-pdf.php?clanek_id=897&show.

22 . Ibid., 144. 23 . Ibid., 145–7. 24 . Milan Kundera (1969) The Joke , trans. D. Hamblyn, O. Stallybrass (London:

Macdonald). Originally published as Žert in 1967. 25 . Kundera, ‘Czech Destiny’, 146. 26 . Ibid., 144. 27 . Ibid., 145. 28 . Kundera, ‘Czech Destiny’, 148.

Notes 197

29 . Ibid., 149. 30 . Havel, ‘Czech Destiny?’, 154. 31 . Ibid., 150. 32 . Ibid., 151. 33 . Ibid., 155. 34 . Williams, Prague Spring , 39. Williams cites an unpublished survey of 1968

which indicates that approximately 80% of people supported the reforms, or even wished them to be more radical.

35 . Ibid., 46. 36 . Ibid., 40–1. 37 . For a more nuanced definition of normalisation, see Williams, Prague Spring ,

39–41. 38 . Havel, ‘Czech Destiny?’, 153–4. 39 . Timothy Garton Ash (1990) ‘Mitteleuropa?’, Daedalus , vol. 119 (1), 1–2. In

the same issue, Jacques Rupnik also places Kundera at the forefront of the debate, along with Miłosz, Konrád, and pope-to-be Wojtyła. (Rupnik (1990) ‘Central Europe or Mitteleuropa?’, Daedalus , vol. 119 (1), 250.) Tony Judt identifies Kundera’s input as the moment when Western intellectuals sat up and took notice, although as he points out, similar points had already been made by Mircea Eliade and Miłosz. (Judt (1990) ‘The Rediscovery of Central Europe’, Daedalus , vol. 119 (1), 31–2, 45.)

40 . Kundera (1984) ‘Tragedy of Central Europe’, trans. E. White, New York Review of Books, vol. 31 (7), 26 April, 33–8. The essay was first published as ‘Un occident kidnappé, ou la tragédie de l’Europe centrale’, Le Débat , vol. 27, November 1983, 2–24, and in a further variation as ‘A Kidnapped West or Culture Bows Out’, Granta , vol. 11, 1984.

41 . Ibid., 34. 42 . Ibid., 36. 43 . Ibid., 37. 44 . Rupnik, ‘Central Europe or Mitteleuropa?’, 251. 45 . Larry Wolff (1994) Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind

of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press), 11. 46 . Bradley F. Abrams (2004) The Struggle for the Soul of the Nation: Czech Culture

and the Rise of Communism (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), 159. 47 . Kundera, ‘Tragedy of Central Europe’, 34. 48 . Nataša Kovačević (2008) Narrating Post/ Communism: Colonial Discourse and

Europe’s Borderline Civilization (London: Routledge), 86. 49 . ‘Afterword: A Talk with the Author’ (with Philip Roth) in Kundera, The Book

of Laughter and Forgetting , 235. 50 . Also Susanna Rabow-Edling (2007) Slavophile Thought and the Politics of

Cultural Nationalism (New York: State University of New York Press). On dusha , see Pesmen, Russia and Soul , passim .

51 . Daniel Rancour-Laferriere (1995) The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 69–77, for a discussion of the concept of fate ( sud’ba ) in Russian culture.

52 . Svetlana Boym (1994) Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 3.

53 . Ibid. See also Anna Gladkova (2005) ‘Sočuvstvie and Sostradanie: A Semantic Study of Two Russian Emotions’, Lidil , vol. 32, 35–47.

198 Notes

54 . Lyutost’ is closer to the Czech adjective lítý , which means ‘fierce’. 55 . Wierzbicka, Semantics, Culture, and Cognition, 167. Zhalost’ is described in

terms of a humanistic, empathetic love (166–9). Wierzbicka also notes that ‘another Polish word cognate to (Kunderian) litost and semantically related to it is politowanie, a kind of ‘patronising and smug pity’.(167)

56 . As in the case of the Good Samaritan ( a dobročinny Samaritán ). 57 . Kundera, Unbearable Lightness of Being , 19–20. 58 . Ibid., 20. 59 . See Woods, Translating Milan Kundera , esp. chap. 1, for an overview of the

complex and difficult history of the translation, alteration and rewriting of Kundera’s works, by the author as well as his translators.

60 . Kundera in Elgrably, ‘Conversations with Milan Kundera’, 17. 61 . Woods, Translating Milan Kundera , 180, citing Kundera, ‘The Joke’, Times

Literary Supplement , vol. 30 (October), 1969, 1259. 62 . Ibid., 181. Citing Lawrence Venuti (1998) The Scandals of Translation: Towards

an Ethics of Difference (London: Routledge). 63 . Ibid., 180. 64 . Ibid., 185–6. 65 . Simon Mawer (2009) The Glass Room (London: Abacus), 110–11. 66 . James A. Russell (1991) ‘Culture and the Categorization of Emotions’,

Psychological Bulletin , vol. 110 (3), 426. 67 . Andrew Morris (2011) ‘1970s–1980s “Chinese” Little League Baseball and

Its Discontents’, in Mark L. Moskowitz (ed.) Popular Culture in Taiwan: Charismatic Modernity (New York: Routledge), 40, referring to S. Yan (1992) ‘A New Formulation for Identity’, China Tribune , vol. 384, 32–5.

68 . Kovačević, Narrating Post/ Communism , 9. 69 . On the idea of Mitteleuropa, see, for example, the articles by Jacques Rupnik,

Timothy Garton Ash and Tony Judt in a special issue of Daedalus dedicated to the theme of ‘Eastern Europe ... Central Europe ... Europe’: vol. 119 (1) Winter 1990.

70 . This is the opinion of Czech dissident Milan Jungmann, who famously accused Kundera of trivialising the Czech communist experience to market it to his supposedly shallow Western audiences, and thereby engaging in the ‘mass production of martyr virtue’. (Jungmann (1999) ‘Kunderian Paradoxes,’ [1992] in Peter Petro (ed.) Critical Essays on Milan Kundera (New York: G. K. Hall & Co.), 120.)

5 Culture As Identity

1 . Ladislav Holý (1996) The Little Czech and the Great Czech Nation: National Identity and the Post- Communist Transformation of Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 40, 50–1.

2 . Kundera, ‘Tragedy of Central Europe’, 34. 3 . Jacques Rupnik, ‘Central Europe or Mitteleuropa?’, 256. For a more detailed –

indeed monumental – investigation of this phenomenon, see Tomasz Kamusella (2009) The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan).

4 . Kamusella, Politics of Language and Nationalism, 483–4, 486–7; Holý, Little Czech , 38–9. Alois Jirácek’s nationalistic 1915 novel Temno covers this period.

5 . Holý, Little Czech , 37.

Notes 199

6 . Ibid., 490. Landespatriotismus refers to a patriotism which celebrates both Czech and German traditions, as distinct from the politics of national, linguistic and ethnic categories that became templates for regional identities in the nineteenth century.

7 . Ibid. 8 . Dobrovský also wrote in Latin. Kamusella, Politics of Language and Nationalism ,

107. 9 . Ibid.

10 . Holý, Little Czech, 93. 11 . Ibid., esp. 120–6, a division that obscured the fact that many Germans

were also displaced in the aftermath of White Mountain, and justified the post-war transfer of the Sudeten Germans from land they had ‘stolen’ from the Czechs.

12 . Although as Jaroslav Střítecký has stated: ‘Czech was spoken by a large part of the population and was not threatened by germanisation at all’. (Střítecký (1995) ‘ The Czech Question a Century Later’, Czech Sociological Review, vol. 3 (1), 62.)

13 . Kundera, ‘Czech Destiny’, 145. 14 . Kundera, ‘Radicalism and Exhibitionism’, 160. 15 . Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1966) in Gunnar Heckscher (ed.) The Problem

of Small Nations in the European Crisis: Inaugural Lecture at the University of London, King’s College (London: Athlone Press) [1915].

16 . Eva Schmidt-Hartmann (1984) Thomas G. Masaryk’s Realism: Origins of a Czech Political Concept (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag), 118–19. See also Masaryk’s 1895 ‘The Czech Question’ ( Česka otázka ).

17 . Aveizer Tucker (2000) The Philosophy and Politics of Czech Dissidence from Patočka to Havel (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press), 17, passim .

18 . Střítecký, ‘ The Czech Question a Century Later’, 62–4. 19 . Woods, Translating Milan Kundera , 107. 20 . Kamusella, Politics of Language and Nationalism , 513. 21 . This resentment contributed to the end of Masaryk’s first Czechoslovak

Republic. 22 . Ibid., 515–16. 23 . Ibid. 24 . It should be noted, however, that Masaryk’s view was not the only one.

Ferdinand Peroutka in 1923 tried to destroy assumptions about the goodness of the Czech character ( What we are like ( Jací jsme), 122–3, cited in Derek Sayer (1998) The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 160).

25 . Holý, Little Czech, 119–20. 26 . On passivity and nonresistance see, for example, Stefan Auer (2008) ‘1938

and 1968, 1939 and 1969, and the Philosophy of Czech History from Karel H. Mácha to Jan Patočka’, Europe-Asia Studies , vol. 60 (10), 1682, 1688–9.

27 . Jan Patočka (2002) Plato and Europe , trans. P. Lom (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), 2.

28 . Havel (1985) ‘The Power of the Powerless’ [1978] in John Keane (ed.), The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe), 23–96.

29 . Havel (1991) ‘New Year’s Address’ [1990] in Open Letters: Selected Writings, 1965–1990, trans. and ed. P. Wilson (New York: Knopf), 391.

200 Notes

30 . Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia , 167. 31 . Chad Bryant (2000) ‘Whose Nation?: Czech Dissidents and History Writing

from a Post-1989 Perspective’, History and Memory , vol. 12 (1), 30–64. ‘Podiven’ is the pseudonym for Petr Pithart, Petr Příhoda and Milan Otáhal. Their 1991 book is Češi v dějinách nové doby: pokus o zrcadlo ( Czechs in the Modern Era: An Attempt at Self-Reflection ) (Prague: Rozmluvy).

32 . Patočka considered the crisis the Czechs seemed to be perpetually facing as a problem of leadership, as well as Czech ‘pettiness’, and was scathingly critical of the Czechs for having failed to grasp freedom when presented to them. (Aviezer Tucker (1996) ‘Shipwrecked: Patočka’s Philosophy of Czech History’, History and Theory , Vol. 35 (2), 206, 210.)

33 . Ibid., 30–3. 34 . Holý, Little Czech , 62. See also 72–3, 75–6, 164, 167, 202. 35 . Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia , 160. 36 . Andrew Roberts (2005) From Good King Wenceslas to the Good Soldier Švejk: A

Dictionary of Czech Popular Culture (Budapest and New York: Central European University Press), 100.

37 . Ibid. 38 . Bert Peeters has written comprehensively on this topic. See, for example,

Peeters (2004) ‘Tall Poppies and Egalitarianism in Australian Discourse’, English World- Wide , vol. 25 (1), 1–25.

39 . Kundera (1991) Immortality , trans. P. Kussi (New York: Grove Weidenfeld), 344. 40 . See Klara Lutsky (2009) ‘Kundera’s Reception in the West (1970–1990)’, in

Agnieszka Gutthy (ed.), Literature in Exile of East and Central Europe (New York: Peter Lang Publishing), 105–20.

41 . Related by Ladislav Verecký, in ‘Milan Kundera: Spisovatel, který se skrývá’, Lidové noviny , 29 November 2001, 12, cited in Woods, Translating Milan Kundera , 152 (Woods’ translation).

42 . Craig Stephen Cravens (2006) Culture and Customs of the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), 87.

43 . Padraic Kenney (2002) Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), passim . See also Mikhail Bahktin’s theory of carnival: Bahktin (1965) Rabelais and His World , trans. H. Iswolsky (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), passim .

44 . The Czech New Wave is not to be confused with the French Nouvelle Vague – although both arose in the 1960s their influences, techniques and foci differed.

45 . Cravens, Culture and Customs , 87. 46 . Philip Roth (2001) ‘Conversation in London and Connecticut with Milan

Kundera’, in Shop Talk: A Writer and His Colleagues and Their Work (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), 94. Originally published in the New York Times Book Review , 1980.

47 . Czesław Miłosz (1978) ‘Not This Way’ (poem), trans. L. Vallee, World Literature Today , Vol. 52 (3), 378. Irony is also one of the things labeled by James C. Scott as a ‘weapon of the weak’. Scott (1985) Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Newhaven: Yale University Press), 350.

48 . Mark Weeks (2005) ‘Milan Kundera: A Modern History of Humor amid the Comedy of History’, Journal of Modern Literature , vol. 28 (3), 133.

49 . Hans Speier (1998) ‘Wit and Politics: An Essay on Power and Laughter’ [1975], American Journal of Sociology , vol. 103 (5), 1358.

Notes 201

50 . Kundera (2005) The Art of the Novel (London: Faber and Faber) [1968], 125. 51 . Kenney, Carnival of Revolution , 5. 52 . Kundera (2003) ‘The Theatre of Memory’, The Guardian, 17 May 2003,

http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2003/may/17/featuresreviews.guardianreview34.

53 . Kundera, ‘Jerusalem Address: The Novel and Europe’, in Art of the Novel , 160.

54 . From Kundera’s speech to the Fourth Congress of the Czechoslovak Writers in June 1967, quoted in Ladislav Matějka, ‘Milan Kundera’s Central Europe’, in Peter Petro (ed.) (1999) Critical Essays on Milan Kundera (New York: G. K. Hall & Co.), 211. Originally printed in Cross Currents , 1990, vol. 9, 127–34. A full text of the speech can be found at http://www.pwf.cz/export/clanek-pdf.php?clanek_id=897&show.

55 . Only the Estonians give the Czechs a run for their money in pursuing the title of Europe’s ‘most atheistic’ nation. (Cravens, Culture and Customs , 23.) More detailed data can be found in Olga Nešporová and Zdeněk R. Nešpor (2009) ‘Religion: An Unsolved Problem for the Modern Czech Nation’, Czech Sociological Review , vol. 45 (6), esp. 1217.

56 . Kenney, Carnival of Revolution , 35; Milan J. Reban (1990) ‘The Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia’, in Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.), Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), 142–55, passim.

57 . Kundera, Book of Laughter and Forgetting, 65–6. 58 . Rona M. Fields (2004) Martyrdom: The Psychology, Theology, and Politics of Self-

Sacrifice (Westport, CT: Praeger), 24.

Introduction to Part III

1 . Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul , 6. 2 . Nobelprize.org, ‘The Nobel Prize in Literature 2006 – Press Release’, http://

www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2006/press.html. 3 . Hereafter, the English version will be referred to as Istanbul and the Turkish,

İstanbul . To refer to the book in general, the English Istanbul will be used. 4 . Pamuk also expounded his theory of hüzün in a paper written at around

the same time as Istanbul but published several years later. This paper seems to constitute a draft for some ideas in the book, rather than an extension of them. Pamuk (2008) ‘Hüzün-melancholy-tristesse of Istanbul’ in Andreas Huyssen (ed.), Other Cities, Other Worlds: Urban Imaginaries in a Globalizing Age (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).

5 . Pamuk (2004) Snow , trans. M. Freely (London: Faber & Faber) [2002]. 6 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 81. 7 . Ibid., 82. 8 . Ibid., 96. 9 . Vladimír Macura (1992) Šťastný Věk: Symboly, Emblémy a Mýty 1948–1989

(Prague: Pražská Imaginace), 13, cited in Robert B. Pynsent (1994) Questions of Identity: Czech and Slovak Ideas of Nationality and Personality (London: Central European University Press), 180.

10 . In the last few decades, a campaign to highlight Turkey’s role as a bridge between cultures has been resurrected. See Ayfer Bartu (1999) ‘Who Owns

202 Notes

the Old Quarters? Rewriting Histories in a Global Era’, in Çağlar Keyder, (ed.) Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), 31–46.

6 Defining Memories

1 . ‘Hüzün’ entry in: New Redhouse Turkish- English Dictionary (1983); Redhouse Büyük Elsözlüğü: İngilizce-Türkçe , Türk çe - İngilizce (2000); Fono Büyük Sözlük: Fransizca-Türkçe, Türk çe- Fransizca (2004).

2 . That is, ‘ amertume ’, according to the Fono Büyük Sözlük: Fransizca-Türkçe, Türk çe- Fransizca .

3 . In Turkish, kara means black and sevda , love. In Serbian, however, sevda relates to melancholic love; the theory is that the word derives from both Turkish sevda and Arabic saudá (‘blackness’ – see endnote no. 4, p. 187). In the Balkans, sevdalinka is a popular folk music genre, often characterised by mournful love songs. See: Marko Živković (2011) Serbian Dreambook: National Imaginary in the Time of Milošević (Bloomington: Indiana University Press), 56–7; Risto Pekka Pennanen (2010) ‘Melancholic Airs of the Orient – Bosnian Sevdalinka Music as an Orientalist and National Symbol’, in Pennanen (ed.), Music and Emotions. Studies across Disciplines in the Humanities and Social Sciences 9 (Helsinki: Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies), 76–90.

4 . ‘Hüzün’ (2004) Ansiklopedik Edebiyat Terimleri Sözlüğü (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları).

5 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 81. 6 . Ibid. 7 . Ibid. 8 . ‘ Hüzün ’ entry in Mehmet Zeki Pakalin (1993) Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve

Terimleri Sözlügü , vol. 1 (İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınlar). 9 . Ibid., 82–3.

10 . Ibid., 91. 11 . See, for example, Aslı Çırakman (2002) From the “Terror of the World” to the

“Sick Man of Europe”: European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth (New York: Peter Lang Publishing).

12 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 92. 13 . Ibid., 103. 14 . Pamuk (2007) Other Colours: Writings on Life, Art, Books and Cities , trans. M.

Freely (London: Faber & Faber), 9, 180. 15 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 103. 16 . Geert Mak (2008) The Bridge: A Journey Between Orient and Occident , trans. S.

Parker (London: Vintage). 17 . Engin F. Işın (2010) ‘The Soul of a City: Hüzün, Keyif , Longing’, in Deniz

Göktürk, Levent Soysal, İpek Türeli (eds), Istanbul: Cultural Capital of Europe? (London: Routledge), 35–47.

18 . Richard Francis Burton (1893) Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah (London: Tylston & Edwards), quoted in Işın, ‘The Soul of a City’, 43.

19 . Işın, ‘The Soul of a City’, 36–7. 20 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 216. Pamuk cites Benjamin’s introduction to Franz Hessel’s

Walks in Berlin (1929), ‘The Return of the Flaneur’.

Notes 203

21 . Pamuk, interview with Joy E. Stocke (2007) ‘The Melancholy Life of Orhan Pamuk’, Wild River Review , vol. 1 (1), http://www.wildriverreview.com/1/wnt2006-spotlight_pamuk.html.

22 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 313. 23 . Ibid. 24 . Ibid., 158–9. 25 . Ibid., 8. A more recent English-language edition sports the altered title

Memories of the City . In other language translations it varies between faithful-ness to the original and offering a slight variation of it – the Russian title, for instance, is City of Memories – Город воспоминаний.

26 . Ibid. 27 . Ibid., 265. 28 . Pamuk, ‘Interview with Joy E. Stocke’. 29 . Ibid. 30 . From ‘Freedom to Write’, cited in Michael McGaha (2008) Autobiographies

of Orhan Pamuk: The Writer in His Novels (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press), 29.

31 . A comprehensive account of the controversy can be found in McGaha, Autobiographies of Orhan Pamuk , 1–16.

32 . On the trial and Pamuk’s growing political consciousness, see his current English translator Maureen Freely’s article ‘ “I Stand by my Words. And Even More, I Stand by my Right to Say Them ... ” ’, The Observer , 23 October 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/oct/23/books.turkey.

33 . It is outside the scope of this study to examine translations in other languages.

34 . Pamuk, İstanbul , passim. 35 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 91. 36 . Işın, ‘Soul of a City’, 41. 37 . OECD (2012), OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2012 , OECD Publishing. doi:

10.1787/eco_surveys-tur-2012-en. 38 . See, for example, Daniel Steinvorth (2009) ‘Nostalgia for the Ottomans:

Disillusioned with Europe, Turkey looks East’, 12 November 2009, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,660635,00.html.

39 . Paul Salem (2001) Turkey’s Image in the Arab World (Istanbul: TESEV [Turkish Economic & Social Studies Foundation] Foreign Policy Programme), http://www.boell-meo.org/downloads/20110606_Paul_Salem_study.pdf.

40 . Results of the annual Transatlantic Trends Survey 2010. German Marshall Fund of the United States (2010) ‘Transatlantic Trends: Key Findings 2010’ (Washington, DC: German Marshall Fund and Compagnia di San Paolo), at: http://trends.gmfus.org/files/archived/doc/2010_English_Key.pdf, 23–6.

41 . German Marshall Fund (2013) ‘Transatlantic Trends: Key Findings 2013’ (Washington DC: German Marshall Fund and Compagnia di San Paolo), 46, http://trends.gmfus.org/files/2013/09/TTrends-2013-Key-Findings-Report.pdf.

42 . Ibid. 43 . Some political Islamists have also found benefits in jumping on the

Eurosceptic bandwagon. Hakan Yılmaz (2011) ‘Euroscepticism in Turkey: Parties, Elites, and Public Opinion’, South European Society and Politics, vol. 16 (1), 189.

204 Notes

44 . Pamuk himself has recently commented on this. See Pamuk (2010) ‘The Fading Dream of Europe,’ December 2010, http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2010/dec/25/fading-dream-europe/.

45 . Yael Navaro-Yasin (1999) ‘The Historical Construction of Local Culture: Gender and Identity in the Politics of Secularism in Islam’, in Keyder, Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local , 60–1.

46 . Ibid., 60. 47 . On authenticity and modernity from a Marxist perspective, see Marshall

Berman (2009) The Politics of Authenticity: Radical Individualism and the Emergence of Modern Society (London: Verso) [1970].

48 . Ziya Gökalp (1968) The Principles of Turkism, trans. R. Devereaux (Leiden: E. J. Brill) [1920], 33.

49 . Ibid., 39. Gökalp was not alone is these thoughts. Abdullah Cevdet, a contemporary, commented in 1913 that ‘Civilization means European civili-zation, and it must be imported with its roses and thorns’. Quoted in Talat S. Halman (2006) The Turkish Muse: Views and Reviews 1960s–1990s , (New York: Syracuse University Press), 6 (no further citation located).

50 . Gökalp, Principles of Turkism, 40–6. 51 . In 1920, 75% of words in the vocabulary derived from Arabic, Persian and

French; by 1970, this proportion was down to 20%. (Halman, The Turkish Muse , 19–20.) See also Geoffrey Lewis (1999) The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

52 . Halman, The Turkish Muse, 5. An Italian model penal code, and German code of commercial law were also put in place.

53 . Soner Çağaptay (2006) Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk? (London: Routledge), chap. 1, 4–10.

54 . Ibid., 6. 55 . Ibid., 5. 56 . Ibid., 7–8. 57 . Ibid., 14, 159–60. 58 . Figures given for Muslims in Turkey vary, but all exceed 95%. United States

Library of Congress (2008) Country Profile: Turkey , August 2008, 10, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf.

59 . Carel Bertram (2008) Imagining the Turkish House: Collective Visions of Home (Austin: University of Texas Press), 242–3.

60 . Ayşe Öncü (1999) ‘Istanbulites and Others: The Cultural Cosmology of Being Middle Class in the Era of Globalism’, in Keyder, Istanbul Between the Global and the Local , 95.

61 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 103. 62 . See, for example, BBC News, ‘ “Kurdish Can be Taught in Turkey’s Schools”,

Erdogan Says’, 12 June 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18410596; Human Rights Watch, Turkey Country Summary, January 2012, http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/turkey_2012.pdf.

63 . On the relationship between language and identity in Turkey, see, for example: Yılmaz Bingöl (2009) ‘Language, Identity and Politics in Turkey: Nationalist Discourse on Creating a Common Turkic Language’, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 8 (2), 40–52.

64 . Ziya Gökalp ‘National Language’, in Gökalp (1959) Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization: Selected Essays of Ziya Gökalp , trans. & ed. Niyazi Berkes

Notes 205

(New York: Columbia University Press), 83. Originally published as ‘ Lisan ’, in Türk Yurdu , vol. 3 (36), Istanbul, 1913.

65 . See, for example, Caroline Finkel (2006) Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 , which emphasises change in the Empire over decline. (New York: Basic Books).

66 . Cemil Aydin (2007) The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan- Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought (New York: Columbia University Press), 16.

67 . Edhem Eldem (1999) ‘Istanbul: From Imperial to Peripheralized Capital’, in Eldem, Daniel Goffman and Bruce Masters, The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, Istanbul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 198.

68 . Aydin, Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia, 15. 69 . Erik J. Zürcher (2004) Turkey: A Modern History , 3rd ed. (London and New York:

I. B. Tauris), 51–6. For a discussion of the internal as well as external factors behind the reforms, see Eldem, ‘Istanbul: From Imperial to Peripheralized Capital’, 196–205.

70 . Çağaptay, Islam and Secularism , 8. 71 . Maxime Rodinson (2002) Europe and the Mystique of Islam , trans. R. Veinus

(London: I. B. Tauris), 59. 72 . Erol Köroğlu (2007) Ottoman Propaganda and Turkish Identity: Literature in

Turkey During World War I (New York: I. B. Tauris), 57. 73 . Sibel Bozdoğan and Reşat Kasaba, ‘Introduction to Bozdoğan and Kasaba’

(eds) (1997) Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press), 3–4. This position was exemplified by Bernard Lewis ( The Emergence of Modern Turkey ) and Daniel Lerner ( The Passing of Traditional Society ).

74 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 16.

7 Occidental Tourism

1 . See, for example Hans Pols (2003) ‘Anomie in the Metropolis: The City in American Sociology and Psychiatry’, Osiris , vol. 18, 194–211.

2 . Buruma and Margalit, Occidentalism , 40. 3 . Guy Debord (1983) Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black & Red). 4 . Tanil Bora (1999) ‘Istanbul of the Conqueror: The “Alternative Global City”

Dreams of Political Islam’, in Keyder, Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local , 51–2.

5 . Ibid., 48–9. 6 . Eldem, ‘Istanbul: From Imperial to Peripheralized Capital’, 205. 7 . Murat Gül (2009) The Emergence of Modern Istanbul: Transformation and

Modernisation of a City (New York: I. B. Tauris). For a more architectural focus, see Zeynep Çelik (1986) The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press).

8 . Gecekondu means literally ‘put up at night’. They are so named because they were often constructed between dusk and dawn, in order to circum-vent building regulations. According to Robert Neuwirth, roughly half of Istanbul’s population live in such dwellings. Neuwirth (2005) Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World (New York: Routledge), 8.

206 Notes

9 . Perry Anderson (2008) ‘After Kemal’, London Review of Books , 25 September 2008, 15.

10 . Ibid., 14–15. 11 . Ibid., 15. 12 . Ayşe Öncü (1997) ‘The Myth of the “Ideal Home” ’ Travels Across Cultural

Borders to Istanbul’, in Ayşe Öncü and Petra Weyland (eds), Space, Culture and Power: New Identities in Globalizing Cities (London: Zed Books), 56–7.

13 . Çağlar Keyder (1999) ‘A Tale of Two Neighborhoods’, in Keyder (ed.) Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), 181–2.

14 . Daniella Kuzmanovic (2010) ‘Project Culture and Turkish Civil Society’, Turkish Studies , vol. 11 (3), 429–31.

15 . Ibid., 430. 16 . Ibid., 430–1. 17 . Bora, ‘Istanbul of the Conqueror’, 48–9. 18 . Gül, Emergence of Modern Istanbul , 178–9. 19 . Öncü, ‘The Myth of the “Ideal Home” ’, 57. 20 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 226–7. The chapter is entitled ‘The Hüzün of the Ruins:

Tanpınar and Yahya Kemal in the City’s Poor Neighbourhoods’. (In Turkish: ‘ Yıkıntıların Hüznü: Tanpınar ile Yahya Kemal Kenar Mahallelerde’ – kenar mahal-leler are poor neighbourhoods on the outskirts of the city.)

21 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 224. 22 . Pamuk, ‘Fires and Ruins’, Other Colours, 69. 23 . Pierre Nora (1989) ‘Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire’,

Representations , vol. 26, 7. 24 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 84–9. 25 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 226. 26 . Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, from an information panel at the Santralistanbul

“İstanbul 1910–2010: The City, Built Environment and Architectural Culture Exhibition”, September 2010–January 2011. (Original source not located.)

27 . İpek Türeli (2010) ‘Ara Güler’s Photography of “Old Istanbul” and Cosmopolitan Nostalgia’, History of Photography , vol. 34 (3), 300–4.

28 . Güler was working as a photojournalist during these decades, and his best-known images come from this time. Ibid., 300.

29 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 215. 30 . Ibid., 31–2. 31 . Pamuk (2006) The Black Book , trans. M. Freely (London: Faber) [1994]; (2009)

The Museum of Innocence , trans. M. Freely (London: Faber & Faber) [2008]. 32 . Buruma and Margalit, Occidentalism , passim. 33 . Jun’ichirō Tanizaki (1984) In Praise of Shadows , trans. Thomas J. Harper &

Edward G. Seidensticker (Tokyo: Tuttle) [1933], 31. 34 . See Hiromi Mizuno (2009) Science for the Empire: Scientific Nationalism in

Modern Japan (Stanford: Stanford General). 35 . Fritzsche, Stranded in the Present, 65, citing Vladimir Jankélévitch (1974)

L’Irréversible et la Nostalgie (Paris: Flammarion). 36 . Joseph Brodsky (1994) ‘The Condition We Call Exile: An Address’, in Marc

Robinson (ed.), Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile (London: Faber & Faber), 8. 37 . Ibid.

Notes 207

38 . Jennifer Noyon (2001) ‘Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil’s Hikaye (the Novel) and Westernization in the Late Ottoman Empire’, in Walter Andrews (ed.), Intersections in Turkish Literature: Essays in Honor of James Stewart- Robinson (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press), 129–32.

39 . Ibid., 126, 129–30. The restrictions of the Hamidian years (1876–1909) came about partly as a crackdown on the criticisms of Ottoman leadership levelled by the Tanzimatists.

40 . Gökalp, Principles of Turkism, 26–7. 41 . Charles Baudelaire (1964) ‘The Painter of Modern Life’ (1886), in The Painter

of Modern Life and Other Essays , trans. & ed. J. Mayne (London: Phaidon), 9. 42 . Walter Benjamin (1973) ‘Paris – Capital of the Nineteenth Century’ [1935],

in Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, trans. H. Zohn (London: New Left Books), 84–5.

43 . Sana dun bir tepeden baktım aziz İstanbul Gormedim gezmediğim sevmediğim hic bir yer Omrum oldukca gonul tahtıma keyfince kurul Sade bir semtini sevmek bile bir omre değer . First stanza of Yahya Kemal’s ‘Beloved Istanbul’ cited in Martin Stokes (2010) The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 157. The translation is by Stokes.

44 . Ibid., 147. 45 . Ibid., 148–50. 46 . Martin Stokes (1992) The Arabesk Debate: Music and Musicians in Modern

Turkey (Oxford: Clarendon Press), 1. 47 . Ayşe Öncü, ‘Istanbulites and Others’, 104–5. On fado ’s status, see Colvin, The

Reconstruction of Lisbon , esp. 30, 40. 48 . Ibid., 10; Meral Özbek (1997) ‘Arabesk Culture: A Case of Modernization and

Popular Identity’, in Bozdoğan & Kasaba, Rethinking Modernity , 211. 49 . Özbek, ‘Arabesk Culture’, 211–12. At same time, the growth of the local

film industry, known as Yeşilcam , portrayed the city and its new character in popular films. Asuman Suner (2010) New Turkish Cinema: Belonging, Identity and Memory (London: I. B. Tauris), 3.

50 . Özbek, ‘Arabesk Culture’, 215. 51 . Çırakman, ‘From the “Terror of the World” to the “Sick Man of Europe” ’,

passim . 52 . Pierre Loti (2005) Constantinople in 1890 , 2nd ed., trans. D. Ball (Istanbul:

Ünlem Basım Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti.). Original title: Fantôme d’Orient: Constantinople en 1890 (Paris: Calmann-Lévy [1892], 33.

53 . Ibid., 7. 54 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 213. 55 . Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1979) Reveries of the Solitary Walker , trans. P. France

(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books) [c. 1777]. 56 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 81. 57 . Ibid. 58 . Max Weber (1946) ‘Science as a Vocation’ in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright

Mills (trans. and ed.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press), 129–56. Originally published as “ Wissenschaft als Beruf ”, in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre ( Collected Essays on the Theory of Science), Tübingen, J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1973 [1922], 524–55. Delivered first as a speech at Munich University in 1918, and published

208 Notes

by Duncker & Humblodt, Munich, 1919. The expression is borrowed from Friedrich Schiller.

59 . Christopher Partridge (2004) The Re- Enchantment of the West , Vol. 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture (London: T & T Clark International), 8–9, 11.

60 . In fact, he sees the rise of fundamentalist religion in general as evidence which supports his thesis, suggesting that it is coeval with the rise of Western spiritualisms. Ibid., 11, 38.

61 . M. Hakan Yavuz (1999) ‘The Assassination of Collective Memory: the Case of Turkey’, The Muslim World , vol. 89 (3), 194.

62 . Brian Silverstein (2007) ‘Sufism and Modernity in Turkey: From the Authenticity of Experience to the Practice of Discipline’, in Martin van Bruisnessen and Julia Day Howell (eds), Sufism and the ‘Modern’ in Islam (London and New York; I. B. Tauris), 39.

63 . Partridge, Re- Enchantment of the West , 87; 87–118. 64 . Silverstein, ‘Sufism and Modernity in Turkey’, 56. 65 . Ibid. 66 . Ibid., 40. 67 . See Nicholas Birch (2010) ‘Sufism in Turkey: The Next Big Thing?’, 22 June

2010, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/61379. 68 . Ibid. 69 . See, for example, Patrick Haenni and Raphaël Voix (2007) ‘God by all

Means ... Eclectic Faith and Sufi Resurgence Among the Moroccan Bourgeoisie’, in Bruisnessen and Howell, Sufism and the ‘Modern’ in Islam , 241–56.

70 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 165. 71 . Ibid., 166. Mevlana is the Turkish name for the Persian Sufi poet Rumi. 72 . See Amira El-Zain (2000) ‘Spiritual Consumption in the United States:

The Rumi Phenomenon’, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations , vol. 11 (1), 71–85. Pamuk’s interest in Sufi poetry was apparently born during his time in America, after learning that friends admired it. (Gaha, Autobiographies of Orhan Pamuk , 30.)

73 . èerif Mardin (2010) in Radikal (25 May 2008), quoted in Halil M. Karaveli, ‘‘An Unfulfilled Promise of Enlightenment: Kemalism and Its Liberal Critics’’, Turkish Studies , vol. 11 (1), 89.

74 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 168. 75 . Andrew Gibson (2010) ‘On Not Being Forgivable: Four Meditations on Europe,

Islam and the “New World Order” ’, South Central Review , vol. 27 (3), 92. 76 . Nurdan Gürbilek (2011) ‘Child of Agony’, in V. R. Holbrook (trans.), The

New Cultural Climate in Turkey: Living in a Shop Window (London: Zed Books), 121–2.

77 . Suner, New Turkish Cinema , 41. 78 . Gürbilek, ‘Child of Agony’, 125. 79 . Esra Akcan (2005) ‘Melancholy and the “other”’, http://www.eurozine.com/

articles/2005–08–25-akcan-en.html. First published in Cogito , vol. 43, 2005. See also Akcan on hüzün , in particular: ‘The Melancholies of Istanbul’, World Literature Today , vol. 80 (6), 2006.

80 . Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism , and Nationalism , 6. 81 . Ibid., 6–7. 82 . Ibid., 7–8. 83 . Pamuk, ‘The Anger of the Damned’, in Other Colours, 218–21.

Notes 209

84 . Ottoman poet Sabit (Thābit – d. 1712), ‘Masnawi’ in Mevlut Ceylan (ed.) (1996) Istanbul Poems , trans. N. Menemencioğlu (Istanbul: Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul Head of the Department for Cultural Affairs), 20.

85 . Gökalp, Principles of Turkism , 26–7, 34. 86 . Elif Şafak (2006) in Angie Brenner, ‘A Writer on the Edge of Her Culture’,

http://www.wildriverreview.com/1/wnt2006-spotlight_shafak.html. 87 . See, for example, Cihan Tuğal (2008) ‘The Greening of Istanbul’, New Left

Review, May-June 2008, 78; Soli Özel (2007) ‘Turkey Faces West’, Wilson Quarterly , Winter 2007, 25.

88 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 81. 89 . Rumi, ‘Story XIV – Miracles Performed by the Prophet Mohammed’, in (2008)

The Masnavi I Ma’navi of Rumi: Complete By Maulana Jalalu-‘ ’d-din Muhammad Rumi , abrid. & trans. E. H. Whinfield (London: Forgotten Books) [1898], 132.

90 . Gökalp (1959) ‘New Life and New Values’ (‘Yeni Hayat ve Yeni Kıymetler’), published in Genç Kalemler (no. 8, Salonika, 1911), using the pseudonym ‘Demirtaş’, reprinted in Gökalp, Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization, 56. Incidentally, one of Pamuk’s early novels is also titled The New Life .

91 . See, for instance, Jonathan Lewis (2011) ‘Turkey: Istanbul Gentrification Opens Second Front in Culture War’’, 3 January 2011, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62653.

92 . Bernhard Zand (2010) ‘Anatolian Tiger: How the West is Losing Turkey’, 15 June 2010, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,700626,00.html.

93 . Fabrizio Tassinari (2008) ‘Variable Geometries: Institutions, Power, and Ideas in Turkey’s European Integration Process’, in Noel Parker (ed.), The Geopolitics of Europe’s Identity: Centers, Boundaries and Margins (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 219. The concept is Parker’s.

94 . Ioannis N. Grigoriadis (2009) Trials of Europeanization: Turkish Political Culture and the European Union (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 75.

95 . Ahmet Sözen (2010) ‘A Paradigm Shift in Turkish Foreign Policy: Transition and Challenges’, Turkish Studies , vol. 11 (1), 103–23.

96 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 211. 97 . European Commission (2013) ‘Turkey’, European Economic Forecast (European

Union), http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/european_economy/2013/pdf/ee1_en.pdf; Justin Vela (2011) ‘Turkey: Are Turkish Youngsters Too Smart?’, 15 November 2011, http://www.eurasianet.org/node/64519.

Conclusion to Part III

1 . Pamuk, Istanbul , 218–19.

Conclusion

1 . Nabokov, 322. Nabokov transforms poshlost’ , the typical transliteration of пошлость, into the more playful poshlust’ . When spoken, the word does also sound more like poshlust’.

2 . Sigmund Freud (1976) Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious , tr. James Strachey (London: Penguin) [1905], 203.

210

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227

A Águia (journal), 35–6, 47, 50, 62, 65, 69–71, 73

abandonment, 84–6, 95, 101, 114–15, 118, 164, 176

absurdity, 112–14acedia, 10–11aesthetics, 22–3, 56–7, 59, 75, 80, 84,

124, 128, 131–3, 140, 143, 151, 154–6, 173, 178

Afonso Henriques (Afonso I), 62AKP (Justice and Development Party),

123, 137–9, 169–70see also Erdoğan

alienation, 16–17, 24, 48–52, 114, 122, 142, 149, 163, 167, 172, 175, 179

see also peripheralityAnkara, 149arabesk music, 126, 158Arabic

culture, 17, 122, 126–7, 142, 156language, 43, 53, 122, 126–7, 131,

137, 144, 187Aristotelian Problems, 21Armenian genocide, 130, 135Armenians, 130, 133Art

and politics, 25, 88, 129–30, 134–5, 157

Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 138, 141–2, 146, 165, see also Kemalism

Australia, see tall poppy syndromeauthenticity, 15, 18, 25, 38–9, 57, 99,

134–5, 137, 139–40, 142, 155, 163, 171, 173, 180

autosterotypes, 20, 110–11, 117bom povo português, 70malý český člověk, 109–10Zé Povinho, 71, 109, 111see also Tanizaki

Avicenna, see Ibn Sina

banzo, 11–12

Barrett, James A., 100Bartra, Roger, 24–5Baudelaire, Charles, 60, 132, 157–8,

160Bauman, Zygmunt, 74belonging, 9, 13, 23, 32, 43, 97,

114–15, 142–4, 175, 180Benjamin, Walter, 65, 132, 157–8Bergson, Henri, 60–1, 75, 178

durée réelle, 61élan vital, 61

Bertram, Carel, 143Birch, Nicholas, 162Boym, Svetlana, 18–19, 97Brazil, 11–12, 44, 46–7, 54, 58,

66–7bridges

between cultures, 123, 177The Bridge (Mak), 130–1, 159

Brodsky, Joseph, 156, 164Burton, Richard Francis, 131Burton, Robert, 17, 127Buruma, Ian, 155

Çağaptay, Soner, 141–2, 146–7, 165Camões, Luís Vaz de, 57, 62–4, 76

The Lusiads, 44–5, 62Cancioneiro Popular, 64Cardoso, Miguel Esteves, 67–8Cartwright, Samuel Adolphus, see

drapetomaniaCatalan Renaissance, 72Catholicism, 35, 43, 51, 53–5, 60, 76,

115, 180Caucasus, 170censorship, 80–1, 89, 99, 135, 157Central Asia, 170Central Europe, 82, 88, 94–7, 102,

105, 109, 114–15, 118, 179Chagos Islanders, 12, 180Charter, 77, 108Cheyne, George, 21–2Chiang Kai-shek, 168

Index

228 Index

childhood, 68–70, 122, 124, 133, 154, 163–4, 171–2, 176, see also immaturity

Chinese medicine, see humoral medicine

CHP (Republican People’s Party), 169

Christianity, 11, 31, 53–5, 59, 75, 115–16, 142, 160, 180, see also Catholicism

Chytilová, Věra, Daises, 112cinema

Czech, 112Turkish, 158, 164

Cipolla, Gaetano, 17cities, 132, 134, 149, 153, 166–7

as sites of corruption, 62, 149see also Istanbul

civilisation, 17–18, 30–1, 33–4, 48–9, 50, 70, 95–6, 116, 127, 135, 139–41, 163, 165–6, 172

class, 21–5, 71, 110, 130, 158, 162, 178

climatology, 19–20Coimbra, Leonardo, 73Coimbra Question, 48–9collective effervescence, 112communism, 9, 81, 83, 88, 90–1, 93,

99, 108–9, 112, 115, see also Czech communism

compassion, 85, 97–8, 163, see also empathy

Constantinople, see IstanbulCortesão, Jaime, 73cosmopolitanism, 49, 73, 105, 149

of Istanbul, 128, 130, 141, 143, 145, 149, 151, 155, 172, 179

multiethnicity, 106, 154, 179creativity, 91crisis, 22, 24–5, 31, 34, 40–3, 45–6, 67,

76, 82, 90, 105, 107, 114, 132, 156, 162, 172, 174–5, 177–9

financial, 29, 36, 42, 46, 137, 167, 170, 175

cultural specificity, 1–2, 8–10, 22–3, 25, 30, 33, 52, 82, 97, 155, passim

see also essentialism

Czech landsBattle of White Mountain, 103–4,

110communism, 83, 88, 90, 93, 109,

115Czech National Revival, 104–5, 107,

117Fourth Czechoslovak Writer’s

Conference, 90Germanisation, 104–5, 110identity, 81–3, 94–9, 101–11,

115–16irreligiosity, 115manuscript forgeries, 185normalisation, 81, 89, 92–3, 100,

108, 118Prague Spring, 79, 90, 93, 108, 117Soviet invasion of Prague, 80–2,

89–91, 93, 105, 108, 111, 117–18

Velvet Revolution, 101Czechness, see Czech identity

Dasein (Heidegger), 33decadence, 59, 67, 149, 155, 157Debord, Guy, 149definition, see namingdepression, 10, 14, 22–3, 71, 132

see also melancholydestiny, see fateDiego Garcia, see Chagos Islandersdisenchantment, 23, 160–1disillusion, 18, 29, 42, 45, 47, 49, 63,

72–3, 75, 82, 87–8, 101–2, 109, 115–16, 118, 147, 157, 166, 174–6, 178, 181

dissidence, 5, 82, 91, 106, 108, 118, 167

Dobrovský, Joseph, 104dor, 38drapetomania, 12Du Bois, W. E. B., 18Dubček, Alexander, 79–80, 89Durkheim, Émile, see collective

effervescence

El Kindi (Alkindus), 127Eliade, Mircea, 197elites, see intelligentsia

Index 229

emotions, 6, 15, 21–3, 32, 38, 52, 57, 71, 98, 172, 175, 179

empathy, 15, 65, 85, 98–9, 159, see also compassion

EnglishEnglish Malady, see Cheynelanguage, 4, 11, 179people and character, 21–4, 65, 71

the Enlightenment, 14, 20, 22–3, 25, 30, 43, 59, 96, 104, 161, 178

ennui, 22, 33Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 137–9, 151,

see also AKPesotericism, 53, 60, 102, 126, 160–1essentialism, 20, 25, 31, 34, 39, 50–8,

61, 63–4, 66, 69, 71, 75, 84, 94–5, 101, 109, 111, 136, 140, 142, 173, 175, 177–81

Estado Novo (New State), see SalazarEuropean Union, 52

Turkish candidature, 123, 138, 144, 165

Euro-scepticism, 51, 138, 178exile, 66, 82, 91, 102, 111, 115–16,

118, 156Eylül (Rauf), 157

fado music, 35, 158faith, 40–1, 45, 55, 57, 73, 82, 90, 93,

114–16, 160, 163, 180fate, fatalism, 11, 13, 15–19, 24–5, 45,

47–9, 53–5, 66, 71, 75, 80–4, 87–9, 92–9, 102, 108–9, 111, 114, 116–18, 121–2, 129–30, 145, 153, 155, 158–9, 171–3, 175–81

bahala na, 53shikata ga nai, 53

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 10flâneur, 134, 153, 157–8, 160, 172folk culture, 64, 70–1, 178four lonely melancholy writers, 129,

133see also Hisar; Kemal Beyatlı; Koçu;

TanpınarFrance, 21–2, 34, 42, 46, 48, 60, 62,

178attitudes to English, 21, 23–4criticism of Kundera, 111–12

and Turkey, 124, 129, 157, 159–60, 172

Freud, Sigmund, 17, 63, 113, 175Freyre, Gilberto

Lusotropicalism, 58Fritzsche, Peter, 34

Galen, 14Galicia (Spain), 38Garrett, Almeida, 34, 59, 61–2gecekondus (shanty towns), 150, 158Geração de, 49Germany, 20, 22, 33, 42, 63, 83, 97,

103–7, 110, 172, 178Gibson, Andrew, 164Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 22Gökalp, Ziya, 140–1, 144, 146–7, 157,

165–6, 168Good Soldier Švejk (Hašek), 110–11grief, 14, 45, 68, 85, 126–7, 132–3,

160, 163, 167Güler, Ara, 154Gürbilek, Nurdan, 164

happiness, see joyHavel, Václav, 5, 13, 81–2, 89, 91–4,

105, 108–9, 112, 117–18, 145, 167–8

Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 10, 20, 64, 75, 95–6, 103, 144, 178

Hisar, Abdülhak Şinasi, 129, 132Hofer, Johannes, 12–13Holý, Ladislav, 109hope and hopelessness, 16–18, 47, 50,

54, 64, 66, 72–3, 76, 82, 87–8, 90–1, 93, 96, 101, 108, 111, 113–14, 116, 118, 126, 130, 138–9, 144, 157–8, 166, 170, 175–6, 181

humoral medicine, 14, 187humour, 91, 101, 111–14, 175Hungary, 89, 94, 96, 103, 116, 123hüzün, 3, 121–34, 136–7, 139–40,

142–8, 151–60, 163–8, 171–5, 177–80

definition, 122, 126–7etymology, 126–7, 137

Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 14, 127

230 Index

identity, 6, 9, 19, 22, 71, 88, 166collective, 5, 18–21, 24–5, 106, 109,

124, 135, 138–9, 145peripheral, 16–19, 31, 124, 132, 166see also Czech lands, identity;

Portugal, identity; Turkey, identity

imagination, 56, 98–9, 134, 156, 171immaturity, 86, 96, 109, 116, 163–5,

172, 176In Praise of Shadows, see Tanizakiindustrialisation, 16, 43, 47, 50injustice, 17, 99, 164

betrayal, 95intelligentsia, 2, 9, 21–5, 30–6, 41, 44,

48–50, 64, 72, 75, 82, 89, 104, 118, 142, 150, 165

irony, 113–14, see also humourIşın, Engin F., 131–2, 135–7, 166Islam, 122, 126–7, 138–9, 141–3,

149–1, 153–4, 161–3, 167–9, 172, 180

see also Sufism; Turkey, identity, Islamic

isolationism, 11, 17, 35, 48, 50–1, 65, 67–9, 73, 144, 155, 170, 177

Istanbul, 3, 121–5, 127–37, 139–40, 142–4, 148–60, 164–73, 175, 179

Constantinople (former name), 144, 159, 171–2

gentrification, 169, 172Greek pogroms, 133–4inhabitants, 122, 124, 127–9, 133,

136, 140, 142–3, 155, 159, 166, 168, 170–1, 173

Istanbul Ansiklopedisi, 154–5, see also Koçu

nostalgia industry, 124, 151, 154, 164, 172

urbanisation; demographic change, 124, 150, 152, 168–9

see also cosmopolitanism, of Istanbul; Pamuk, Istanbul: Memories and the City

Jager, Bernd, 71Japan, 53, 100, 155–6, 176

mono no aware, 156

wabi-sabi, 156jokes, see humourjoy, 13–15, 56, 59–60, 98, 125, 131,

157–8, 167–8Jungmann, Josef, 104Jungmann, Milan, 198

Kamusella, Tomasz, 104, 106Kant, Immanuel, 20Kemal Beyatlı, Yahya, 129, 132, 151–3,

158Kemalism, 124, 130, 141, 144, 150,

153–4, 161–3, 166, 168–9, 171–2

see also AtatürkKoçu, Reşat Ekrem, 129, 132, 154–5,

164Köroğlu, Erol, 147Kovačević, Nataša, 96, 101Kristeva, Julia, 17Kultur, 20–2, 103Kundera, Milan

The Book of Laughter and Forgetting, 2, 80, 83, 85–8, 96, 101, 103, 112, 115

‘Czech Destiny’ debate (with Václav Havel), 3, 81–2, 88–94, 103, 105, 108, 111–12, 117, 175

The Joke, 91Laughable Loves, 87‘The Tragedy of Central Europe’, 3,

81–2, 88, 94–7, 103, 115–16The Unbearable Lightness of Being, 98

Kurds, 130, 144, 169Kurdish language, 144

The Labyrinth of Solitude (Paz), 24–5language, 1–2, 6, 9–11, 20, 25, 38,

43, 56–7, 75, 82–3, 93, 96–107, 136–7, 141–4

politics, 10, 20, 83, 103–7, 142–4reform, 137, 141–2

Leão, Duarte Nunes de, 32, 63Lepenies, Wolf, 22lítost, 2–8, 11, 15, 21–2, 25, 30,

79–88, 94, 96–103, 106–10, 112, 114–18, 121, 124, 129, 131, 136, 163–4, 171–2, 174–5, 177–9, 181

Index 231

lítost – continueddefinition, 79–80, 84–7etymology, 85similar words, 97–8

loss, 3, 16–18, 22–3, 29, 34–5, 41–2, 44–7, 50, 54, 75, 95, 101, 114–15, 121, 124, 127, 129, 132–3, 142, 144, 146–8, 150, 152, 155–6, 160, 164–6, 171, 173, 175, 179–80

Loti, Pierre, 159–60, 167, 173Lourenço, Eduardo, 34, 43, 49, 67love, 17, 34, 49, 60, 86–7, 116, 126,

133, 155, 157–60, 163–4, 167–8, 170

Macedo, António de Sousa de, 32Magalhães, António Dias de, 35Mao Tse-tung, 149Margalit, Avishai, 155Margarido, Alfredo, 69margins, see peripheryMartins, Oliveira, 49martyrdom, 104, 108, 112, 116Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue, 105–8, 115,

141Mawer, Simon, The Glass Room, 100Meinecke, Friedrich, 20melancholy, 1, 3–4, 6, 10, 13–15,

17–19, 21–4, 29, 33–4, 59–60, 68, 71, 121–2, 126–33, 136, 152–4, 156–60, 163, 166–7, 170–1, 175, 177, 179–80

etymology, 14and genius, 21–2history, 14–15, 21–4imperial, 34, 124, 170–1, 175, 179compare joy

Melo, Dom Francisco Manuel de, 34memory, 19, 32, 37, 61, 68, 85, 96,

130, 132–4, 143, 146, 151–2, 155, 164, 171–2, 176

Mendes, Luís Antônio de Oliveira, 12Menzel, Jiři, Closely Watched Trains,

112messianism (Portuguese), 29, 31, 34,

45, 55, 75Mexico, 24–5Miłosz, Czesław, 113, 197

misanthropy, 3, 84, 175modernity, 7, 17–19, 21–5, 30, 35, 42,

49–51, 55, 58, 61, 74, 76, 123, 142, 158, 172, 176, 178

mood, 3, 23, 33, 45, 121–2, 131–2, 134, 157, 160, 166–7, 170, 172, 192

Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, 19–20

morality, 8, 18–20, 34, 38, 56, 65, 82–3, 91, 96, 105, 108–9, 114, 117, 129, 140, 176, 180

see also responsibilitymorna music, 188Morocco, 162

Nabokov, Vladimir, 1, 8, 97, 174naming, 10–13, 53–4, 122, 174

of diseases (nosology), 11–13national character/soul/spirit, 7, 9–10,

19–21, 23–4, 31, 38, 40, 42, 45, 49–50, 52, 55, 57–8, 62–4, 83–4, 89–90, 94, 96, 102, 105, 107–11, 115–17, 153, 159, 172, 175, 178–9

see also Portuguese soulNational Socialism (Nazism), 63nationalism, 10, 21, 24–5, 30, 42–3,

47, 51, 69–70, 75, 83, 103–7, 139, 142, 144, 146–7, 154, 165, 172, 177–9

neo-Ottomanism, 137, 163Nietzsche, Friedrich, 189Nora, Pierre, 152Noronha, Maria Teresa de, 34nostalgia, 12–13, 17–19, 25, 29, 30–1,

34–5, 37, 39, 42, 45, 52, 60, 68–9, 74–5, 82, 94, 118, 124, 129, 131, 133–4, 139, 143–5, 148

etymology, 12–13imperial, 34Swiss identity, 12–13see also Istanbul, nostalgia industry

Occidentalism, 155, 171Öncü, Ayşe, 143, 151Orientalism, 137, 156, 159Orpheu (journal), 73

232 Index

Ortega y Gasset, José, 34, 60orthography, 195–6Ossianic poems, see ScotlandOttoman Empire, 121–2, 128, 130,

135, 137, 140–3, 145–7, 149, 151–2, 157, 161, 164–5, 171–3, 179

Balkan Wars, 142, 147, 165Servet-i Fünûn (school of literature),

157Tanzimat era, 140, 145–7, 162

Ottomania, 136, 162Özbek, Meral, 158

Palacký, František, 107–8Pamuk, Orhan

The Black Book, 155family, 130, 132–4, 147–8, 154, 163‘Fire and Ruins’, 152İstanbul: Hatıralar ve Şehir, 131–2,

134–6, 137Istanbul: Memories and the City,

3, 121–2, 124, 128–9, 131–2, 134–5, 151–7, 159–60, 164, 172

The Museum of Innocence, 155Nobel Prize, 121, 135prosecution, 123, 133–5Snow, 121, 123

Pan-Slavism, 96Pan-Turkism, 153Papiá Kristang (Portuguese Creole),

195Partridge, Christopher, 160–1Pascoaes, Teixeira de

Arte de Ser Português, 63–4, 67–8childhood, 68–9on genius, 62, 64Livro de Memórias, 61, 68Maranos, 68polemic with António Sérgio, 2, 5,

29–31, 35–42, 45, 56, 60, 65–7, 72, 82

on race, 29, 31, 38, 41, 51, 55–8, 75passivity, 3, 7, 17–18, 23–5, 49, 61, 64,

72, 79, 82, 92, 113, 142, 156, 165, 175, 177

peasants, 24–5, 54, 70–1, 110periphery, 16–19, 43–4, 48–9, 58, 101,

149–50, 158, 176–7

persecution complex, 164Persia, 156, 162–3, 171Pessoa, Fernando, 69, 73philanthropy in Turkey, 168photography, 133, 154–5pluralism, 114, 155, 179Podiven, 109poets and poetry, 11, 20–1, 24, 29, 31,

33, 39, 44–5, 63–4, 67–9, 73, 75–6, 95, 122, 126, 158–9, 163

see also entries for individual poetsPoland, 112, 97–8political engagement, 25, 64–5, 67,

72–3, 93–4, 123, 129, 134–5, 170, 177–8

Portugalcolonies, 29–30, 44–8, 54, 58, 75Discoveries, 30, 37, 42–5, 50, 56–7Fátima, Marian apparition, 55First Republic, 29–31, 36, 42–3, 45,

47, 50, 54–5, 57, 65identity, 30–3, 34–5, 41, 43–6, 50–1,

56–8, 63, 70, 75language, 30, 43, 56–7, 75, 179north-south divide, 70–1Revolution of the Carnations, 44, 51Ultimatum, 47, 49, 51see also messianism; soul,

Portuguese soulPortugueseness, see Portugal, identitypoverty, 17, 24, 44, 47, 66, 71, 127,

130–1, 149, 152, 162–3Proença, Raul, 37, 73progress, 17–19, 23, 30, 42, 49–50,

61–2, 65, 73–4, 76, 107, 147, 155, 166, 169, 178

Protestant ethic, 180

Queirós, Eça de, 49Quental, Antero de, 49–50

race, see Pascoaes, on raceracism, 12Radio Yerevan, 112the Reconquista, 43re-enchantment, 160–1, 178, see also

Partridgeregret, 2, 13, 80, 84–5, 87, 97, 114,

118, 158, 167

Index 233

the Renaissance, 21, 38–9, 64, 168–9

Renascença Portuguesa, 30, 35–6, 38, 62, 67, 72–3

responsibility, 13, 38, 83, 92, 108–9, 114–18, 129, 167–9, 176

see also moralityressentiment (Greenfeld), 42–3Roma (people), 169Romanticism, 20, 21, 22–4, 25, 30, 43,

48–9, 75, 97, 149, 172, 178Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 43, 160Rumi, 162–3, 167Rupnik, Jacques, 95Russia and Russians, 1, 9, 42, 95–8,

101–3, 105, 107, 112, 116, 123, 174, 178

conceptsdusha, 8, 9, 97lyutost’, 97–8poshlost’, 1, 97, 174, see also

Nabokovsobornost’, 97sostradanie, 97sud’ba, 197toska, 97

emotions, 192

Sá, Maria das Graças Moreira de, 40Sabatos, Charles, 80Sá-Carneiro, Mário de, 73sadness, see melancholyŞafak, Elif, 166sagren, see Chagos islandersSalazar, António, 35, 41–4, 48, 51saudade, 2, 8, 11, 15, 21–2, 25,

29–76corollaries, 38definition, 30, 32–5, 37etymology, 33

Saudosismo, 2, 29–31, 36, 42, 48, 50–3, 55, 58–60, 63, 69, 71–6, 94

Scotland, 22–3Seara Nova (journal), 73Sebastianism, 39, 45–6, 57, 63, 73,

75, 145Sehnsucht, 33self-pity, 3, 22, 80, 85, 98, 116, 136,

164, 166

sensibility, 8, 15, 18, 21, 23, 32–3, 96, 143, 156, 171, 178

sentiment, see emotionssentimentality, 48, 50, 59, 62, 69,

112, 152–3Empfindsamkeit, 22

Sérgio, António, 2, 5, 30–43, 48, 50–1, 56, 58, 60, 63–7, 72–3, 76, 82, 94, 145

sevdalinka music, 202Sicily, 17Silverstein, Brian, 161–2slavery, see banzo; drapetomaniaSlavophile movement, 97Slovaks, 94, 96, 105–6solitude, 14, 24, 122, 163soul, 8, 18–19, 29, 38–9, 41, 56–7,

60, 62–4, 66, 68, 70, 73, 75, 89, 96, 102, 121, 131, 155, 159, 174

Portuguese soul, 2, 38–9, 41, 56–7, 60, 62–4, 66–7, 70, 73, 75

Slavic, 96, 182see also dusha

spirit, see national character/soul/spirit

spiritualism, 53, 55, 60, 149, 160–1, 163

spleen, 60Sprachnation, 10Stalinism, 89–91, 99, 113Stokes, Martin, 158suffering, 11–15, 19, 21–2, 85,

96–9, 113, 116, 122, 127Sufism, 122, 127, 133, 160–3, 167Swissness, 13

tall poppy syndrome, 110Tanizaki, Jun’ichirō, 155–6Tanpınar, Ahmet Hamdi, 129, 132,

151–2, 170Tassinari, Fabrizio, 169Todorova, Maria, 61translation, 1–2, 8, 83, 99–101, 106,

132, 135–6see also untranslatability

trauma, 11–12, 15, 45, 96, 132, 160, 175

tristesse, 21

234 Index

Turkeycoups, 138, 150, 161, 172foreign policy, 137–8, 144, 151,

169–70identity, 121–5, 135, 140–6, 151,

154, 162–6, 168–9, 172–3Istanbul, 139, 150, 155, 168–70,

172Islamic, 138–9, 141–2

protests, 169and the West, 123, 128, 149, 160,

170, 176, 178Turkishness, see Turkey, identity

Unamuno, Miguel de, 59, 70untranslatability, 1–2, 5–6, 8–10, 29,

38, 50, 75–6, 81–2, 84, 97, 100, 103, 131, 135–7,

see also translationutopianism, 34, 54, 67, 145

vibe, see moodVieira, Estela, 69Viriato (Viriathus), 62virtue, 18, 20, 55, 97, 109, 116, 164,

180

Volksgeist, 10, 20, 107, 178

Wallerstein, Immanuel, see world systems theory

Weber, Max, 160, 180, see also disenchantment; Protestant ethic

Weltschmerz, 22Werther, 22the West, Westerners, 9, 14, 16,

42–3, 48, 83, 88–9, 95–6, 99, 101–2, 121–3, 128–9, 132, 135, 137, 140–1, 146–7, 149, 153–6, 159–61, 163, 168, 170, 175–80

Wierzbicka, Anna, 8, 98Williams, Kieran, 93Woods, Michelle, 84, 87, 99–100,

106women, 22, 166world systems theory, 16

xenophobia, 51, 177

yerellik (localness), 139youth, instruction of, 64–5, 115