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Sources of Radiation
Professor Jasmina Vujic
Lecture 4Nuclear Engineering 162
Department of Nuclear EngineeringUniversity of California, Berkeley
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SOURCES OF RADIATION
• NATURAL RADIATION SOURCES– Radioactive Sources in the Ground– Cosmic Ray Interactions in the Atmosphere– Natural Radioactive Sources within the Body
• MAN-MADE RADIATION SOURCES– Medical and Dental X-Ray Machines– Industrial X-Ray Machines– Accelerators– Man-made Radioisotopes– Fallout from Past Bomb Tests– Nuclear Power Reactors
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Radioactive Sources in the Ground
• Primordial Radionuclides: 238U, 232Th and 235U radioac tive decay chains; 40K and 87Rb 22Na
• Cosmogenic radionuclides: 14C, tritium (3H), 7Be, and 22Na
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Cosmic Ray Interactions in the Atmosphere
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Cosmic Ray Interactions in the Atmosphere
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• Radon as a source of internal exposure: 238U chain, 226Ra decays into 222Rn. The significant dose is from the decay products of radon:
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Natural Radioactive Sources within the Body
• Potassium-40: 140 g of potassium in a man of 70 kg (i.e. 0.1 /μCi)
• Carbon and hydrogen in the biosphere contain 14C and 3H
• Radon and its decay products • 137Cs, 131I, 90Sr
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The Contribution of Natural Radiation Sources
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SOURCES OF X-RAYS
• Two principal methods for generating X-rays:– The rearrangement of atomic electron
configurations • "Characteristic X-Rays"
– The deflection of charged particles in the vicinity of the atomic nucleus
• "Continuous X-Rays or Bremsstrahlung
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CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
• Characteristic X-rays are emitted from the atomic shells, when electrons jump from the shells at higher energy levels (with Iower binding energy) to the vacancies in the shells at lower energy lev els (with higher binding energies).
• The binding energy of the K-shell electron is the largest in an atom (for example, it is 13.6eV for H and up to 115keV for U)
• The energy of the emitted X-ray is determined by
where Em is the upper energy level and En is the lower energy level.
m nhv E E= −
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CONTINUOUS X-RAYS
• In addition to loosing its kinetic energy in collisions with the atomic electrons causing ionization or excitation of the atoms along its path, a charged particle (in our case an electron) gives up its kinetic energy by a photon emission as it is deflected (or accel erated) in the electric field of nuclei.
• The emitted EM radiation has a continuous energy spectrum from 0 to Ek, where Ek is the kinetic energy of a charged particle.
• For Ek < 100 keV, radiation is emitted at 900 to the direction of the charged particle. For higher Ek the direction of the emitted radiation shifts toward the forward-peaked direction.
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X-RAY MACHINES
• Made of a glass vacuum tube with two electrodes: cathode and anode:
• Cathode with tungsten wire (filament) is heated and electrons are emitted
• Electrons are accelerated by a large potential difference (high voltage)
• The focusing cup concentrates electrons into the target oh the anode
• After hitting the target, electrons are abruptly brought to rest with the lost of their kinetic energy
• Only about 1% of electron kinetic energy is emitted as EM radiation, 99% is lost in electronic collisions and converted to heat (anode must be cooled)
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Medical and Dental X-Ray Machines
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Medical and Dental X-Ray Machines
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Fallout from Past Bomb Tests
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Fallout from Past Bomb Tests
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Fallout from Past Bomb Tests
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Nuclear Power Reactors
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Nuclear Power Reactors
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Radionuclides used in Diagnostics and Therapy
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Choice of Radioisotopes for Imaging
• The physical characteristics that are desirable for nuclear medicine imaging include:– A suitable physical half-life– Decay via photon emission– Photon energy high enough to penetrate the
body tissue with minimal tissue attenuation– Photon energy low enough for minimal
thickness of collimator speta– Absence of particulate emission
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Important Nuclides of Biomedical Uses
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Production of Radionuclides
• There are several ways by which radionuclides are produced– Neutron capture (neutron activation)– Nuclear fission– Charged-particle bombardment– Parent decay (radionuclide generator)
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Radionuclides produced by neutron absorption
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Radionuclides produced by nuclear fission
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Radionuclides produced by charged particle bombardment
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Generator-produced radionuclides
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