NOTE SALVATION FOR THE WOMEN OF EL SALVADOR: …

1329

NOTE

SALVATIONFORTHEWOMENOFELSALVADOR:

RECOGNIZINGAVIOLATIONOFINTERNATIONALHUMANRIGHTSFORTHESAKEOFENDING

FEMICIDE

KatherineMobilia*

I. INTRODUCTION......................................................................1331 II. THELANDSCAPEOFELSALVADORWITHREGARDTO

THEFEMICIDEEPIDEMIC..................................................1334 A. TheSocietalDynamicsofElSalvador:Machismo

CultureasaDrivingForceforFemicide...............1334 B. ElSalvador’sStateLaws..............................................1339

1. ElSalvador’sPenalCode......................................1339 2. ElSalvador’sIntra-FamilialLaw......................1340 3. ElSalvador’sLawofEquality............................1341 4. ElSalvador’sSpecialComprehensiveLaw...1342

C. ElSalvador’sEnforcementPowers.........................1344 1. TheJudicialBranch................................................1345 2. StateActorsasEnforcersofElSalvador’sLaws

........................................................................................1347 D. ElSalvador’sInternationalLawObligations......1350

1. ThePPEVConvention...........................................1350 2. CEDAW........................................................................1352 3. DEVAW........................................................................1353 4. The2011Report.....................................................1354

* J.D. Candidate, 2021, Fordham University School of Law; B.A., 2017, Fordham

University. Thank you to Professor Higgins for your exemplary guidance and advice.Additionally, Iwould like to thankmy fellow facultymembersof the InternationalLawJournalfortheconstantsupportandvaluedfeedback.Lastly,Iwanttoexpressmydeepestgratitudetomyfamily,friendsandlovedoneswhosupportedmethroughoutthisprocess;thewords"thankyou"areanunderstatement.

1330 FORDHAMINTERNATIONALLAWJOURNAL [Vol.43:5

III. COMMENTATORSSPECULATE:CANELSALVADORFACEFEMICIDEONITSOWN,ORSHOULDINTERNATIONALLAWINFLUENCETHERESOLUTIONOFTHISCRISIS?......................................................................1356 A. CommentatorsSuggestThatElSalvadorShould

ContinuetoHandletheFemicideCrisis...............1357 B. CommentatorsSuggestthatInternationalLaw

ShouldPlayanImpactfulRoleintheCaseofElSalvadoranditsFemicideCrisis..............................1359 1. TheArgumentsCommentatorsMakewhen

AdvocatingforInternationalLawPlayingaLargerRoleinElSalvador...................................1359

2. ACenterpiecetoCommentator’sArgumentswhoAdvocateforInternationalLawPlayingaRoleintheElSalvadoranFemicideCrisis:TheInternationalLawDueDiligenceStandardandtheCaseofJessicaLenahan(Gonazalez)......1362

IV. PROPOSAL:INTERNATIONALLAW–AUSEFULTOOLTHATISNECESSARYTOENDFEMICIDEINELSALVADOR................................................................................1369 A. ItisImperativethatInternationalLawPlayan

IntegralRoleintheFemicideEpidemicinElSalvador..............................................................................1370

B. TheDueDiligenceAnalysisofElSalvadorandFemicide.............................................................................1373 1. ABriefSynopsisoftheDueDiligenceStandard:

TheThreeDuties.....................................................1373 a. TheDutytoPrevent.......................................1373 b. TheDutytoInvestigateandPunish........1374 c. Thedutytoguaranteejustandeffective

reparations.........................................................1374 2. AnEvaluationofElSalvadorUndertheDue

DiligenceStandard.................................................1375 a. GeneralProblemswithinElSalvadorandits

Government.......................................................1375 b. ProblemswithinElSalvador’sJudicial

Branch,Prosecutor’sOfficeandtheESPolice....................................................................1378

2020] SALVATIONFORTHEWOMENOFELSALVADOR 1331

c. EnforcementMeasurestobeTakenasaResultofaFindingofLackofDueDiligence.................................................................................1382

V. CONCLUSION............................................................................1386

I.INTRODUCTIONOnFebruary12,2018,GracielaEugeniaRamírezChávezwent

outtobuyapairofshoesforwhatshouldhavebeenthehappiestday of her life: her wedding day.1After previously escaping anabusive relationship and “tak[ing] justice into her own hands”upontheadviceofpolicewhenshereported theabuse,Gracielawasreadytostartherlifeoverwithsomeonenew.2However,onFebruary13,2018,Graciela’s lifecametoa tragicendwhenherbodywasdiscoveredinagardeninasuburbofSanSalvador,ElSalvador.3Gracielasuffered fifty-sixstabwoundsat thehandsofherfiancée,JoséHéctorOteroTurcios.4TurcioswasarrestedandchargedwiththecrimeoffemicideforGraciela’sbrutalmurder.5Concernedneighborshadpreviously called thepolicenumeroustimestoreportGraciela’sabuse in themonths leadinguptoherdeath,aswellasontheverydayofGraciela’smurder,merelyahalf

1. JoGriffin, ‘Policeneverturnedup’:ElSalvador’sdevastatingepidemicof femicide,

GUARDIAN (June 6, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/jun/06/el-salvador-devastating-epidemic-femicide[https://perma.cc/5TP2-KU5K].SeealsoGabrielaCáceres,FianceofayoungwomankilledinZacamil: “Iwasno longergoing tomarryher, our relationship ended last Sunday,”LAPRENSA GRAFICA (translated to English) (Feb. 14, 2018),https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/Prometido-de-joven-asesinada-en-Zacamil-Yo-ya-no-me-iba-a-casar-con-ella-nuestra-relacion-termino-el-domingo-pasado-20180213-0119.html[https://perma.cc/T55R-VUML].

2.Griffin,supranote1.3. Id.4. Id.SeealsoSalvadoranProsecutorBlamesPolice for IgnoringCase thatEnded in

Femicide, EL NUEVO DIARIO (May 9, 2018, 2:59 pm),https://www.elnuevodiario.com.ni/internacionales/centroamerica/463579-joven-salvadorena-asesinada-su-novio/ [https://perma.cc/JF5H-NP8V] (describing how thecrimeJoséwaschargedwithwasfemicide).

5. Id.


hourbeforeshewaskilled.6However,thepolicenevercametoherrescuethroughouttherelationshiporonthedayofherdeath.7

Graciela’s fateandstoryof femicide isall toocommoninElSalvador,whichisconsideredoneofthemostdangerouscountriesin the world for women and girls. 8 Specifically, as of 2018, ElSalvador’s femicide rate is the third-highest in the world. 9“Femicide” is the murdering of women based on their gender,frequently by a current or former intimate partner, 10 and fallswithin the broader category of domestic violence (“DV”).11 NotonlydoesElSalvadorhaveoneofthehighestratesforfemicidein

6. Griffin,supranote1.SeealsoTheSalvadoranprosecutorsaysthepoliceneglecteda

case that ended in femicide, EFE (May 9, 2018),https://www.efe.com/efe/america/sociedad/el-fiscal-salvadoreno-dice-que-la-policia-desatendio-un-caso-acabo-en-feminicidio/20000013-3610843[https://perma.cc/9PND-WG4S].

7. Griffin,supranote1.8 . See Louise Donovan, ‘Men Kill Women Because They Can’: Inside El Salvador’s

Devastating Femicide Crisis, ELLE (April 1, 2019), https://www.elle.com/uk/life-and-culture/a25626891/el-salvador-femicide-crisis/[https://perma.cc/JCZ6-KEVD].SeealsoMollyO’Toole,ElSalvador’sGangsAreTargetingYoungGirls,ATLANTIC(March4,2018),https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/el-salvador-women-gangs-ms-13-trump-violence/554804/ [https://perma.cc/QEV6-GDC3] (describing howElSalvador’s“rateofviolentdeathforwomenisthethird-highestintheworld”).

9. Donovan,supranote8.10. UnderstandingandAddressingViolenceAgainstWomen:SexualViolence,WORLD

HEALTH ORG., 1, 1 (2012),https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/77434/WHO_RHR_12.37_eng.pdf;jsessionid=50095582E94E52E4147F0940E99B079A?sequence=1[https://perma.cc/5Q4V-DED6]. It is worth noting that El Salvador has two differentcrimes:femicideandfeminicide.Bothtermsfocusonthekillingofawomanbasedonhergender,butfeminicidespecificallyfocusesonviolencethat“iscarriedoutinacontextofvirtuallytotalimpunity.SeeKarenMusalo,ElSalvador,APeaceWorsethanWar:Violence,GenderandaFailedLegalResponse,30YALEJ.L.&FEMINISM3(Dec.12,2018).SimilartoMusalo,forthesakeofthisnote,unlessspecificallynoted,Iwillfocusonthecategoryoffemicideasitisbroaderthanfeminicide.Moreover,femicideisthecommonphraseusedonaninternationallawlevel.Id.

11. Femicide, The Advocates for Human Rights, STOP VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN,http://www.stopvaw.org/femicide [https://perma.cc/7H4J-YC4X] (last visited April2019) (connecting femicide todomestic violence, saying that it fallswithin it and goesbeyonditasfemicidecanoccuroutsideofintimateandintrafamilialviolenceaswell);UNWomenStatement: ConfrontingFemicide – theReality of IntimatePartnerViolence, U.N.WOMEN (Nov. 13, 2019),https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2019/11/statement-un-women-confronting-femicide-reality-of-intimate-partner-violence [https://perma.cc/ZM4G-7C5T].


bothLatinAmericaandintheworld,12butfemicideinElSalvadortendstobeexceptionallybrutal,ofteninvolvingextremeformsofviolence such as torture and decapitation. 13 El Salvador hasenacted legislation in an attempt to address the problem offemicide,andhasevendeclaredanationalalertforgender-basedviolence, but statistics of this hate crime continue to rise.14Thisriseintheprevalenceof femicide,despiterecentlyenactedlaws,hascausedcommentatorstoquestionwhetherElSalvadoraloneshouldcontinuetohandlethiscrisis,orifinternationallawshouldplayalargerroletomoreeffectivelyprotectthehumanrightsofElSalvadoranwomen.15

Part II of this notewill discuss the societal dynamics of ElSalvador,thestatelawsestablishedbyElSalvadorinanefforttoeradicate femicide, how these laws are enforced, and theinternationallawsElSalvadorhasratifiedthatdirectlytargetDV,

12. SeeU.N.Women,Un67%delasmujereshasufridoalgúntipodeviolenciaenElSalvador[67%ofwomenhavesufferedsometypeofviolenceinElSalvador],U.N.NEWS(Apr. 17, 2018), https://news.un.org/es/story/2018/04/1431372[https://perma.cc/AL4T-ZYZQ](“TheviolentdeathrateofwomeninElSalvadoris13.49peronehundredthousandwomen,oneofthehighestintheworld,accordingtodatafromtheNationalCivilPolice”).SeealsoDonovan,supranote8(“...[ElSalvador]hasthehighestrateoffemicideinLatinAmerica,andthethirdhighestintheworld”).

13. G.A.HumanRightsCouncil,Rep.oftheSpecialRapporteuronViolenceAgainstWomen, its Causes and Consequences – Follow-up Mission to El Salvador, U.N. Doc.A/HRC/17/26/Add.2at8(Feb.14,2011)(describinghowfemicidesinElSalvadortendtobeparticularly cruel, “sometimes involvingmutilation, tortureanddecapitation, andoftenaccompaniedbykidnappingandsexualviolence”).

14. SeeElSalvadorOKsinitiativetofightviolenceagainstwomen,ASSOCIATEDPRESS(May 3, 2018), https://www.apnews.com/d4fecdd2aa5044a48f3f2e3ce998b309[https://perma.cc/7LW4-WDSE] (discussing El Salvador’s government declaring anationalcrisisforgender-basedviolence);seealsoDonovan,supranote8.Forthehistoryof increasing rates of femicide, see U.N. Committee on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,ConcludingObservationsontheEighthandNinthPeriodicReportsofElSalvador,U.N.Doc.CEDAW/C/SLV/CO/8-9(2017)[hereinafterConcludingObservations2017](statingthattheCommitteeremainsconcernedatincreasinglevelsoffemicide despite new legislation created by El Salvador). See also G.A. Human RightsCouncil,Rep.oftheSpecialRapporteuronExtrajudicial,SummaryorArbitraryExecutionson Her Mission to El Salvador, U.N. Doc. A/HRC/38/44/Add.2 (2018) [hereinafterExtrajudicialSummary](notingthatfemicideratescontinuetoriseinElSalvadorin2018);seealsoDonovan,supranote8(statingthatin2019femicidecontinuestobeanescalatingproblem).IthasbeensaidthatElSalvadorhashada13%increaseincasesofviolenceagainstwomenbetween2017and2018.See JessicaMurray,TeenageGirlsmostatRiskamid Rising Sexual Violence in El Salvador – report, GUARDIAN (Apr. 17, 2019),https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/apr/17/teenage-girls-el-salvador-rising-sexual-violence-report[https://perma.cc/DF8N-934Y].

15. SeeinfraPartII.


includingfemicide.PartIIIofthisNotewillexploretheargumentsin favor of El Salvador itself taking steps to prevent andpunishfemicide, as well as examine the arguments in favor ofinternational law playing a larger role in attempting to endfemicide in El Salvador. Part IV of this Note suggests thatinternationallawshouldplayanactiveroleinendingthefemicideepidemicinElSalvadorandanalyzestheproblemoffemicideinElSalvador under the predominant “due diligence” standard ofinternationallaw,ultimatelyfindingthatElSalvadorhasviolatedthehumanrightsofElSalvadoranwomen.PartIVwillalsodiscusshowsucha findingwouldenhanceEl Salvador’s enforcementofinternational human rights laws. Finally, the ConclusionsummarizeshowtheutilizationofinternationallawwillultimatelyleadtosalvationforthewomenofElSalvadorandwillserveasaleadingexampleforothercountrieswhofacesimilarissueswithfemicide,particularlywithinLatinAmerica.

II.THELANDSCAPEOFELSALVADORWITHREGARDTOTHEFEMICIDEEPIDEMIC

A.TheSocietalDynamicsofElSalvador:MachismoCultureasaDrivingForceforFemicide

El Salvador’s culture is known tobe strongly influencedbypatriarchal beliefs and is commonly known as “machismo”culture.16Thissocietaldynamicpermeatesallaspectsoflife,fromthedaily interactionsofprivate citizens to theState institutionsand how they function. 17 As a result, machismo culture hasstrongly shaped and influenced the problem of femicide in ElSalvador. 18 Specifically, machismo culture has had a stronginfluenceovergangpresenceandimpunityoffemicideoffenders.19

16. SeeinfraPartI(A)(i)anddiscussionofmachismoculture.17. Seeinfranote21.18. See VICTORIA COLBERT, MURDER AND MACHISMO: BEHIND THE MOTIVATIONS OF

SALVADORAN WOMEN ASYLUM SEEKERS, 55 (May 30, 2019) (connecting the increase infemicide as well as the particular brutality of femicide in El Salvador with machismoculture,suggestingthatthisincreaseiscausingthemurderofwomentobecomeapartofthenormsassociatedwithmachismoculture).

19. See Id. at63 (discussinghowmachismoculture strengthens theprevalenceofgangsinElSalvadorandinfluenceshowviolentthesegangsaretowardswomen).ColbertfurthersuggeststhatmachismoculturedirectlyinfluencesStateinstitutionsandallowsforfurtherperpetrationoffemicidewhenthosecommittingfemicidearenotstopped.Id.at


Gangpresenceandimpunity,bothintertwinedwithandstronglyinfluencedbymachismoculture,contributeto increasedratesoffemicideanddecreasedreportingofcasesoffemicide.20

“Machismo”canbedefinedas“malebehaviorthat isstrongand forceful”and involvespatriarchalnotionsabout therolesofmen and women in society. 21 Violence against women is oftendirectly connected to machismo culture because this culturecreatesanunequaldynamicbetweenmenandwomenthatfostersa sense of impunity for perpetrators of violence. 22 Moreover,machismoculturehasbeensostronglylinkedtoDVandfemicidethatmenofmachismocultureareconsiderednot“macho”enoughiftheyarenotabusingtheirfemalesignificantothers.23MachismocultureinfluenceseveryaspectofElSalvadoransociety,fromthecourtsystemtotheexecutivebranch,andcreatesacommunityinwhichwomenaresoaccustomedtomistreatmentthattheyarenoteven aware that they have rights with respect thereto. 24Specifically, in courts outside of specialized courts, which were

67(“Asimpunityofhomicidalcrimesagainstwomenpersists,sodoestheriseinfemicides.Manyattest,andIagree,thatattitudes,views,andinfluencesofmachismocultureplayaroleinlegalsystemsintendedtoprotectallhumanlifeincludingwomen’s,yetbecauseofgenderbiasestheydon’t”).

20. Id.at67.21. Machismo, CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/

dictionary/english/machismo [https://perma.cc/4ESF-L6FW]. See also MeredithKimelblatt, Reducing Harmful Effects of Machismo Culture on Latin American DomesticViolence Laws: Amending the Convention of Belém Do Pará to Resemble The IstanbulConvention,GEO.WASH.INT’LL.REV.,405,406-07(2016)(definingmachismoas“asocialconstruct that has a significant impact on how cultural ideas are formed and howindividualsbehavethroughoutLatinAmericaandinvolves“idealizationsofaggressionanddominance”).

22 . See Ley Especial Integral para una Vida Libre de Violencia para las Mujeres[SpecialComprehensiveLawforaLifeFreeofViolenceforWomen],2011(DecreeNo.520)(El.Sal.)[hereinafterSpecialComprehensiveLaw].

23. SeeCOLBERT,supranote18,at31.24. SeeMollyO’Toole,ElSalvador’sGangsAreTargetingYoungGirls,ATLANTIC,(Mar.

4, 2018), https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/el-salvador-women-gangs-ms-13-trump-violence/554804/ [https://perma.cc/3RNZ-723B](describinghowmachismoissoengrainedinElSalvadorancultureasawhole,thatwomenareunawarethattheyhaverights,includingtherighttoleaveanabusivepartnerandfileDV charges). See also G.A. Human Rights Council, Rep. of the Special Rapporteur onViolenceAgainstWomen,itsCausesandConsequences–Follow-upMissiontoElSalvador,U.N.Doc.A/HRC/17/26/Add.2(2011)[hereinafterCausesandConsequences](discussinghowpatriarchalbeliefsasseenthroughmachismocultureshapetherolesofwomeninboth the public and private sphere, in particular their right to “be free of all forms ofviolence”).


establishedtodealwithfemicide,machismoculturecancausebothjudges and juries to foster victim-blaming mentalities thatminimize the legitimacy and seriousness of DV and femicide. 25Furthermore,ithasbeensuggestedthatdespitethefactthatLatinAmericahas someof thehighest ratesofDV in theworld,LatinAmericanwomenare less likely to reportDV thanwomen fromotherregionsduetotheprevalenceofmachismocultureinthesesocieties.26It has been further suggested thatmachismo culturealso delays States in implementing both domestic andinternationallawsonanationalscaleandfostersanoveralllackofcompliance with these laws. 27 Machismo culture also has acompellinginfluenceonElSalvadoransocietybecauseofitsstrongpresenceingangs.28

Gang presence is especially pervasive in El Salvador.29Thisprevalence of gangs leads to an equally pervasive sense ofmachismocultureinElSalvador,asmachismoculturehasanevenmoreintensepresencewithingangs.30Thisnotionisparticularlyimpactful when considering the political, cultural, and physical

25 . See Anna-Cat Brigida, Inside a Court Room Specialized in Justice for Gender

Violence, VICE (Sept. 11, 2018), https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qvadzq/violence-against-women-court-femicide-el-salvador [https://perma.cc/GP84-JTPM] (“In regularcourts,thosebiasescanresultinjudgesandjuriesblamingavictimforherbehaviororwayofdressing,sayingthatawomaninarelationshipcan’tberapedbyherownpartner,orrulingthatdomesticviolenceproblemsshouldberesolvedwithinthehome”).SeealsoMusalo,supranote10,at52(describinghow“stereotypesandgenderbiastranslatedintothefailureofgovernmentofficials,” includingjudges,tofulfill theirobligationsunderElSalvadoran legislationregarding femicide);seealsoAnastasiaMoloney, JudgeatNewElSalvador Women’s Courts Ready to Tackle Gender Violence, REUTERS (Aug. 24, 2017),https://www.reuters.com/article/us-el-salvador-women-rights/judge-at-new-el-salvador-womens-courts-ready-to-tackle-gender-violence-idUSKCN1B42EV[https://perma.cc/HU6J-Q82J](“Bairessaidwomenhavebeenblamedincourtroomsfortheviolenceinflictedonthembecausetheywentoutatnightortheirhusbandswereangrythat‘lunchwasn’tpreparedontime’”).

26. Kimelblatt,supranote21,at414-15.27. Id.at407-08.28. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at10.29. SeeLouiseMacaraniag,10FactsaboutGangsinElSalvador,BORGENPROJECT(June

25, 2019), https://borgenproject.org/10-facts-about-gangs-in-el-salvador/[https://perma.cc/VK3E-ASTE](“Asof2018,ElSalvadorranked5amongcountrieswiththehighesthomicideratesintheworld.Anestimated60percentofhomicidesarerelatedtogangactivity,andmanyarecommittedagainstwomeninadditiontosexualandphysicalabuse”); Molony, supra note 25 (describing how influential gangs are in El Salvador,particularlywithregardtofemicide,includingpreventingvictimsandtheirfamiliesfromcomingforwardforfearofreprisalsfromgangswhocontrolcityneighborhoods”).

30. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at10.


power gangs have in El Salvador and the gangs’ predominantlymale membership. 31 El Salvadoran women are frequentlyconsidered property by gangmembers and are punished whentheirbehavioriscontrarytowhatgangmembersdesire,expect,oraccept.32Moreover,althoughgangsareviolenttowardsbothmenandwomen,machismoculturespecificallytargetswomenbecauseitcultivatestheacceptanceandencouragementofviolenceagainstwomen, which is evidenced through the particular brutality offemalemurderscommittedbygangs.33Asaresult,thereisadirectrelationship between gang activity and gender-based violenceagainstwomen.34

Additionally, gangs are extremely influential in thepoliticallandscapeofElSalvador, such that impunity ismostcommon incrimesofviolencecommittedbygangs.35Impunitycanbedefined

31. Id.32. Seeid.(describinghowwomenbecomevictimsofviolenceatthehandsofgangs

when they are accused of cheating on a gang member, if a woman refuses to beromantically involvedwith a gangmember, or if awoman isusedas a tool of revengeagainst a rival gangmember).See also O’Toole, supranote 24 (explaining thatwhile amajorityofgangviolenceisdirectedtowardsmen,thegang’stargetingofwomendirectlyrelates to the increasing rates of femicide). O’Toole also explains that gang memberscommitviolent acts againstwomenasameansof revengeagainst rival gangmembersmost commonlywhenwomenare related tomembersof the rivalgang. Id.Thisplaceswomen“intheeyeofthehurricane”ofgangviolence.Id.SeealsoCiaraNugent,ViolenceAgainstWomeninElSalvadorIsDrivingThemtoSuicide—OrtotheU.S.Border,TIME(May14, 2019), https://time.com/5582894/gender-violence-women-el-salvador/[https://perma.cc/ZV94-Z6U3] (explaining that gang members see women as “sexualobjects”);seealsoExtrajudicialSummary,supranote14(“Women’sbodiesareaterritoryforrevengeandcontrol”forgangs).

33. Colbert,supranote18,at63(“Althoughbothmenandwomenaretargetedandintimidatedbygangsthroughmeansof force, threats,bullying,andcoercion, there’sanadded layer of misogyny towards women and girls, regardless if they are affiliated.Evidence of misogyny or machismo exuded by gangs is evident on the markings ofwomen’sbodies...”).

34. SeeConcludingObservations2017,supranote14;Colbert,supranotes18and19andaccompanyingtextdiscussingviolenceagainstwomenandgangactivity;seealsoNickPatonWalsh,BarbaraArvintidis&JuliaGavarrete,GangsinElSalvadorareusingwomen’sbodies for ‘revenge and control’, CNN (June 6, 2014),https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/14/americas/el-salvador-gangs-women-intl/index.html [https://perma.cc/RQK2-8QXD] (discussing the correlation betweenviolenceagainstwomenandgangactivity inElSalvador);Colbert,supranote18,at63(describing how machismo culture is strengthened through gangs and causes furtherviolenceagainstwomen).

35. Musalo,supranote10,at10.SeealsoColbert,supranote18at67(“...impunityoperatesasitsownformofpoliticalviolenceandenablesgangandintra-familialviolencetopersist”).


asan“exemptionor freedomfrompunishment,harm,or loss.”36SuchahighfrequencyofimpunityforDVcausesvictimstofailtoreport abuse because they do not believe that theywill receivejustice, or they fear gang retaliation that may result fromreporting. 37 Impunity has a correlation with machismo cultureeven outside of gang activity, where the rate of impunity, ingeneral, inElSalvador isoneof thehighest in theworld.38Morespecifically, the rate of impunity for femicide in El Salvador hasbeennotablyhighthroughouthistory.39Impunitycanbefoundinall aspects of a femicide crime, from authorities failing to fullyinvestigatecrimesoffemicidetotheprosecutionfailingtopunishperpetratorsofthisgender-basedviolence.40ThisstrongsenseofimpunityleadstoanoveralllackoffaithinthejusticesystemforElSalvadoran women, which causes further under-reporting offemicide cases. 41 Impunity also creates an environment thatfostersfurtherincidentsoffemicidebecausewhenperpetratorsoffemicide are not punished, these perpetrators, as well as otherlikemindedperpetrators,learnthattheycancommitfemicidewithminimal risk of punishment. 42 It has been suggested that thispervasive impunity within El Salvadoran State institutions isdirectly correlated with machismo culture because it fostersdetrimental, patriarchal mentalities within the individuals that

36. Impunity, MERRIAM-WEBSTER, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/impunity[https://perma.cc/45Q3-N2L2](lastvisitedApril30,2020).

37. ConcludingObservations2017,supranote14(explaininghowlessthan10%ofviolenceagainstwomencausedbygangsresultsinsentencing).

38. See Femicide in Latin America, UN WOMEN, (Apr. 4, 2013), https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/4/femicide-in-latin-america [https://perma.cc/XT6Z-DBDT]. See also El Salvador, Events of 2019, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH,https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/el-salvador[https://perma.cc/88DL-94R8](lastvisitedFeb.25,2019)(describinghowimpunityforcrimesthatviolatehumanrights,includingsexualassault,“remainsthenorm”);seealsoBrigida,supranote25(explaininghowimpunityratesinElSalvadorisoneoftheworstintheworld).

39. SeeUNWOMEN,supranote38(explainingthat impunityfor femicideoccurs in77%offemicidecrimes).

40. See Causes and Consequences, supranote 24, at 1 (detailing how impunity isshowninElSalvadorinfemicidecases).

41. Seeid.42. MarinaPrieto-Carron,MarilynThomson&MandyMacdonald,NoMoreKillings!

WomenRespond to Femicides in CentralAmerica, 15GENDER&DEV. 25, 31 (Mar. 2007)(“Themurderscontinuebecausenationaljusticeandpublicordersystemsignorethem.Impunity facilitates further murders and, in a cultural climate where violence iscommonplace,menkillwomenbecausetheycan”).


composetheseinstitutions,therebypreventingtheseStateofficialsfrom properly addressing femicide.43As a result, this impunity,whencombinedwithmachismoculture,cultivatesa“generalizedstateofviolence”withinElSalvador,andwomenarethetargetofthisviolence.44

B.ElSalvador’sStateLawsElSalvadorhasfourmainlawsthatspecificallyfocusonDV,

oneofwhichdirectlyaddressesfemicide.First,ElSalvador’sPenalCode(the“PenalCode”).45Second,ElSalvador’sLawAgainstIntra-FamilialViolence(the“Intra-FamilialLaw”).46Third,ElSalvador’sLawofEquality,Equity,andEradicationofDiscriminationAgainstWomen (the “Law of Equality”). 47 Lastly, El Salvador’s SpecialComprehensive Law for a Violence-Free Life for Women (the“Special Comprehensive Law”), which specifically targetsfemicide.48

1.ElSalvador’sPenalCodeEl Salvador’s Penal Code was first passed in 1904 and in

subsequent years has been modified through additionallegislation. 49 The Penal Code establishes the country’s criminal

43 . See supra note 17 and accompanying text discussing machismo culture and

impunity.44 . Id. (noting that “impunity for crimes, socio- economic disparities and the

machistaculturefosteredageneralizedstateofviolence”).45. CodigoPenal[C.Penal][PenalCode]art.200(El.Sal.).46. Ley Contra la Violencia Intrafamiliar [Law Against Intra-familial Violence]

[hereinafterTheIntra-FamilialLaw],1996(DecreeNo.902)(El.Sal.).47. LeydeIqualdad,EquidadyErradicacióndelaDiscriminacióncontralasMujeres

[LawofEquality,Equity,andEradicationofDiscriminationagainstWomen][hereinafterthe“LawofEquality”],2011(DecreeNo.645)(El.Sal.).

48. LeyEspecialIntegralparaunaVidaLibredeViolenciaparalasMujeres[SpecialComprehensive Law for a Violence-Free Life for Women] [hereinafter “SpecialComprehensiveLaw”],2011(DecreeNo.520)(El.Sal.).

49. SeeElSalvadorPenalandProceduralCodes,COUNTRYDATA,http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-4329.html#targetText=Changes%20in%20the%20Penal%20Code,%2C%20and%20infractions%20(contravenciones) [https://perma.cc/ZNM4-M9F6] (last visited Apr. 30,2020).SeealsoElSalvador:TheApril1998CriminalProceduresCode; itseffectiveness inaddressing violence against women (1998-February 2000), REFWORLD,https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad7a28.html [https://perma.cc/8L4Z-2DKM](lastvisitedFeb.25,2019)(describinghowamendmentstothePenalCodewereenactedtoaddressviolenceagainstwomen).


laws and provides sentences for different crimes. 50 In relevantpart,Article200ofthePenalCodecriminalizesDVandprovidesasentenceofonetothreeyearsinprison.51Specifically,Article200basesboththedefinitionandprosecutionofDVontheinformationlaidoutinElSalvador’sIntra-FamilialLaw,whichwillbediscussedmore fully below.52Additionally,Articles 128 to 132 criminalizevariousformsofhomicideandprovidevarioussentencesforsuchcrimes.53FemicideisnotspecificallyaddressedinthePenalCode,butbecausefemicideisconsideredtobedirectlylinkedtoDVandis a form of homicide, these articles are relevant to thisdiscussion.54

2.ElSalvador’sIntra-FamilialLawElSalvador’sLawAgainstIntra-FamilialViolencewaspassed

in 1996 with the purpose of “establish[ing] appropriatemechanismstoprevent,punishanderadicatedomesticviolence,”particularlywithinfamilialrelations,includingspousesandotherformsofintimaterelationships.55AlthoughtheIntra-FamilialLawdoes not specifically address femicide, femicide is consideredwithin the broader category of DV. 56 As a result, femicide isrelevanttothislaw

TheIntra-FamilialLawdefinesintrafamilialviolenceas“anyactionoromission,directorindirect,thatcausesharm,physical,sexual, psychological suffering or death to the members of thefamily.”57Additionally,theIntra-FamilialLawmakesclearthatitistheState’sresponsibilitytopreventandpunishDVandprovidessteps that the State must take to accomplish prevention andpunishment. 58 These steps include, in pertinent part,

50. Seegenerally,ElSalvadorPenalandProceduralCodes,supranote49(discussingthenatureandextentofElSalvador’spenalcode).Seegenerally,CodigoPenal,supranote45.

51. SeeCodigoPenal,supranote45,art.200.52. Id.Fortheexactdefinitionofintrafamilialviolence,whichqualifiesasDVwithin

thePenalCode,aswellasthenecessarystepsforprosecutionofthiscrime,seesupranote47and48andaccompanyingtext.

53. CodigoPenalsupranote45,art.128-132.54. SeeFemicide,TheAdvocatesforHumanRights,supranote11.55. TheIntra-FamilialLaw,supranote46,at7.56. SeeFemicide,TheAdvocatesforHumanRights,supranote11andaccompanying

text.57. TheIntra-FamilialLaw,supranote46,at8.58. Seeid.at9-10.


disseminating information about the Intra-Familial Law intosociety, encouraging the study of effects of DV on victims, andestablishing legal mechanisms to assist victims of DV. 59Specifically, the Intra-Familial Law dictates that the State mustcreateaspecializedunitwithinElSalvador’sNationalCivicPolice(“ES Police”) to deal with cases of DV. 60 Personnel within thisspecializedunitandtheinstitutionasawholeshouldbetrainedonthedynamicsofDV,particularly thedisparityofpowerbetweentheperpetratorandvictim,andjudicialofficialsshouldbesensitiveto these dynamics when dealing with cases of DV.61Lastly, theIntra-Familial Law creates procedures for protective ordersrelatingtoDV.62

3.ElSalvador’sLawofEqualityThepurposeoftheLawofEquality,Equity,andEradicationof

DiscriminationAgainstWomenistodevelopandpromoteequalityofthesexesthroughoutallaspectsofsocietyandwithinallStateinstitutions.63TheLawofEqualitywaspassed in2011andonlyappliestoStateinstitutions,notprivateindividuals.64Additionally,the Law of Equality specifically targets discrimination againstwomen.65Toaccomplishitsgoals,theLawofEqualitydirectsStateinstitutionstoeliminatesocietaldiscrimination, includingwithinpeople’spersonallives,66bypromotingequalityineducationandpolitics,amongotherpublicarenas.67Althoughthis lawdoesnotspecificallydiscussfemicideperse,becausefemicideisthekillingofwomenbasedongender,femicideisinherentlyadiscriminatoryactthatcanbeconsideredrelevanttotheLawofEquality.68

59. Id.60. Seeid.61. Id.62. Seeid.at11-13.63. TheLawofEquality,supranote47.64 . See id. art. 2, provisions a-c (describing how the law only governs state

institutions).Someseethislimitationasagap.See,e.g.,Musalo,supranote10.65. LawofEquality,supranote47,at7.66. Id.at9.67. Id.at16-24.68. SeePrieto-Carronetal.,supranote42,at35(“[F]emicideinCentralAmerica...

isanexpressionofgenderdiscriminationandunequalpowerrelationsbetweenmenandwomen,operatinginboththeprivateandpublicspheres”).


4.ElSalvador’sSpecialComprehensiveLawTheSpecialComprehensiveLawforaViolence-FreeLifefor

Womenwasenactedin2012andwasthefirstlawthatparticularlyaddressed femicide in El Salvador, reaching further and morespecificallytargetingthe issuethantheIntra-FamilialLaw.69Thepurpose of the Special Comprehensive Law is to establish andguaranteewomen therightofa life freeofviolence through the“detection, prevention, care, protection, reparation, andpunishment of violence against women.” 70 The SpecialComprehensive Law creates responsibilities for the State of ElSalvador, including working with the media to eliminatestereotypes, having the Ministry of Public Health and SocietalAssistancerecorddataofDVcases,creatingspecializedcareunitsthatfocusonvictimsofDVwithinallbranchesofStateinstitutions(including the ES Police and the judiciary) and collecting dataregarding details of femicide cases, including informationregardingthevictimandthecircumstanceunderwhichthecrimeoccurred.71

Most importantly, the Special Comprehensive Lawcriminalizes both general and aggravated femicide. 72 Generalfemicideisdefinedaskillingawomanbasedonhergenderbecauseof“hatredorcontempt,”73andprescribesasentenceoftwentytothirty-five years. 74 Aggravated femicide is defined as killing awoman based on her gender accompanied by aggravatingcircumstances,suchasiftheactwasperformedbyapublicofficialoremployeeoftheState,iftheactoffemicidewasperformedbytwo ormore people, or if the victim is under eighteen years ofage.75Aggravatedfemicideispunishablebythirtytofiftyyearsin

69. CausesandConsequences,supranote24,at12.70. SpecialComprehensiveLaw,supranote48,art.1.71. Id.atCh.IV.72. Id.arts.45-46.73. TheSpecialComprehensiveLawenumeratescircumstancesunderwhichdeath

canbeconsideredaresultofhatredorcontempt, including (1)where therehavebeensituations of previous violence by the perpetrator regardless of whether or not suchviolencewasreported, (2) if theperpetratorcreatedanunequalpowerdynamic in therelationshipwiththevictim,givinghimthemostpower,or(3)priortothevictim’sdeath,theperpetratortookawayher“sexualfreedom”throughactslikesexualmutilation.Id.art.45.

74. Id.75. Id.art.46.


prison. 76 Lastly, Article 47 of the Special Comprehensive Lawaddresses impunity by stating that any personwho impedes aninvestigationordeniesavictimaccesstojusticewhileexercisingapublicfunctionwillbepunishedbytwotofouryearsinprison.77

AlthoughtheSpecialComprehensiveLawisseenasastepinthe right direction with respect to addressing femicide, somecommentatorsargueitisnotwithoutweakness.78Specifically,theSpecial Rapporteur for theUnitedNations (the “UN”) has notedthat the Special Comprehensive Law is only triggered whenfemicideiscommittedbyamalepartnerthatisintimatelyinvolvedwiththevictim,andtherebyexcludesfemicidescommittedbygangmembersthatarenottheromanticpartnerofthevictim.79WhiletheSpecialComprehensiveLawdoesnotdefinewhatconstitutesaromanticpartnerrelationship,theUnitedStates’ViolenceAgainstWomenAct(“VAWA”)definesan“intimatepartner”asacurrentorformer spouse, parent of a child shared with the victim, anindividualwhocurrentlyorhaspreviouslylivedwiththevictim,acurrent or former dating partner, or “any other person who issimilarly situated to a spouse.” 80 When applying this limiteddefinition of intimate or romantic partners, many femicides,particularlythesizeablenumbercommittedbygangmembers,falloutsidethescopeoftheSpecialComprehensiveLaw.81Moreover,because the Special Comprehensive Law only targets femicidescommittedbymalepartners,thelaweffectivelyexcludesfemicidescommitted within lesbian relationships. 82 Although it has beensaidthat,onaglobal level, femicideoccurs far less frequently in

76. Id.77. Id.art.47.78. SeeExtrajudicialSummary,supranote14.79. Id.at13.80. ViolenceAgainstWomenAct,18U.S.C.§2266(7)(2020)[hereinafterVAWA].81. Seeid.82. HumanRightsSituationforLesbian,BisexualandTranswomeninElSalvador,

122th Session of theHumanRights Comm. Review of El Salvador, Espacio deMujeresLesbianas Salvadoreñas por la Diversidad (ESMULES) (Feb 9, 2018) at 3. See alsoExtrajudicialSummary,supranote14at13;InternationalHumanRightsLawClinic,Univ.ofCal.BerkeleySchoolofLaw,SexualDiversityinElSalvador:AReportontheHumanRightsSituation of the LGBT Community 48 (2012) (available athttps://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/IHRLC/LGBT_Report_English_Final_120705.pdf[https://perma.cc/7DMW-4GA7])(recommendingthatTheSpecialComprehensiveLawbeappliedtoLGBTactsofviolence).


same-sexcouplesthanheterosexualrelationships,thisomissionisyetanothersignificantgapintheSpecialComprehensiveLaw.83

C.ElSalvador’sEnforcementPowersEl Salvador’s judicial branch is chargedwith upholding the

lawsthatpreventandpunishDVandfemicide,anditisthecentralway inwhich victims of femicide and their families can receivejustice. 84 This is particularly true for the recently createdspecializedcourts,whicharetaskedwithspecificallydealingwithcases of femicide. 85 Additionally, both the ES Police and the ElSalvadoranProsecutor’sOfficearetaskedwithupholdingtheseDVand femicide laws through investigation and prevention offemicide, as well as punishment of perpetrators of femicide. 86Specialized units have been created within both of theseinstitutions to more effectively accomplish the prevention andpunishment of femicide.87 Ultimately, these units within the ESPoliceandtheProsecutor’sOffice,aswellasthespecializedcourtswithin the judicial branch, are themainmethods bywhichnewdomesticlegislationconcerningfemicideisenforced.88

83. HumanRightsSituationforLesbian,BisexualandTranswomeninElSalvador,

122th Session of the Human Rights Comm. Review of El Salvador, supra note 82, at 4(describinghownotclassifyingfemicideinlesbianrelationshipsandnotcollectingdatatodiscover whether or not these types of femicide are occurring, lesbian women in ElSalvadorareeffectively“invisibl[e]”and“sufferadoublediscriminationstandardforbeinglesbianandwomen[allcapsomitted]”).

84. SeeBrigida,supranote25(describingthejudicialprocessasawayforvictimsoffemicide to obtain justice). See also Anna-Cat Brigida, El Salvador’s female victims ofviolence rarely see justice. That’s about to change, SPLINTER (Oct. 12, 2016),https://splinternews.com/el-salvador-s-female-victims-of-violence-rarely-see-jus-1793862769 [https://perma.cc/B3HK-MBVD] [hereinafter Female Victims of Violence](quotingXochitlBendeck,directoroftheLifeFreeofViolenceprogramattheSalvadoranInstitute for the Development ofWomen, who says that the judicial system can bringjusticetofemicidevictimsifimpunityisaddressed).

85. Brigida,supranote25(explaininghowthespecializedcourtshavejurisdictionoverthecrimeof femicide);Moloney,supranote25(describinghowspecializedcourtshandlecasesof“domesticandsexualviolence”andarealsoknownas ‘specialwomen’scourts’”).

86. Seegenerally,supraPart II(B) foradiscussionof the roleof theESpoliceandProsecutor’sOfficeregardingtheenforcementoftheselaws.

87. SeeinfraPartII(C)(ii)anddiscussion.88. Seesupranote71.


1.TheJudicialBranchPrior to the creation of the specialized courts, all DV cases

were under the jurisdiction of the Peace Court, a branch of ElSalvador’scourtsdedicatedtomisdemeanorsandcivilsuits,asDVcrimes were initially considered misdemeanors. 89 Moreover,before the specialized courts were established, femicide caseswereunderthejurisdictionoftheCourtsofFirstInstance,whichare El Salvador’s trial courts. 90 However, only five percent offemicide complaints filed in trial courts resulted in conviction.91Thus, the majority of femicide perpetrators went unpunished,leaving these perpetrators free to continue committing thisheinouscrime.92

As discussedmore fully above, this lack of punishment forfemicideperpetrators ledtoa lackofconfidenceinElSalvador’sjudicial system overall, which was one of many factors causingsignificant underreporting of both DV and femicide cases. 93Furthermore,evenwhenaDVreportwasfiled, lawenforcementpersonnel, lawyers, and judges would frequently treat DV as a“private matter” and would urge reconciliation amongst the

89. See generally, The Judiciary, COUNTRY STUDIES, http://countrystudies.us/el-

salvador/70.htm#targetText=Each%20chamber%20is%20composed%20of,seven%20such%20courts%20in%201986 [https://perma.cc/AV67-8HQ3]. See also Causes andConsequneces, supra note 24 at 16 (describing how domestic violence cases werefrequentlytreatedas“administrativeratherthancriminaloffences”orwouldbeclassifiedasmisdemeanors”).

90 . See generally, The Judiciary, supra note 89; see also Judiciary of El Salvador,WIKIPEDIA, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_El_Salvador[https://perma.cc/8R47-D7Q6] (last visited Feb. 26, 2020) (describing courts of firstinstanceasthefirstlevelofthejudicialbranchtohearcivilandcriminalcases).

91. LauraAguirre,Intheregion’smostviolentcountry,killingsofwomenpushedaside,UNIVISION NEWS (Mar. 7, 2017), https://www.univision.com/univision-news/latin-america/in-the-regions-most-violent-country-killings-of-women-pushed-aside[https://perma.cc/5J6K-A3H2]. See also Musalo, supra note 10, at 23 (describing howbetween 2013 and 2015, 80% of cases involving the “violent killing of women” weredismissedforlackingsufficientevidence).

92. SeeMoloney,supranote25.SeealsoElSalvadorCreatesSpecialCourttoProtectWomen’s Rights, TELESUR (Feb. 23, 2016), https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/El-Salvador-Creates-Special-Court-to-Protect-Womens-Rights-20160223-0007.html[https://perma.cc/94PN-CEVW](explainingthatthecreationofthespecializedcourtsisanattempttofinallyprovideElSalvadoranwomenwithafairtrialforfemicide,asthesewomenhavedealtwithinjusticeandimpunityregardingthesecrimesinthepast,whichledtoa“continuumofmultipleviolentacts”).

93. SeeCausesandConsequences,supranote24,at7.


parties privately instead of by formally pressing charges.94Thistreatment of DV also caused insufficient investigation andprosecution,whichfosteredincreasedandrepeatedincidencesofDV. 95 As a result, this cycle and proliferation of DV led toescalationsofviolence,whichultimatelyleadtofemicide.96

ThespecializedcourtswereestablishedbytheDecreefortheCreation of Special Courts for a Life Free of Violence andDiscriminationAgainstWomenin201697inresponsetopervasiveinjustice regarding femicide cases in order to specifically andpromptly address cases in which the rights of women wereviolated. 98 Cases that reach the specialized courts are referredfrom the Peace Courts and are based on crimes laid out in theSpecialComprehensiveLaw.99Specifically, thespecializedcourtshave jurisdictionoverelevencrimes including, inpertinentpart,femicide and aggravated femicide.100The judges presiding overthese courts are trained to handle gender-based violence byevadingtheinfluenceofmachismocultureandlookingatthefactsthrough a “gender lens,” or by considering how vulnerable a

94. Seeid.at16.95. Id.96 . See id. (suggesting that specialized units be created in order to “combat the

pattern of impunity in gender-based violent murders and conduct effective criminalinvestigations” in response to increasing levels of femicide and DV; this suggests thatwithouttheseunits,femicideandDVwereabletoproliferatefaster).

97 . See Decree for the Creation of Special Courts for a Life Free of Violence andDiscriminationagainstWomen,Decree286,D.O.No.60D.O.No.60,Vol.411,Apr.4,2016(ElSal.).Thisdecree“establishesthecreationofspecializedcourtsthatdealwithcasesofdomesticviolenceandviolenceagainstwomenandrequiresalllegalstaffofthesecourtsto acquire the necessary knowledge on women’s right to a life free of violence anddiscriminationandonhumanrights.”Id.(citationsomitted).SocialInstitutions&GenderIndex, OECD DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, at 5, https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/SV.pdf [https://perma.cc/3S3R-7SGF] (lastvisitedNov.15,2019).

98. SeeSocialInstitutions&GenderIndex,supranote97,at1.99. Id.at2.100. SeeClaudiaCalero,SpecialComprehensiveLawforaLifeFreeofViolenceforthe

Women,ISDEMU(May24,2017)(listingall11lawsthespecializedcourtshavejurisdictionover),https://www.salud.gob.sv/archivos/pdf/telesalud_2017_presentaciones/presentacion24052017/LEY-ESPECIAL-INTEGRAL-PARA-UNA-VIDA-LIBRE-DE-VIOLENCIA-PARA-LAS-MUJERES.pdf[https://perma.cc/H8WU-3BC5].Additionally,itisworthnotingthatthesecourts donot have jurisdiction over intrafamilial violence and sexual violence becausethesetwoformsofviolencearethemostcommoninElSalvadorandgivingthesecourtsjurisdictionoversuchabroadsetofcrimeswouldeffectively“collapsethesystem.”SeeMusalo,supranote10,at14.


womaninanabusiverelationshipcanbeandaccountingforthisvulnerabilitywhenpresidingoverafemicidecase,inordertoavoidthepatternof victim-blaming thatplagued regular courts in thepast. 101 Lastly, in reaching decisions, the specialized courtscombinepunishmentandrehabilitationthroughincarcerationandfines as well as masculinity classes that focus on combattingpatriarchalmentalitiesthatleadtorepeatoffenses.102

2.StateActorsasEnforcersofElSalvador’sLawsIn an effort to more directly address cases of femicide, El

Salvador’s Attorney General created the National Directorate ofWomen,Children,Adolescents, LGBTIandVulnerableGroups.103ThisnewunitofElSalvador’sProsecutor’sOffice isdivided intofour departments, one ofwhich focuses on cases of femicide, inordertocreateastandardizedapproachtotheinvestigationandprosecutionofthiscrime.104Thisdepartmentisledbyfourfemale

101. SeeBrigida,supranote25(discussinghowinregularcourtsjudgesandjuries

tendedtoblamethevictimforherabuse,believedthatawomancannotberapedbyherpartner,orbelievedthatDVshouldbehandledprivatelyandoutsideofthecourtroom).SeealsoMoloney,supranote25(quoting JudgeBaires,a judgepresidingover femicidecasesinElSalvadorataspecializedcourt,whoexplainedhowtraditionalcourtsblamedwomenfortheabusetheysuffered‘becausetheywentoutatnightortheirhusbandswereangry that ‘lunchwasn’tpreparedon time’”);seealsoElSalvadorCreatesSpecialCourt,supra note 92 (describing how judges who preside over femicide cases in specializedcourtsarespecificallytrainedtohandlesuchcases).

102. Anna-Cat Brigida,Male Aggressors in El Salvador get Prison, andMasculinityClasses,ALJAZEERA(Mar.30,2019),https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/male-aggressors-el-salvador-prison-masculinity-class-190330001520333.html[https://perma.cc/SC4N-TSHW](explainingthatrehabilitationincludesmoretraditionalpractices like fines andmore create approaches that target “patriarchal behavior,” likemasculinity classes). For an example of a traditional form of punishment from thespecialized court, see Brigida, supra note 25 (describing how a DV perpetrator wasrequiredtopaya$600fineandservefouryearsinprison,basedontwo-monthspayataminimum-wagejob,forbeingfoundguiltyof“expressionsofviolenceintheformofverbalandpsychologicalabuse”).

103. Alvaro Castaneda, Attorney General inaugurates “National Directorate forWomen,Children,Adolescents,LGBTIandVulnerableGroups”,OFFICEOFTHEATT’YGEN.OFTHE REPUBLIC (May 15, 2018), http://www.fiscalia.gob.sv/fiscal-general-inaugura-direccion-nacional-de-la-mujer-ninez-adolescencia-lgbti-y-grupos-vulnerables/[https://perma.cc/4642-P8H2];BeatrizCalderón,WhatisthenewNationalDirectorateforWomenpresentedtodaybytheProsecutorandhasnobudget?,LAPRENSAGRAFICA(May15,2018 at 9:03 HS), https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/Que-es-la-nueva-Direccion-Nacional-de-la-Mujer-presentada-hoy-por-la-Fiscalia-y-que-no-tiene-presupuesto-20180515-0026.html[https://perma.cc/XWW8-AC27].

104. Castaneda,supranote103.


prosecutors who have specialized experience in dealing withfemicide cases.105According to data collected by the AutomatedManagement and Information System of the Fiscal Process, thisnew unit has aided the Prosecutor’s Office in increasing thenumberofcaptureorders issuedandconvictionsmaintainedforfemicidecases.106AsidefromtheProsecutor’sOffice,theESPoliceisthealternativeprincipalStateinstitutionchargedwithenforcingElSalvador’slawsaddressingfemicideinordertoultimatelyendthisepidemicwithinthecountry.107

TheESPolice is thecentralpolice force forElSalvadorandoperates on a national level.108 As previously discussed, the ESPolicehasbeenknowntoinsufficientlyinvestigatereportedcasesoffemicide.109Additionally,theESPolicehasalsobeenknowntoencouragevictimstosettleconflictsofDVintheprivacyoftheirown home, rather than filing police reports. 110 However, asdiscussed above, recent legislation has created standards andproceduresfortheESPolicetofollowforDVandfemicidecases.111TheIntra-FamilialLawestablishesproceduresthattheESPolicemustfollowuponreceivingnoticeofaDVcase,includingprovidingmedicalattentiontothevictim,advisingthevictimofherrights,detaining the aggressor if the violence is verified, and, at thediscretion of the police, issuing a temporary protective orderwhereacasehasnotconstitutedDVbutaggressionisperceptibleby the police. 112 Additionally, the Special Comprehensive Law

105. Calderón,supranote103.Fortheannouncementofthecreationofthenewunit,

seeCastaneda,supranote103.106. Castaneda,supranote103.107. See Special Comprehensive Law, supra note 22, ch. VI (describing how a

specializedunitwillbecreatedwithintheESPolicetocombatfemicide,showcasinghowtheESPoliceisacentralStateinstitutiontoaddressfemicide).

108. Forageneraldescriptionof theESPolice, seeElSalvador:TheorganizationalstructureoftheNationalCivilPolice(PolicíaNacionalCivil,PNC),REFWORLD(June22,2012)https://www.refworld.org/docid/5035ffc42.html [https://perma.cc/89XE-UARQ]; seealso National Civil Police of El Salvador, WIKIPEDIA,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Civil_Police_of_El_Salvador[https://perma.cc/Z8U4-Z62Y](lastvisitedFeb.26,2020).

109. SeeU.N.CommitteeontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,ConcludingObservationsontheEighthandNinthPeriodicReportsofElSalvador,5,U.N.Doc.CEDAW/C/SLV/CO/7(2008)[hereinafterConcludingObservations2008].

110. Id.111. See supra Part II(b) discussing the Intra-familial Law and the Special

ComprehensiveLaw.Seealsoinfranotes112and113.112. SeeTheIntra-FamilialLaw,supranote46,at14-15.


guarantees that women who are facing violence will receive“timely and adequate” help from the ES Police113 and that anyindividual, including members of the ES Police, who, whileperforming a public function, impedes an investigation will bepunished.114Lastly, theESPolicehaveopenedgenderunits thatfocus on cases involving violence against women, includingfemicide.115

Thesepositivechanges,however,havenothadtheultimatesuccess intended, because the numerous protocols in recentlegislation have not been fully implemented by the ES Police.116Furthermore, because the public outreach that was meant toinformthepublicregardingthesegenderunitshasbeenlimited,manywomenareevenunawareoftheexistenceoftheseunits.117

113. SpecialComprehensiveLaw,supranote38,at38.114. Id.at34,art.47.115 . See Angelika Albaladejo, How Violence Affects Women in El Salvador, LATIN

AMERICA WORKING GROUP, https://www.lawg.org/how-violence-affects-women-in-el-salvador/[https://perma.cc/62VA-ARQH](discussinghowtheseunitsare“trainedwithagender-focused curriculum and collaborate with local women to create ‘fear maps’pinpointinghigh-riskareasandthetypesofviolencespecifictothecommunity”).SeealsoEl Salvador: 76 Femicides so Far in 2019, TELESUR (April 4, 2019),https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/El-Salvador-76-Femicides-so-Far-in-2019-20190404-0010.html [https://perma.cc/KV6Z-JEJU] (describing how crimes againstwomenhavebeeninvestigatedby“SpecializedCareOfficer[s]forWomen”withintheESPolice).

116 . See Albaladejo, supra note 115; see also El Salvador’s Compliance with theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights:Gender-basedViolence,GangViolence,Trafficking, and Police Corruption, ADVOCATES FOR HUMAN RIGHTS 5 (2018)https://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/el_salvador_gender-based_violence_march_2018.pdf [https://perma.cc/S43P-K78Y] (describing howalthough thegenderunitwithin theESPolice isapositivestep, theESPolicehavestillfailed to fully investigateDVand femicidecases).SeealsoElSalvador: “Weare stillnotequal”,HORIZONS(Jan.19,2018),https://www.horizons.ca/blog/2018/1/17/el-salvador-we-are-still-not-equal [https://perma.cc/L225-75F8] (discussing how despite genderunits,theESPolicestilldoesnotknowhowtoproperlypreventretaliationfromreportingabuse);seealsoCatalinaLobo-Guerrero, InElSalvador, ‘GirlsAreaProblem’,N.Y.TIMES(Sept. 2, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/02/opinion/sunday/el-salvador-girls-homicides.html [https://perma.cc/388M-Q44V] (“While the police have createddozensof “unimujer”units that focusonwomenwhoarevictimsof violenceand theirchildren,theycannotkeepthemsafefromretaliationbytheirattackers”).

117. SeeAlbaladejo, supranote115.Moreover, even ifwomenareawareof theseunits,womenarereluctanttogotothemastheyarefrequently“monitored”bygangs,whowill think they are acting as informants for the police, leaving thesewomen at risk ofretaliation.ImmigrationandRefugeeBoardofCanada,ElSalvador:InformationGatheringMission Report - Part 2 10, (Sept. 2016),https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/905681/download [https://perma.cc/YRL5-4DVN](“theseunitsaremonitoredbygangsandwomenareafraidtogotheretoreport


This lack of both implementation and public awareness hascurtailedthepotentialbenefitsthatthenewprotocolscouldhavefortheissueoffemicideinElSalvador.

D.ElSalvador’sInternationalLawObligationsElSalvadorhasratifiedanumberof international lawsthat

specifically target femicide and DV. 118 Moreover, through theSpecial Rapporteur on Violence Against Women and theCommitteefortheConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscrimination Against Women, the UN has released reportscoveringtheprogressElSalvadorhasmaderegardingfemicide.119These reports also examine the remaining challenges in ElSalvador relating to femicide and provide recommendations forresolutionoftheseissues.120

1.ThePPEVConvention121The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and

EradicateViolenceAgainstWomen,alsoknownastheConventionof Belém do Pará (the “PPEV Convention”), is an internationalhuman rights mechanism created within the Organization ofAmerican States (the “OAS”) that classifies violence againstwomen,includingfemicide,asaviolationoftheirhumanrights.122 domestic violence because gang members will perceive them as police informantsprovidinginformationaboutgangs...violencecomplaintshasdecreasedaswomenfeartobeconsideredas‘informants’andtherefore,prefernottofilecomplaints”).

118 . See infra Part II(D)(1)-(3) discussing the international laws El Salvador hasratifiedthatrelatetofemicide.

119. SeeinfraPartII(D)(4)discussingtheSpecialRapporteurreport.120. Id.121. ElSalvadorsignedandratifiedtheConventionof inAugustandNovemberof

1995, respectively. See Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and EradicateViolence Against Women, Signatories and Ratification, DEP’T OF INT’L L., OAS,https://www.oas.org/juridico/english/sigs/a-61.html [https://perma.cc/C73Y-MNGQ](lastvisitedApr.30,2020).Additionally,ElSalvadorhasrecognizedthejurisdictionoftheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights.SeeBasicDocumentsPertainingtoHumanRightsintheInter-AmericanSystem,Org.ofAmer.StatesInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights(Feb.2012),at63-64.

122. Inter-AmericanConventiontoPrevent,PunishandEradicateViolenceAgainstWomen “Conventión of Belém do Pará,” ORG. OF AMER. STATES (June 9, 1994)https://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html [https://perma.cc/K85Y-U3AC](defining“violenceagainstwomen”as“anyactorconduct,basedongender,whichcausesdeathorphysical,sexualorpsychologicalharmorsufferingtowomen,whetherinthepublicorprivatesphere”).


Thehumanrightsthatareconsideredtobeviolatedbyfemicideincludetherighttolife,therighttoequalprotectionunderthelaw,and the right not to be subjected to torture, among others. 123Additionally,amongotherthings,Article4ofthePPEVConventionprovides thatwomen have fundamental rights to life and equalprotection under the law.124Furthermore, the PPEV Conventionspecificallyfocusesonviolenceagainstwomenthattranspiresinan intimate relationship or is committed or accepted by theState.125

States that have ratified this convention, including ElSalvador,aregivendutiesthattheyarelegallyboundtofulfill.126Theseduties include, inpertinentpart, condemningall formsofviolence against women “without delay” through applying “duediligence”topreventandpunishsuchviolence.127IfaStatefailstofulfill these duties, any individual or non-governmentalorganization(“NGO”)thatislegallyrecognizedinoneormoreofthe member States of the convention can file a complaint forviolationoftheseduties.128Moreover,Statesarerequiredtotakecertain measures to ensure that violence against women isadequately addressed, prevented, and punished, includinggathering statisticson casesof violence inorder toevaluate theeffectivenessofthesemeasures.129

123. Id.art.4.124. Id. (“The right to haveher life respected” and “The right to equal protection

beforethelawandofthelaw”).125. Id.(“Violenceagainstwomenshallbeunderstoodtoincludephysical,sexualand

psychologicalviolence:thatoccurswithinthefamilyordomesticunitorwithinanyotherinterpersonalrelationship . . . thatisperpetratedorcondonedbythestateoritsagentsregardlessofwhereitoccurs”).

126. Seegenerally, id. ch. III; seealsoCentre forWomenPeaceandSecurity, Inter-AmericanConvention on thePrevention, Punishment andEradication ofViolenceagainstWomen (Belém do Pará Convention), LSE, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/vaw/regional/the-americas/convention-belem-do-para/ [https://perma.cc/D2UT-L5DH] (last visited Apr.30,2020)(explainingthatthePPEVConventionisalegallybindingtreaty).

127. The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate ViolenceAgainst Women “Conventión of Belém do Pará” Org. of Amer. States (June 9, 1994)[hereinafter the PPEV Convention], https://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html[https://perma.cc/2KFP-C4Q8](“TheStatesPartiescondemnallformsofviolenceagainst women and agree to pursue, by all appropriate means and without delay” and“apply due diligence to prevent, investigate, and impose penalties for violence againstwomen”)(emphasisadded).

128. Id.art.12.129. Id.art.8.


2.CEDAW130The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

DiscriminationAgainstWomen (“CEDAW”)was createdoutof aconcernthat,despiteotherresolutionsanddeclarationsadoptedby the UN to end discrimination against women, suchdiscrimination still persisted. 131 This Convention createsobligationswithwhichStatesmustcomply,includingcondemningdiscrimination in all its forms and taking many significantmeasurestoaccomplishthisgoal.132Additionally,CEDAWrequirespartiestosubmitareporteveryfouryearstotheSecretaryGeneralof the UN that discloses steps taken towards accomplishing thegoals laid out in CEDAW. 133 Pursuant to this obligation underCEDAW,ElSalvadorhassubmittedsuchreports,andCEDAWhasreleased observations discussing them. 134 The most recentobservationisdiscussedbelow.

Pursuant to CEDAW, observationswere released regardingtheprogressElSalvadormadetowardseliminatingdiscriminationagainstwomenbetween2008and2017.135Tostartthereport,theCommitteeon theEliminationofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(the“Committee”)firstcommentsonsomeofthepositiveactionsElSalvadorhastakentowardseliminatingdiscriminationagainst

130. ElSalvadorratifiedCEDAWonAugust19,1981withareservationonArticle29,whichallowsforadisputebetweenstatestobesettledbynegotiationthrougharbitrationortheInternationalCourtofJustice[ICJ].SeeUnitedNationsTreatyCollection,ChapterIV,Human Rights, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&clang=_en[https://perma.cc/Z8SK-BQVW](lastvisitedApr.20,2020).Seealso Int’l Just. Resource Ctr., Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination AgainstWomen, https://ijrcenter.org/un-treaty-bodies/committee-on-the-elimination-of-discrimination-against-women/#targetText=Article%2029%20of%20CEDAW%20provides,should%20that%20fail%2C%20by%20arbitration [https://perma.cc/2GF2-S3K2] (discussing how thisreservation functionsasElSalvador“optingout”ofstatesbeingable todealwiththemthrougharbitrationortakethemtotheICJ).

131. Seegenerally,G.A.Res.34/180,ConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen[CEDAW](Dec.18,1979).

132. Idart.2.133. Seeid.art.18(“StatesPartiesundertaketosubmittotheSecretary-Generalof

theUnitedNations,forconsiderationbytheCommittee,areportonthelegislative,judicial,administrativeorothermeasureswhichtheyhaveadoptedtogiveeffecttotheprovisionsofthepresentConventionandontheprogressmadeinthisrespect”).

134 . See Concluding Observations 2008, supra note 109; see also ConcludingObservations2017,supranote14.

135. Seegenerally,ConcludingObservations2017,supranote14.


women, including progressive laws, conventions and nationalplans passed. 136 However, the Committee also discusses itsconcernsregardingthecontinuingdiscriminationagainstwomeninElSalvadorandprovidesrecommendationsforhowtoremedytheseconcerns.137TheconcernsthattheCommitteediscussesthatarerelevanttotheissueofDV,andparticularlyfemicide,include:patriarchalmentalitiesthatprevail inthejudicialsystemdespitethecreationofspecializedcourts,delaysandunderfundingintheimplementationoftheSpecialComprehensiveLaw,theincreasedrateoffemicidedespitenewlegislation,alackofinformationforhowDVandfemicidecasesareadjudicated,lowprosecutionandconviction rates for these cases, and inconsistent and limitedapplicationofprotocolscreatedforfemicidecases.138Inordertoaddresstheseconcerns,theCommitteerecommends,inpertinentpart,thatElSalvadorallocateadequateresourcestothelawsthataddressDVandfemicide,collectadequatedataonDVcases,andstrengthen judges, lawyers,and lawenforcement’sawarenessofprotocolsandlawsthatpertaintoDVandfemicide.139

3.DEVAWIthasbeensuggestedthattheDeclarationontheElimination

ofViolenceAgainstWomen(“DEVAW)”strengthensandreinforcesCEDAWbyspecificallytargetingviolenceagainstwomen,whichisdiscussedasa formofdiscrimination inCEDAW.140DEVAWwasenactedasaresultofan“urgentneed”tocreateauniversalsetof

136. Seeid.at1-2.137. Seeid.at3-6.138. Id.at 6; see also ConcludingObservations2008, supranote109, at 5 (listing

someofthesameconcernsastheoneslistedin2017,includingissueswithdatacollectionand“monitor[ing]theimplementationofexistinglegislationcriminalizingviolenceagainstwomen”).

139. SeeConcludingObservations2017,supranote14,at6.140 . See Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, WIKIPEDIA,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Elimination_of_Violence_Against_Women#targetText=The%20Declaration%20on%20the%20Elimination%20of%20Violence%20Against%20Women%20was,104%20of%2020%20December%201993[https://perma.cc/WF32-EBNY] (last visited May 1, 2020). See also U.N. SpecialRapporteur on Violence againstWomen, Its Causes and Consequences,15 Years of theUnitedNationsSpecialRapporteuronViolenceAgainstWomen,ItsCausesandConsequences,Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 4,https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/15YearReviewofVAWMandate.pdf[https://perma.cc/LD6W-ZQTP] (last visited Feb. 27, 2020) (describing DEVAW as a“morecomprehensiveframeworkfor[violenceagainstwomen]”thanCEDAW).


fundamental rights for women. 141 DEVAW describes violenceagainstwomenasaviolationofwomen’sfundamentalrightsandincludes“anyactofgender-basedviolence”committedby,amongothers, the family, a community, or the State. 142 Specifically,DEVAW explains that femicide violates fundamental rights towhichwomenareentitled,includingtherighttolife,therighttoequalprotectionunderthelaw,andtherightnottobetorturedordegraded. 143 In order to ensure these fundamental rights arerespectedandupheld,DEVAWcreatesdutiesforStatestomaintainin order to protect and effectively guarantee these fundamentalrightstowomen.144Mostrelevantherearethedutiesto“exercisedue diligence to prevent, investigate and... punish” violenceagainst women, to provide access to justice for women, and topromotethecollectionofdataforviolenceagainstwomeninorderto research its causes and consequences, as well as theeffectivenessofmeasurestakenbytheState.145

4.The2011ReportThe role of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against

Women (the “Special Rapporteur”)was createdwithDEVAW inmind and was meant to more directly target violence againstwomenbyassigninganindependentexpert,whoisappointedbytheUNHumanRightsCouncil,topersonallyevaluatethestatusofDV invariouscountries.146Specifically, theSpecialRapporteur is

141. SeeG.A.Res.48/104,DeclarationontheEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen,1[Hereinafter“DEVAW”](Dec.20,1993)(“Recognizingtheurgentneedfortheuniversalapplicationtowomenoftherightsandprincipleswithregardtoequality,security,liberty,integrityanddignityofallhumanbeings”).

142. See id. at 2 (defining “violence againstwomen” as “any act of gender- basedviolencethatresultsin,orislikelytoresultin,physical,sexualorpsychologicalharmorsuffering towomen, including threatsof suchacts, coercionorarbitrarydeprivationofliberty,whether occurring in public or in private life,” including ““Physical, sexual andpsychologicalviolenceoccurring in the family,”non-spousalviolence, violencewithinacommunityandviolence“perpetratedorcondonedbytheState...”).

143. Seeid.144. See,generally,id.art.4.145. Id.at3.146. SeeU.N.CommissiononHumanRightsRes.1994/45,QuestionofIntegratingthe

Rights of Women into the Human Rights Mechanisms of the United Nations and theEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen,OfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights,56thmeeting(Mar4,1994)(describingthecreationandnatureofthespecialrapporteuron violence against women). See also FAQs: United Nations Special Rapporteurs, ACLU,https://www.aclu.org/other/faqs-united-nations-special-rapporteurs


taskedwith reviewingdifferent countries,while considering thestandards setout inDEVAW,andreporting their findings to theCommissiononHumanRights.147BelowisabriefsynopsisoftheUNGeneralAssembly,HumanRightsCouncil,ReportoftheSpecialRapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes andConsequences – Follow-upMission to El Salvador (2011) (“The2011Report”).148

Inthe2011Report,theSpecialRapporteurnotesthefailureofpublicofficialstoprosecuteandpunishperpetratorsofviolenceagainstwomen and suggests that this failure creates a sense ofimpunity,causingElSalvadorancitizenstolackfaithintheirjusticesystem and fostering an even greater potential for violence. 149Furthermore, the 2011 Report discusses the criticisms that theSpecialComprehensiveLawreceivedduring itsdraftingprocess,including many that came from civil organizations who weretroubledbythelackofconsultationthroughoutthedraftingoftheSpecialComprehensiveLaw.150Theseorganizationsbelievedthatthis lackofconsultation led tounclearand insufficientlyspecificprotective measures in the Special Comprehensive Law. 151Moreover,inthe2011Report,theSpecialRapporteurstressestheurgentneedfortheeffectiveimplementationofElSalvador’slawsthatcombatfemicide.152Lastly,the2011Reportexpressesconcernthatthereisnounifiedsystemforcollectingdataongender-basedviolence.153 [https://perma.cc/AY5Y-FB2J](lastvisitedMay1,2020)(describingtheroleofthespecialrapporteur).

147. SeeU.N.CommissiononHumanRightsRes.1994/45,at3.148. Seegenerally,CausesandConsequences,supranote24.Itisworthnotingthat

2011was themostrecentreportdoneby thespecial rapporteuronElSalvador.SeeElSalvador,GlobalDatabaseonViolenceAgainstWomen,UNWomen(lastvisitedApril16,2020), https://evaw-global-database.unwomen.org/en/countries/americas/el-salvador[https://perma.cc/7DGV-KMQW](linkingthe2011report,suggestingthatthisisthemostrecentone).

149. CausesandConsequences,supranote24,at2.ThespecialrapporteursuggestedthatElSalvadorcreateaspecializedunitwithintheprosecutor’sofficeforhandlingcasesofgender-basedviolence.Id.Sincethisreport,ElSalvadorhascreatedsuchaunit.Id.SeealsoCastaneda,supranote103.

150. SeeCausesandConsequences,supranote24,at12.151. Id.152. Id.at15.Thisrecommendationwasmadein2011andwasconsideredurgent

eightyearsago.Id.153 . Id. at 19. Although the National Plan discusses a unified system for data

collection, data collection is still inconsistent in El Salvador. See supra Part 1(B)(v)discussingNationalPlan.SeealsosupraPart1(D)(ii)(b)discussingCEDAW2017.


III.COMMENTATORSSPECULATE:CANELSALVADORFACEFEMICIDEONITSOWN,ORSHOULDINTERNATIONALLAW

INFLUENCETHERESOLUTIONOFTHISCRISIS?

There are differing opinions regarding who shouldpredominantly address the issue of femicide in El Salvador. 154SomecommentatorsarguethatElSalvadorhastakenprogressivestepsandmeasurestoaddressfemicidewithinitsborders,andElSalvador should continue to address this epidemic as rates offemicidecontinuetorise.155ProponentsofthisopinionfrequentlysuggestadditionalstepsElSalvadorcantaketotacklethisriseinstatistics. 156 Conversely, others opine that, while El Salvadorshould make changes in an effort to eradicate femicide,international law isamoreuseful tool thatshouldbeutilized toeffectamorepermanentchange.157Thosewhomaintainsuchanopinion do so under the notion that a government such as ElSalvador,withastrongmachismocultureandimpunity,mustbeheldresponsiblefortheenforcementofStatelaws,andthatwhentheselawsarenotenforcedeffectively,internationalpressurecanbe impactful to create an incentive for compliance. 158 ThefollowingSectionsdiscusstheseargumentsinfurtherdetail.

154. SeeinfraPartIII(A)and(B).155. SeeinfraPartIII(A).156. SeeinfraPartIII(A).157. SeeVoces,Challenges forWomen’sRights inLatinAmerica,DIALOGUE(Dec.21,

2015), https://www.thedialogue.org/blogs/2015/12/protect-womens-rights-hold-latin-american-governments-accountable/ [https://perma.cc/5EJ8-R6LU] (describing how“[i]nternational pressure is . . . a crucial catalyst for change”). See also Femicide andInternational Women’s Rights, GLOBAL AMERICANS,https://theglobalamericans.org/reports/femicide-international-womens-rights/[https://perma.cc/7AYE-NQ2W](describinghowwhilenew legislationhasbeencreated inElSalvador, internationalbodies like theUN,specificallyUNWomen,canbehelpfulinprovidingsupporttogovernmentsandsocietyinordertoenforceinternationalhuman rights commitments ratified by countries like El Salvador, including the Inter-AmericanConventiononthePrevention,Punishment,andEradicationofViolenceAgainstWomen).

158. SeeVoces,supranote157(citingmachismoandalackofpoliticalwillasreasonsfor why laws regarding femicide are not properly enforced); see also Femicide andInternational Women’s Rights, surpa note 157 (describing impunity and machismo asreasonsfortheprogressionofdomesticlegislationregardingviolenceagainstwomentomoveslowly).Itshouldbenotedthatthoseontheothersideofthedebatealsoblamelackofpoliticalwillasareasonforineffectivenessoflawstargetingfemicide.Seee.g.,Musalo,supranote10,at28.


A.CommentatorsSuggestThatElSalvadorShouldContinuetoHandletheFemicideCrisis

Some commentators suggest that El Salvador shouldmakechangestoaddresstherisingrateoffemicide,anddonotespousethepositionthatinternational lawshouldbeutilizedasatooltoachievethesechanges.159ThesecommentatorsviewtheeffortsofElSalvadorincombattingthefemicideepidemicinapositivelightandconsider these changes tobeprogressive steps towards theultimategoalofendingfemicide.160Moreover,intheirdiscussionregarding the rise in femicide, these commentators suggestchangesElSalvadorshouldmakeinordertocontinuefightingthepervasivenessoffemicide.161

ManycommentatorsadmiretheeffortsElSalvadorhasmadeto target femicide. 162 Specifically, scholars as well as reporterspraisetheenactmentofprogressivelawsandtheimplementationof specialized courts. 163 These commentators, however, alsocriticize El Salvador’s lack of enforcement of its domestic laws,including the Penal Code, the Intra-familiar Law, the Law ofEquality, and the Special Comprehensive Law (the “ES Femicide

159 . SeeMusalo, supra note 10, at 28-29 (reiterating and endorsing suggestions

madebyEl Salvadorans forwhat El Salvadormust do in response to rising statistics);Albaladejo,supranote115(makingsuggestionsElSalvadorshouldactonintheefforttoendfemicide).

160. SeeNugent,supranote32(describinghowElSalvadoristheonlycountryintheworldthathasalawthatspecificallytargetsfemicide,whichshows“astrikingrecognitionbythegovernmentofthepsychologicaldamagesufferedbyvictimsandtheneedtoholdperpetrators accountable”).See also Albaladejo, supranote 115 (explaining that “someimportantmechanismsforaddressingviolenceagainstwomenhavebeencreatedinrecentyears”).

161. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at28-29(describingchangesElSalvadorcanmaketo more effectively eradicate femicide). Musalo also reiterates and supports othersuggestions, including the creation of social services for victims, “better access toeducation,pathstoeconomicself-sufficiency,andincreasedreproductivehealthservicesandchoice.”Id.

162. SeeNugent,supranote32(describinghowElSalvadoristheonlycountryintheworldthathasalawthatspecificallytargetsfemicide,whichshows“astrikingrecognitionbythegovernmentofthepsychologicaldamagesufferedbyvictimsandtheneedtoholdperpetrators accountable”).See also Albaladejo, supra note 115 (explaining that “someimportantmechanismsforaddressingviolenceagainstwomenhavebeencreatedinrecentyears”).

163. SeeAlbaladejo,supranote115andaccompanyingquotation;Musalo,supranote10,at16describingTheComprehensiveLawandTheLawofEqualityas“expansiveandambitious”).SeealsoFemaleVictimsofViolence, supranote84(praisingthespecializedcourtsasbeinganecessarywayforthewomenofElSalvadortoachievejustice).


Laws”), aswell as its halfhearted implementation of specializedunits, their protocols, and their procedures. 164 Furthermore,certain scholars criticize the laws and policies themselves ashaving significant gaps thatpreventEl Salvador fromeffectivelyfightingthefemicideepidemic.165

Inresponsetotheriseintherateoffemicideandtheconcernsoutlinedabove,thesecommentatorsalsomakerecommendationsfor El Salvador to pursue in order to more effectively tacklefemicide.166These suggestions include, among others, gatheringfundstoeffectivelyimplementandenforcetheESFemicideLaws,establishing a data collection system, and creating a system topunishpublicofficialswhentheydonotabidebytheESFemicideLaws. 167 Additionally, these commentators also recognize thepervasivenessofimpunityinElSalvador,andrecommendthatElSalvadormoreaggressivelytargetthisproblembymoreeffectivelyimplementingalreadyexistinglegislation,furtherdevelopingStateinstitutionsmeanttoenforcetheselaws,andcollaboratingwithElSalvadoran societal groups in order to combat patriarchalmentalities that persist in all aspects of society and, as a result,support impunity. 168 Moreover, commentators who generallyfavorStateactionover international law involvementarguethatinternationallawanditsjudicialbodieshavenoplaceindecidingonthehumanrightsviolationsofacertainState,andsuchmatters

164. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at28(criticizingElSalvadorforfailingtocreateashelter program as required by The Special Comprehensive Law, to ensure that stateagenciescreateinternalpracticestoensureequality,andtopunishgovernmentemployeefor neglecting to comply with provisions of the laws targeting femicide). See alsoAlbaladejo,supranote115accessedon(explainingthatprogressfornewlawsandpolicieshas been slow because “violence is perceived as a social problem outside of thegovernment’s realm of responsibility,” many women are unaware of the existence ofspecial units within law enforcement, the laws generally have not been completelyimplementedanddonoteffectivelyaddressimpunity,amongotherreasons).

165. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at28(criticizingthespecializedcourtsfornothavingjurisdiction over intra-familial and sexual violence and for requiring cases to first beinitiatedinthePeaceCourtbeforetheycanbeheardinthespecializedcourts).

166. Seeid.at28-29(reiteratingandendorsingsuggestionsmadebyElSalvadoransforwhatElSalvadormustdoinresponsetorisingstatistics).SeealsoAlbaladejo,supranote115(makingsuggestionsElSalvadorshouldactonintheefforttoendfemicide).

167. SeeMusalo,supranote10,at28-29(describingchangesElSalvadorcanmaketo more effectively eradicate femicide). Musalo also reiterates and supports othersuggestions, including the creation of social services for victims, “better access toeducation,pathstoeconomicself-sufficiency,andincreasedreproductivehealthservicesandchoice.”Id.

168. Seeid.at28.SeealsoAlbaladejo,supranote115.


should be left to the State to decide how best to handle such aviolation. 169 Ultimately, these opinions acknowledge that thechangesthatElSalvadorhasmadeareastepintherightdirectionand advocate forEl Salvador to continue to prevent andpunishfemicide itself, without mentioning any involvement byinternationallaw.170

B.CommentatorsSuggestthatInternationalLawShouldPlayanImpactfulRoleintheCaseofElSalvadoranditsFemicideCrisisWhile some commentators argue that El Salvador should

continue to fight its battle against femicide on its own, otherscontend that international law can and should have a large,beneficial impact on this effort. 171 Specifically, commentatorsespouse the belief that international law can cause a positivechange in El Salvador’s femicide epidemic. Moreover, theinternational law concept of the “due diligence standard” ispertinenttothisbelief.172Lastly,thenoteworthycaseofLenahan(Gonzales)EtAl.v.UnitedStates,whichappliedtheduediligencestandard to femicide, is a principal example for how the duediligence standard functions regarding femicide within aninternationallawframework.173

1.TheArgumentsCommentatorsMakewhenAdvocatingforInternationalLawPlayingaLargerRoleinElSalvadorSimilar to commentators who advocate that El Salvador

should take the principle role in ending femicide, those whobelieveinternationallawshouldplayaroleineradicatingfemicidealso acknowledge the enactment of the Special Comprehensive

169. See CarolineBettinger-Lopez, HumanRights atHome:Domestic Violence as a

HumanRightsViolation,40COLUM.HUM.RTS.L.REV.19,65-66(2008)(describinghowinresponsetotheLenahancase,manycriticsopposedthenotionthat theInter-AmericanCommission on Human Rights has a right to decide whether or not the United Statescommitted a human rights violation and advocated for the United States to maintaincontrolofsuchdecisions).

170. See,e.g.,Musalo,supranote10at28andAlbaladejo,supranote115.171. SeeinfraPart(B)(1).172. SeeinfraPart(B)(1).173. Lenahan(Gonzales)EtAl.v.UnitedStates,Case12.626,Inter-Am.Comm’nH.R.,

ReportNo.80/11,(2011).


Law,whichwasenactedtoaddressthisepidemic.174Additionally,these commentators also recognize similar weaknesses in theapplicationoftheESFemicideLawsasthosewhoadvocateforElSalvador to continue addressing femicide on its own. 175 Thesecommentators also suggest that the lack of enforcement incountrieslikeElSalvadoriscausedbyalackofpoliticalwillthatleaves these progressive femicide lawswithout positive impact,thereby allowing femicide rates to rise. 176 Moreover, thesecommentators suggest that insufficient budgeting causesinadequateimplementationoflawsandinsufficientdatacollectionmeant to evaluate the status of femicide in countries like ElSalvador.177

These commentators, however, differ from those discussedabovewhoadvocateforElSalvadoralonetocontinuetoaddressfemicidebecause,whenacknowledging theweaknesses in theselaws, they stress that femicide and gender-based violence are

174. See Voces, supranote 157 (mentioning thatmany LatinAmericanCountries,including El Salvador, have adopted “well-intentioned” laws, such as The SpecialComprehensive Law, which specifically criminalizes femicide). See also Angenette VanLieu-Mufios,HumanRightsApproachestoWomen’sHealthIssues:DignityandtheRighttoHealth in Guatemala and El Salvador, 9 N.E. U. L.J. 347, 370 (2017) (acknowledging ElSalvador’sratificationofimportantinternationallegislation,includingCEDAW);seealsoNataliaGherardi,ViolenceagainstWomeninLatinAmerica,24SUR-INT’LJ.HUM.RTS.129,130 (2016) (describing how Latin America is one of the most advanced regions for“creatingnationalregulatoryframeworkstoaddressviolenceagainstwomen”).

175. SeeVoces,supranote157(discussinghowElSalvadoraswellasotherLatinAmericancountrieshavetoallocatemorefundstolawsaddressingfemicideasthosearefrequently lacking in budgets, and must further enforce these laws as they are oftenunderenforced).SeealsoFemicideandInternationalWomen’sRights,supranote157(citingimpunity, machismo and “codes of silence and intimidation” hinder the effectiveimplementationoftheselaws).

176. Voces,supranote157.SeealsoNugent,supranote32(citingalackofresourcesasareasonforanoveralllackofeffectivenessoffemicidelaws,questioning“howmucharelawsworthontheirown”).

177. SeeVoces,supranote157(explainingthata lackofnationalfundingexplainswhytheselawsdonotworkproperlyinLatinAmericawheresimilarlawsareenactedinotherplacesandareeffective,andthat“thedifferenceinthesuccessoflegalmechanismsisamatterofpriorities”).Vocesalsoexplainsthatlackofprioritizationandsupportforthese new laws “greatly diminish[ed] the potential and effectiveness of the[se] legalstructures.”Id.SeealsoVanLieu-Mufios,supranote174,at350-51(blamingoppressionofwomeninsocietyandbytheStateasareasonfordomesticlawsnotfunctioningproperlyinElSalvadorandarguingthatsoftlawandtheratificationofinternationallawsonitsownis not enough to foster change; instead, these laws must actually be enforced). SeeGherardi,supranote174,at130discussinghowthecreationoflegislationhasnotbeenaccompaniedbythecreationofadequatesystemsfordatacollectionmeanttomonitortheprogressionofviolenceandtheeffectivenessoflawsthatattempttoaddressthisviolence).


humanrightsviolationsand, therefore, international lawand itslegalmechanismscanbepowerfultoolsinthecaseoffemicideinElSalvador.178Scholarsargue that international lawprovidesanadequate legal framework that concretely establishes ways inwhichviolenceagainstwomencanbeaddressedanderadicated.179It has been argued that one of the most impactful ways thisframework can function is by holding governments like ElSalvador’s directly accountable for not properly enforcing andupholdingtheirlawsaswellastheinternationalhumanrightslawstheyhaveratifiedandbywhichtheyarebound.180

According to these commentators, the international legalsystemisabletoaddmuchneededpressureongovernmentslikeEl Salvador’s. 181 This pressure can be applied throughinternationalorganizations,whocanurgegovernmentstocomplywith their laws and the international laws theyhave ratified byutilizingcommoninternationalmeasuresofenforcement,suchas

178. See Voces, supranote 157 (“Femicide and gender-based violence are humanrightsviolations”).SeealsoChristineChinkin,WomenandRights,OXFAMFOCUSONGENDER25(CarolineSweetmaned.)(2019)(describingviolenceagainstwomenasahumanright’sissue). Additionally, analyzing El Salvador under an international law human rightsviolation framework has been suggested for other El Salvadoran laws that arguablydiscriminate againstwomen, such as reproductive rights laws. SeegenerallyVan Lieu-Mufios, supranote174(arguing thatElSalvadorviolatesmultiple internationalhumanrightslawsandsuggeststhatElSalvadoranwomenmustadvocatefor“greaterchangeandadherence to [international] fundamental rights that are outlined in the UN’s andOrganizationoftheAmerica’streaties).

179. SeeVanLieu-Mufios,supranote174,at351(advocatingforusinginternationalhumanrightslawasa“rubricforunderstandingandattemptingtoremedytheviolationswomencontinue to experience”).Seealso Gherardi, supranote174, at130 (describinginternationaltreatieslikeCEDAWandthePPEVConventionascreatinga“frameworkforthecreationofasolidregulatorybasisfortheprevention,punishmentanderadicationofviolence against women”). Some scholars advocate for international standards to beintegrated into the domestic level of States in laws that target DV and femicide. SeeBettinger-Lopez,supranote169,at67-75.

180. SeeVoces,supranote157.Vocesgoesontosuggestthatgovernments likeElSalvador’s that “ignore,orglossover, [gender-basedviolenceand femicide]”and fail toenforcetheirlawsregardingthesecrimes“sendsadangerousmessageabouttheregion’smarginalizationofwomenandgirls.”Id.SeealsoVanLieu-Mufios,supranote174,at350(suggesting that, in the case of reproductive rights for women, El Salvador needs toimplementdomesticchangethatincorporatesinternationalhumanrightslawandneedstorepairthehumanrightsviolationsofitscitizens).

181. SeeVoces,supranote157(describinginternationallawandthepressureitcanplaceasa“crucialcatalystforchange”).SeealsoVanLieu-Mufios,supranote174,at377(suggestingthattheinternationallawhumanrightssystemisaframeworkthatcanhelpputpressureonStatestopromotethehumanrightsofwomen,particularlythrough“directactionandsocialmobilization”).


the “mobilization of shame,” where other members of theorganization shame the non-complying State for preventing theattainmentofthegoalsoftheorganization.182Moreover,throughtheir rulings, the UN Human Rights Committee and otherinternational judicialbodiescandemandchangesthat,whilenotbindingonStateswhoarepartiestothecase,arehighlyinfluentialin the international legal landscape. 183 This persuasive naturecreatesanadditionalobligationbywhichtheStateshouldabide,which creates further pressure to comply with regional andinternational laws.184One of themost significant aspects of theinternational judicial system and femicide is the “due diligencestandard,”whichwillbediscussedbelow.185

2.ACenterpiecetoCommentator’sArgumentswhoAdvocateforInternationalLawPlayingaRoleintheElSalvadoranFemicideCrisis:TheInternationalLawDueDiligenceStandardandthe

CaseofJessicaLenahan(Gonazalez)Theduediligencestandardisalegalframeworkthatisused

toevaluateaState’sactionsandomissionsinordertoassesshowwell that State has complied with international obligations,specificallyinternationalhumanrightslaws.186Thisstandardhas

182. SeeVoces, supranote157.Seealso FredericL.Kirgis,Enforcing InternationalLaw, Volume: 1 Issue: 1, AM. SOC’Y INT’L L. (Jan. 22, 1996),https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/1/issue/1/enforcing-international-law[https://perma.cc/QK44-E5GL](discussinghoworganizations,particularlythosethatareinvolvedinhumanrights,canmonitorthecomplianceofStateswhoaremembersoftheorganizationandcanshametheseStateswhentheydonotcomplywiththeobligationsprovided for by the organization and, as a result, do not further the goals of theorganization).

183. SeeVoces, supranote157 (discussinga caseheardby theUNHumanRightsCommitteeinwhichthecourtheldthatPeruwasguiltyforviolatingawomen’shumanrightsanddemandedthatPerucompensateher,whichitdid);Bettinger-Lopez,supranote169, at 64 (“While the decisions of foreign and international tribunals are not legallybinding,theyhavepowerfulpersuasiveauthority”);VanLieu-Mufios,supranote174,at373discussingtheInter-AmericanCommissionforHumanRightsandtheInter-AmericanCourtsforHumanRightsandhowtheyupholdthefundamentalrighttolife).

184. SeeVoces,supranote157.SeealsoBettinger-Lopez,supranote169.185. SeeinfraPartII(B)(2).186. See Camilo Bernal Sarmiento, Miguel Lorente Acosta, Françoise Roth &

MargaritaZambrano,LatinAmericanModelProtocolfortheinvestigationofgender-relatedkillings of women (femicide/feminicide) 19, https://eurogender.eige.europa.eu/system/files/eventsfiles/latin_american_protocol_for_investigation_of_femicide.pdf [https://perma.cc/2JBW-US6N](lastvisitedMay1,2020)(“Theduediligencestandardisaframeofreference toanalyze theactsoromissionsof therelevantstateentitiesandevaluate


been integrated intomany notable international laws, includingDEVAW and the PPEV Convention. 187 Furthermore, the duediligence standard has become customary law based oninternationalpracticesandopinio juris,anelementofcustomarylaw that makes an international practice legally binding on allnations.188Asaresult,theduediligencestandardisconsideredtobe binding on all States regardless ofwhether or not they haveratifiedinternationaltreatiescontainingthisstandard.189

The due diligence standard has certain noteworthycharacteristics.First,theduediligencestandardfocusesonthreedutiesthatStatesareobligatedtouphold:thedutytoprevent,190

states’ compliance with international obligations”). See also Jonathan Bonnitcha, TheConcept of ‘Due Diligence’ in the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights,OXFORD ACAD. (Nov. 13, 2017), https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/28/3/899/4616670 [https://perma.cc/B79W-MUZG] (“The concept of due diligence plays animportant role in international human rights law in defining the extent of a state’sobligations toprevent and respond to infringementsofhuman rightsbyprivateactorswithinitsterritoryorjurisdiction”).

187. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at19.SeealsosupraPartI(D)(i)and(iii)anddiscussion.

188. OpinioJuris(InternationalLaw),LEGALINFORMATIONINSTITUTE,CORNELLL.SCH.,https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/opinio_juris_(international_law)[https://perma.cc/EZ7Q-48FK](lastvisitedNov.17,2019)(“Incustomaryinternationallaw,opinio jurisis the second element necessary to establish a legally binding custom.Opiniojurisdenotesasubjectiveobligation,asenseonbehalfofastatethatitisboundtothelawinquestion.TheInternationalCourtofJusticereflectsthisstandardinICJStatute,Article38(1)(b)byreflectingthatthecustomtobeappliedmustbe“acceptedas law”).Opinio Juris, OXFORD REFERENCEhttps://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100251755[https://perma.cc/4QHZ-6KUS] (last visited Feb. 28, 2020) (“Opinio jurisrequires thatcustom should be regarded as state practice amounting to a legal obligation, whichdistinguishesitfrommereusage”).

189. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23(“[Theduediligencestandard]obligesstatestoadoptholisticandsustainablemeasurestoprevent,protect,punish,andprovideremediesforactsofviolenceagainstwomen.Itimpliesaresponsibilitybothintermsofsystematicallyaddressingtheviolence,addressingitscausesandconsequences,andalsointermsoftheindividuallevel,whichdemandsthatstatesestablisheffectiveprevention,protection, punishment, and reparationmeasures for each case of violence”). See alsoLenahan (Gonzales), supranote173, at 38 (describing theduediligence standard as aprinciple that is “well-established in international legal systems”); see also LeeHasselbacher, State Obligations Regarding Domestic Violence: The European Court ofHumanRights,DueDiligence,AndInternationalLegalMinimumsofProtection,8NW.J.INT’LHUM.RTS.190,198-200(2010)(discussinghowtheduediligencestandardhasemergedascustomaryinternationallaw).

190. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23.SeealsoGherardi,supranote174,at131-32(describingpreventionasnotjustcreatinglegalreforms,butalso“attackingthestructuralcausesthatgiveriseto[violenceagainstwomen],”modifyingsocialandcultural


the duty to investigate and punish, and the duty to guaranteereparations for femicide and DV.191 More specifically, access tojustice is central to this standard; it demands that States havesufficient justice systems forwomen to receive proper recoursefromviolencetheyhaveendured.192Second,thisstandardfurtherfocuses on whether or not a State has met its requirement inupholdingfundamentalguarantees,suchastherighttolifeandtheright to equal protection under the law, particularly for actsperpetratedbyprivateindividuals.193

Undera traditionalviewof internationalhumanrights law,actscommittedbyprivateindividualscannotbeattributedtotheState unless there is a pattern of discrimination that effectivelydeniesanindividualherequalprotectionunderthelaw.194Theduediligence standard, however, provides that acts committed byprivateindividualscanbeattributedtotheStateifthereisalackofduediligencebytheStatetopreventorrespondtotheviolationof human rights. 195 This inaction includes a State’s failure to

practices, and “shap[ing] state responses, including theactionsof the judiciaryand thepolice,amongotherstateactors”).

191. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23-26.SeealsoLenahan(Gonzales),supranote 173, at 40 (describing these four duties in detail). These duties apply to “theorganizationof theentire state structure,” from legislation to lawenforcementand thejudiciary.Id.at38.

192 . See Sarmiento et al., supra note 186, at 19. See also Rep. of the SpecialRapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Human RightsCouncilforitsThirty-fifthsession,at10,U.N.Doc.A/HRC/35/30(June2,2017)(“Thisduediligence obligation also includes adequate implementation of such laws and robustcriminaljusticeresponsesinvolvingthecooperationofallstateactorswhoshouldadheretotheStateParty’sduediligenceobligation”).

193. SeeSarmientoet.al.,supranote186,at22.SeealsoLenahan(Gonzales),supranote173,at34(“Various internationalhumanrightsbodieshavemoreoverconsideredStatefailuresintherealmofdomesticviolencenotonlydiscriminatory,butalsoviolationstotherighttolifeofwomen”).Upholdingthefundamentalrighttolifeisa“keycomponent”toaStateutilizingduediligence.Id.at40.

194. SeeDorothyQ.Thomas&MicheleE.Beasley,Esq.,DomesticViolenceasaHumanRightsIssue,15HUM.RTS.Q.36(1993)(describinghownon-prosecutionofaprivatecitizenonlybecomesahumanrightsissueifthestate’sreasonforfailingtoprosecuteisbasedon“discriminationalongprohibitedlines”).

195. See Sarmiento et al., supra note 186, at 22. See also Velázquez Rodríguez v.Honduras,Merits,Judgment,Inter-Am.Ct.H.R.(ser.C)No.4,¶172(July29,1998)(“Anillegalactwhichviolateshumanrightsandwhichis initiallynotdirectlyimputabletoaState (for example, because it is the act of a private person or because the personresponsiblehasnotbeenidentified)canleadtointernationalresponsibilityoftheState,notbecauseoftheactitself,butbecauseofthelackofduediligencetopreventtheviolationortorespondtoitasrequiredbytheConvention”).


provide equal protection under the law to victims of DV andfemicide through its own institutions, among other forms ofinaction.196Asaresult,commentatorsarguethatinternationallaw,through the due diligence standard, can help eradicate DV andfemicide bymaking States responsible for the violation of theircitizens’humanrights,eveniftheseactsarecommittedbyprivatecitizens, as they usually are in femicide and DV cases. 197Specifically,ithasbeenarguedthataStatecanbeheldresponsiblewhen it violates the due diligence standard because theseviolationsfunctionasaformofdiscriminationagainstwomenanddenies their equal protection under the law on the part of theState.198ThisincludeswhenaState,throughitspoliceforce,failsto properly investigate a crime of femicide, among otherviolations.199Asaresult,ithasbeenfurtherarguedthatusingtheduediligencestandardtoexaminetheactionandinactionofStatescanmakeitmoreclearwhetheraStateisviolatinginternationalhumanrights,therebyclarifyingwhatneedstochangetoensurethatStatescomplywithinternationalhumanrightslaws.200

Commentators cite to Lenahan, which will be discussedbelow,asaprimeexampleforhowtheduediligencestandardcanhold a State accountable for the human rights violations of its

196. SeeLenahan(Gonzales),supranote173,at2(describingthattheUnitedStates

didnotmeet itsduediligence, focusingonthe fact that “ . . .aState’s failure toprotectwomenfromdomesticviolencebreachestheirrighttoequalprotectionofthelawandthatthisfailuredoesnotneedtobeintentional”).SeealsoLenahan,infranote198.

197. SeeGherardi,supranote174,at129(explaininghowtheriseinfemicidecreatesaneedforindividualstoevaluatewhetherStateshavefulfilledtheirduediligenceunderinternationallaw).

198 . Id. at 131. See also Lenahan (Gonzales), supra note 173, at 34 (“ . . . theinternational and regional systems have pronounced on the strong link betweendiscrimination,violenceandduediligence,emphasizingthataState’sfailuretoactwithduediligencetoprotectwomenfromviolenceconstitutesaformofdiscrimination,anddenies women their right to equality before the law. These principles have also beenappliedtoholdStatesresponsibleforfailurestoprotectwomenfromdomesticviolenceactsperpetratedbyprivateactors”).

199. See Lenahan (Gonzales), supra note 173, at 39 (“States must exercise duediligencetoprevent,investigate,prosecuteandpunishtheperpetratorsofviolenceagainstwomenandgirl-children,andthatthefailuretodoso"‘violatesandimpairsornullifiestheenjoymentoftheirhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms’").

200. SeeGherardi,supranote174,at134(explainingthatbyviewingaStatethrougha“holisticunderstandingofthedutyofduediligence”itbecomesclearthatissuessuchaslack of information and adequate public policy must be addressed in order to enddiscriminationagainstwomencausedbytheviolationoftheduediligencestandard,whichallowsfemicideratestogrow).


citizensandcanplaceadditionalpressureontheStatetocomplywith international human rights laws. 201 Lenahan has beenregardedasrevolutionaryforthefightagainstDVandfemicide.202Commentatorsbelievethatthiscaseofaccountabilitycanleadtomanymore,includingincasesagainstothernationsforviolationsofduediligenceregardingcasesoffemicide,suchasElSalvador.203The Lenahan decision, rendered by the Inter-AmericanCommissionforHumanRights(the“Inter-AmericanCommission”)againsttheUnitedStates,willbrieflybediscussedbelow.

InLenahan, Jessica Lenahan, a US citizen, suffered from anabusiverelationshipwithherex-husband,whooverthecourseoftheir relationship became abusive towards her and their threedaughters.204After divorcing her ex-husband andmoving into aseparatehouse,Lenahanfiledforandreceivedmultiplerestrainingorders from her ex-husband after he broke into her home andexhibited other aggressive behavior, including attempting tocommit suicide in frontof theirdaughtersandstalkingLenahanoutsideofherhouse.205Despitetherestrainingorders,Lenahan’s

201. SeegenerallyLenahan(Gonzales),supranote173(holdingthattheUnitedStates

isresponsibleforLenahan’shumanrightsbeingviolated).SeealsoJessicaLenahanWinsLandmarkCaseBeforeInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRights,UNIV.OFMIAMISCH.OFL., https://www.law.miami.edu/academics/clinics/human-rights-clinic-gonzalez-usa[https://perma.cc/NH75-F87P] (last visitedOct. 20, 2019) [hereinafter LenahanWins](describinghowtheInter-AmericanCommissionforHumanRights[theCommission]heldthat the U.S. was “responsible for human rights violations suffered by Lenahan andrecommended changes to U.S. domestic violence law and policy”); see also Bettinger-Lopez,supranote169,at38(describingtheLenahancaseasonethatcan“spurimportantnormative developments, generate international and domestic political pressure, andchange public opinion”). Bettinger-Lopez also comments on how because of howinterconnectedourworldistoday,theinternationalcommunityisfrequentlyinspiredbythedecisionsofinternationaljudicialbodiesanddemandsthatgovernmentstakeaccountoftheiractionsasaresultoftheholdingsofthesebodies.Id.at64.

202. SeeLenahanWins,supranote201(describingtheLenahancaseasa“landmarkcase”becauseitframesDVasahumanrightsviolationanddemandsthatcourtsliketheone in this case, as well as policymakers, ask “whether fundamental rights are beingrespected,protected, and fulfilled”);Bettinger-Lopez, supranote169, at77 (explainingthattheLenahancasecan“haveanimportantpoliticaldimension,becomingtheflashpointforlegislativeandpolicychangesatthelocal,state,national,andinternationallevels”).

203. Bettinger-Lopez,supranote169,at63(arguingthattheLenahancasecanleadto“normativedevelopment”fortheduediligencestandardregardingDVandfemicide,andcitestoanamicusbrieffiledbyStatesfromLatinAmerica,theCaribbeanandCanadathatsuggestedtheIACHR’sdecisionwouldbeinstructiveinshowingvictimsofDVthattheyhavearighttointernationalredressthroughthisCommission).

204. Lenahan(Gonzales),supranote173,at17.205. Id.


ex-husband abducted their three daughters and their friend.206Lenahancontactedthepolicerepeatedlyovera tenhourperiod,buttheyrefusedtoenforcetherestrainingordersandfeltthatthechildrenweresafebecausetheywerewiththeir father.207Attheend of this ten hour period, Lenahan’s ex-husband went to thepolicestation,beganshootingatthestation,andwasthenshotandkilled by police in response.208After killing the ex-husband, thepoliceapproachedhiscartofindtheirthreedaughtersandtheirfriendshottodeathinthebackseat.209

Lenahan filed suit against theCity of CastleRock, Coloradoandseveralpoliceofficers forviolatingherrightsundertheDueProcessClauseof theFourteenthAmendment.210Lenahan’s casereachedtheUSSupremeCourt,whichrejectedallofherclaimsandheldthatherdueprocessrightswerenotviolatedbytheCityorthe police.211Lenahan then filed a complaint against the UnitedStateswith the Inter-American Commission, as the US SupremeCourt’srulingeffectivelyleftherwithoutaremedy.212

Lenahan argued that the failings of the Castle Rock PoliceDepartmentrepresentedalargerfailureonthepartoftheUnitedStates touseduediligencewith regard toDV, despite state andfederal legislation dictating otherwise. 213 The Inter-AmericanCommissionagreedwithLenahananddescribedtheduediligencestandard as applying broadly to cases of DV, covering theinvestigation of cases, the prosecution of perpetrators, and themeasures of prevention taken by the State. 214 Specifically, theInter-AmericanCommissionheldthattheUnitedStatesrecognizedaduty toprotectLenahanandher threedaughters,but failedto

206. Id.at6.207. Id.208. Id.at8.209. Id.210. Id.at9.211. Id.212. LenahanWins, supra note 201. See also Jessica Gonzales v. United States of

America, COLUM. L. SCH. HUM. RTS. INST., https://www.law.columbia.edu/human-rights-institute/inter-american-human-rights-system/jessica-gonzales-v-us[https://perma.cc/P9TF-6X8P] (last visited Feb. 28, 2020) (describing how Lenahan“exhaustedherdomesticremedies”bytakingthecasetotheUnitedStates’SupremeCourtandreceivinganunfavorablejudgement).

213. Lenahan(Gonzales),supranote173,at10.214. Id.at41.


meet this duty with due diligence. 215 This failure to protectLenahanandherthreedaughterswasevidencedbythepolicenotenforcingrestrainingordersthatcouldhavepreventedthedeathof Lenahan’s daughters, failing to fully investigate the exactlogistics of the deaths of Lenahan’s daughters beyond merelystatingthatLenahan’sex-husbandcommittedtheirmurders,andcommunicating these exact logistics to Lenahan. 216 While theInter-American Commission acknowledges the United States’effort to create legislation to combat DV, it criticizes that thesemeasures have not been properly or fully implemented inLenahan.217To quote the Inter-American Commission, laws andrestraining orders “are only effective... if they are diligentlyenforced.” 218 Moreover, the Inter-American Commission furtherclarifiesthattheexistenceofjudicialsystemsandproceduresdoesnot in itself demonstrate due diligence and that these protocolsmustbeavailableforandeffectivetothevictimofviolence.219TheInter-AmericanCommissionstressesthatStateinactiontocasesofDVcreatesapervasivesenseofimpunitybecausesocietyseestheState not taking action to punish those who commit crimes ofviolenceagainstwomen.220

As a result of this holding, the Inter-American Commissionordered the United States to take various measures to combatDV.221Thesemeasures includedconductingan investigation intothe systematic failures that occurred in Lenahan, creating newlegislation and policies to target these failures as well asstereotypesofDVvictims,craftingnewprotocolforthepolicetofollow in DV cases, and providing financial reparations forLenahan. 222 The Inter-American Commission is tasked withmonitoring the United States’ compliance to these demands. 223Ultimately, the holding by the Inter-American Commissionprovided Lenahan with a remedy that did not overturn thedecision of the US Supreme Court, but went above the United

215. Id.at49.216. Id.217. Id.218. Id.219. Id.at.52.220. Id.at51.221. Id.at59-60.222. Id.at59-60.223. Id.at61.


States’ judicial system, as the Inter-American Commission is ajudicialbodyoftheinternationallawcommunity.224Moreover,thisholdingsparkedproactivechangewithregardtoDVintheUnitedStates, causingmunicipalitieswithin the United States to createdeclarations labeling DV as a violation of human rights and theUnitedStates’Departmentof Justicetomorestrictlyoverseetheinvestigations of civil cases of DV, ensuring that there are nodiscriminatorypractices.225

IV.PROPOSAL:INTERNATIONALLAW–AUSEFULTOOLTHATISNECESSARYTOENDFEMICIDEINELSALVADOR

InternationallawshouldbedirectlyinvolvedinthefemicideepidemicinElSalvador.Inordertofullyadvocateforthisposition,itwillbeusefultoanalyzeElSalvador’shandlingoffemicideunderthe due diligence standard because this is likely what aninternational judicial body would use to evaluate and make adeterminationforthisissue.226IfitwasfoundthatElSalvadordidnotmeetitsrequiredduediligence,recommendationscanbemaderegarding internationalenforcementmeasuresthatcanbetakeninordertofurtherElSalvador’scompliancewiththeESFemicideLaws as well as international human rights laws. This strongersense of compliancewill lead to amore effective elimination offemicideinElSalvador,andmayevenhelperadicatefemicideinothercountries,particularlythoseinLatinAmerica.

224. KristinaPuga,‘HomeTruth’showsamother’sfightforjusticeafterherhusband

killed their 3 daughters, NBC NEWS (Oct. 3, 2018),https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/home-truth-shows-mother-s-fight-justice-after-her-husband-n915981 [https://perma.cc/3LEY-2S2K] (describing how after theUnitedStates’SupremeCourtdeniedLenahanofaremedy,shefiledaclaimwiththeInter-American Commission and received justice through that international judicial body,outsidetheUnitedStates’judicialsystem).LenahanWins,supranote201.

225. Puga,supranote224.RachelVogelstein,ViolenceAgainstWomenintheInter-AmericanHumanRightsSystem:ACaseStudyofJessicaGonzalesv.UnitedStates,COUNCILON FOREIGN REL. (May 23, 2018), https://www.cfr.org/event/violence-against-women-inter-american-human-rights-system-case-study-jessica-gonzales-v[https://perma.cc/4DS6-WRJE] (describing how Lenahan’s lawyers worked with theDepartmentofJusticeafterthefavorablejudgmentbytheInter-AnericanCommission).

226 . See, e.g., Lenahan (Gonzales), supra note 173 (utilizing the due diligencestandard).


A.ItisImperativethatInternationalLawPlayanIntegralRoleintheFemicideEpidemicinElSalvador

ItisessentialthatinternationallawplayastrongerroleinElSalvador’smanagementanderadicationoffemicide.Fundamentalchange is necessary because, with El Salvador’s long history offemicide,itisdoubtfulthatElSalvador,onitsown,willsucceedinadequately addressing its femicide crisis. This Section considersthenatureofElSalvador’sgovernment,particularlyitshighlevelsofimpunity,thelackofeffectivenessoftheESFemicideLawsandregulationthereofinElSalvador,andtheinternationaltoolsthatcancreateasignificantdifferenceincombattingfemicide.

AsElSalvador’sgovernmentisknownforimpunityandhasbeendescribedasbeingcorruptonalllevels,227thepervasivenessofthiscorruptionpreventsElSalvadorfromeffectivelypreventing,punishing, or eliminating femicideby itself.228WhileEl Salvadorhas takenstepsand important legislationhasbeenpassed inanattempttoaddressfemicide,theESFemicideLawshavenotbeenproperlyenforcedbecauseofa lackof fundingandorganization,whichexemplifiesanoverall lackofdesireandcapabilityonthepartoftheStateandallofitsinstitutionstoultimatelydowhatisnecessarytoeradicatefemicide.229

As previously suggested, a law is only as powerful as itsenforcement. 230 Half-hearted attempts by the El Salvadorangovernment to fight femicide have leftwomen fighting for theirlivesontheirown,andunfortunatelymanyhavenotsucceeded.231

227. See Jessie Serody,5Crucial FactsaboutHumanRights inEl Salvador,BORGENPROJECT https://borgenproject.org/human-rights-in-el-salvador/[https://perma.cc/KSW6-DBUM](lastvisitedOct.19,2019).SeealsoGriffin,supranote1(describing how impunity in El Salvador is within the State and all of its institutions,includingthepolice,andisdirectlylinkedtothefemicideepidemic).

228. Seesupranote39andaccompanyingtextregardingthepresenceofimpunityinthehandlingoffemicidesinElSalvador.

229. SeeVoces,supranote157.230 . Lenahan (Gonzales), supra note 173, at 49. See also Voces, supra note 157

(furtheringtheideaoflawsonlybeingasvaluableastheyareenforcedbysaying“ManyLatin American countries have nominally adopted well-intentioned laws protectingwomen’srights,butalackofpoliticalwillhasrenderedthelawsessentiallytoothless”).MarinaPrieto-Carronetal.,supranote42,at31(“Thestateanditsinstitutions,bylackingthepoliticalwilltoconfrontfemicide,haveineffectstimulateditsreproduction”).

231 . See Voces, supra note 157 (describing how femicide rates have increaseddespite the existence of legislation meant to combat the problem). Femicide andInternationalWomen’sRights,supranote157(explainingthatdespitenewlawstoaddressviolenceagainstwomen,“progresshasbeenslow”).


Year after year, CEDAWobservations repeat the same concernsand recommendations regarding violence against women in ElSalvador.232This further suggests apatternof inactionandnon-enforcement on the part of El Salvador, even after CEDAW haspointedouttheseissuestotheElSalvadorangovernment.233TheState has watched as rates of femicide have risen, 234 and thewomen who thought these new laws and policies would bringaboutpositivechangeareleftwaitingfortruechangetooccurandforjusticetofinallyprevail.Asaresult, itcanbearguedthatthecreation of new legislation that gavewomen hope, and then letthem down, has left El Salvadoran women feeling even morevulnerable and less likely to report abuse than before. 235 Thisnotionbecomesevenmorealarmingconsideringthe fact thataswomen have become more disheartened by the lack of legalenforcement fromall State institutions,perpetratorsof femicidehavebecomeevenmoreempoweredtocommitcrimes,knowingtheycanremainunderthecoolshadeofimpunity.Asituationasgrim and inherently violent as the one at issue requiresinternational law to accomplish what El Salvador, on its own,simplycannot—endfemicideforgoodwithinitsborders.

Oneofthemostpowerfultoolsthatinternationallawhasatits disposal are the various judicial bodies that are able to hearcasesinwhichtheStatecanbehelddirectlyresponsibleforhuman

232.SeegenerallyConcludingObservations2008,supranote109;seealsoConcluding

Observations2017,supranote14.233.SeegenerallyConcludingObservations2008,supranote109;seealsoConcluding

Observations2017,supranote14.234.SeeExtrajudicialSummary,supranote14.235.SeeElSalvador:SubmissiontotheHumanRightsCommitteeforthe114thSession,

ADVOCATES FOR HUM. RTS (July 24, 2015),https://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/el_salvador_loipr_submission_final_the_advocates_for_human_rights_2015.pdf[https://perma.cc/WVX2-QRV9](“Humanrights reports document that domestic violence, sexual assault and other crimes ofviolenceagainstwomeninElSalvadorareunderreportedduetoanumberoffactors:...(5)abeliefamongvictimsthatthelawswillnotbeenforced”).SeealsoElSalvador2013Human Rights Report, JUSTICE,https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/04/09/El%20Salvador.pdf [https://perma.cc/7LPG-W94D] (last visited May 1, 2020) (describing how victimsbelieving lawswill not be enforced leads tounderreportingofDVand sexual violence,whichareintertwinedwithfemicide).SeealsoColbert,supranote18,at69(suggestingthat it is possible that “women survivors lack confidence in [the ES laws] based onhistoricalpatternsofneglect").


rights violations. 236 When a case is adjudicated through one ofthese judicial bodies, a decision is rendered, such as a decisionholding a State directly liable for human rights transgressions,which is consideredhighlypersuasive to States.237Thisdecisioncreates a high level of inducement for States to obey their ownlaws,theinternationallawstheyarefoundtobecontravening,andtheoverallrulingoftheinternationaljudicialbodyregardingtheirhuman rights violations. 238 These rulings add additional, muchneeded pressure on governments like El Salvador’s, whichcurrently pass laws only to neglect their application andenforcementafterwards.239

El Salvador is bound by many international treaties thatguaranteethefundamentalrighttolifeandequalprotectionunderthe law. 240 It is an established principle that DV, particularlyfemicide,isaviolationofaDVorfemicidevictim’srighttolife,andalackofStateprotectionandduediligenceisaviolationoftherighttoequalprotectionunderthelaw.241Asaresult,therecanbeno

236. InternationalJudicialBodiesVitaltoPeacefulSettlementofDisputes,DelegatesAffirm,asSixthCommitteeContinuesRuleofLawDebate,68thG.A.,6thCommittee,7thMeetinig, UN (Oct. 10, 2013), https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/gal3457.doc.htm[https://perma.cc/B6LE-NQW7](explainingthatinternationaljudicialbodiesarepowerfultoolsforthedevelopmentandprotectionofhumanrightsthroughtherulesoflawenumeratedintheircases).

237. Bettinger-Lopez,supranote169.238. SeeId.239. SeeVoces,supranote157(describinginternationaljudicialbodiesasaformof

internationalpressurethatisnecessaryforchangeingovernmentswhorefusetochangeontheirown).SeealsoBettinger-Lopez,supranote169,at55(citingtheLenahancaseasan example for how a decision rendered by an international judicial body, like theCommission,can“generateinternationalanddomesticpoliticalpressure”).

240. SeesupraPartI(D)(i)-(iii)anddiscussionofCEDAW,thePPEVConvention,andDEVAW, all of which contain these fundamental guarantees. It is worth noting that ElSalvadorisalsoboundbyTheAmericanDeclarationoftheRightsandDutiesofMan,whichtheCommissiondecidedtheUnitedStateswasincontraventionof intheLenahancase;thiscreatesanadditional international lawElSalvador isobligated toupholdand,asaresult, canbe found in contraventionof.SeeLenahan (Gonzales), supranote173, at36(describinghow“theAmericanDeclarationisrecognizedasconstitutingasourceoflegalobligation for OAS member states, including those States that are not parties to theAmericanConventiononHumanRights”).SeealsoOrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS),NTI (April 29, 2019), https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/organization-american-states-oas/#targetText=Membership&targetText=21%20original%20OAS%20members%20(1948,States%2C%20Uruguay%2C%20and%20Venezuela [https://perma.cc/3SEQ-PSCU](citingElSalvadorasoneofthe21originalmemberStatesofOAS).

241. SeeLenahan (Gonzales), supranote173,at49-50 (describing that theUnitedStates’failuretoprotectthevictimsoffemicideinthiscase“constitutedaviolationoftheir


doubt that El Salvador is in contravention of the internationaltreatiesithasratifiedthatcontainthesefundamentalprinciples.242However, it remains imperative to evaluateEl Salvador throughthe lens of the due diligence standard to specifically analyzewhetherornotElSalvadorisincontraventionofthesetreatiesbyviolatingtheduediligencestandard.243

B.TheDueDiligenceAnalysisofElSalvadorandFemicideAspreviouslynoted,theduediligencestandardupholdsthree

dutiesthatstrikeatthecoreofwhatpropelsfemicide:thedutytoprevent,thedutytoinvestigateandpunish,andthedutytoprovidereparations.244ThesedutiesfocusonwhatStatescandototargetfemicidebyaddressingthe factors thatcause itsproliferation.245ThisSectionwillbreakdownthecaseofElSalvadorinaccordancetothesethreeduties.

1.ABriefSynopsisoftheDueDiligenceStandard:TheThreeDuties

a.TheDutytoPreventThe duty to prevent focuses on legal, societal, and

administrativepracticesthatpreserveandupholdhumanrights,andrequiresaStatetoconsideranyviolationofhumanrightstobean illegal act, where the perpetratormust be punished and thevictimmustbecompensated.246Additionally,theStateisexpected righttolife”and“constitutedaformofdiscriminationinviolationof”therighttoequalprotection under the law). See also supra Part I(D)(i) and (iii) and accompanying textdescribing how both the PPEV Convention and DEVAW classify femicide and DV asviolationsofwomen’sfundamentalrighttolifeandequalprotectionunderthelaw.

242. SeePPEVConvention,supranote127;seealsoDEVAW,supranote141.243. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186andaccompanyingdiscussion(describing

howaStatecanbeheldresponsibleforhumanrightsviolationsthroughtheduediligencestandard).

244. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23-26.INTIMATEPARTNERVIOLENCE,RISKANDSECURITY 191 (Fitz-Gibbon, SandraWalklate, JudeMcCulloch, & JaneMareeMaher eds.,2018).

245. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186.246. SeeId.at23.SeealsoHumanRightsFoundation,TheDueDiligenceObligationto

Prevent Violence Against Women: The Case of Pakistan 5 (Dec. 22, 2011) available at:https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/GirlsAndDisability/OtherEntities/HumanRightsFoundation.pdf [https://perma.cc/XAA9-M624] [hereinafter DueDiligenceObligation](describingthedutytopreventwithintheduediligencestandard).


tocreateajudicialsystemthatcanadequatelyhandlecasesofDV,including femicide, by ensuring that the case is properlyinvestigated and taken to trial, and that a fair judgment isrendered.247Lastly,Statesmustcreateandimplementproceduresthat prevent risk factors for femicide and foster the strength ofinstitutions meant to counter these risks, including the duty toeradicate negative gender stereotypes and impunity. 248 Genderstereotypes and impunity are considered to be driving forcesbehindfemicide,especiallywhentheyareembodiedinStateactionandreflectedbytheactsofpoliceofficers,prosecutors,judges,andjuries.249

b.TheDutytoInvestigateandPunishThe goal of the duty to investigate is to prevent repeated

incidencesofDVandfemicideandtoprovidejusticeinindividualcasesthereof.250Additionally,thedutytoinvestigateisparticularlyimportantincasesinwhichaprivateindividualistheperpetrator,like in most femicide cases. 251 In such cases, if crimes are notgenuinely investigated, perpetrators are considered to beindirectlyaidedbytheStateofficialswhofailedtofullyinvestigatethe crimes. 252 Lastly, the duty to investigate requires that theinvestigationoffemicidebe“impartial,serious,andexhaustive.”253Ultimately,theserequirementsareallaimedataccomplishingonething:punishingtheperpetratorinordertopreventrepetitionoffemicide.254

c.ThedutytoguaranteejustandeffectivereparationsThedutytoguaranteejustandeffectivereparationsisfocused

on a State’s obligation to guarantee victims of DV or femicidereparationsforthepainandsufferingthattheyhaveendured.255

247. SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23.248. Id.249. Id.250. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at25.DueDiligenceObligation,supranote246,

at6(describingthedutytoinvestigatewithintheduediligencestandard).251. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at25.252. Id.253. Id.254. Id.255. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at26.DueDiligenceObligation,supranote246

(describingthedutytocompensatewithintheduediligencestandard).


Thesereparationscanincludemonetarycompensation,symboliccompensation, and mechanisms meant to guarantee non-repetition.256Furthermore,thesereparationsshouldbegivenwitha “genderperspective,”or “bearing inmind thedifferent impactthatviolencehasonmenandwomen,”andshouldstrivetonotonlycompensatethevictim,buttoalsochangetheviolentsituationinwhichthevictimwaspreviouslyplaced.257

2.AnEvaluationofElSalvadorUndertheDueDiligenceStandard

a.GeneralProblemswithinElSalvadoranditsGovernmentWhen considering overarching societal and governmental

issues within El Salvador, including machismo culture andimpunity,itisclearthatElSalvadorhasnotmet,andwillnotbeabletomeet,itsrequiredduediligencewithrespecttoitsfemicideepidemic.MachismocultureinElSalvadorhasbeenaconsistentconcern, particularly for the CEDAW Committee. 258 Specifically,the2008and2017CEDAWobservationreportsexpressconcernaboutmachismoculturethatflourishesinElSalvador’ssocietyandhascontinuedtogounaddressedbyElSalvador,asithasfailedtocreate a strategy to combat this gender stereotype, despite theCommittee’s suggestion todo so.259Moreover, the2017CEDAWobservation report was particularly troubled by machismo,patriarchal mentalities infiltrating the specialized court andspecializedunitwithintheESPolice,despitetheintentionoftheseunitstoactivelyavoidsuchstereotypes.260TheStatehaseffectivelyallowedmachismoculturetoinfiltratethesespecializedunitsthatwere specificallymeant to act as judicial safe havens for femalevictims of gender-based violence. 261 Due to the fact that such

256. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at26.257. Id.258. See Concluding Observations 2008, supra note 109; see also Concluding

Observations 2017, supra note 14 (describing concerns the Committee has regardingsocietyinElSalvador,whichdidnotimprovebetweenthe2008observationreporttothe2017observationreport).IthasalsobeensaidthatElSalvador’ssocietyfostersa“deeplyentrenchedinstitutionalresistancetogenderequality.”Musalo,supranote10,at3.

259. See ConcludingObservations2008, supranote109, at 4; see alsoConcludingObservations2017,supranote14,at5.

260. ConcludingObservations2017,supranote14,at3.261. This is particularly true when considering the fact that the duty to prevent

specificallyincludesavoidinggenderstereotypesininvestigationsoffemicidecasesbythe


preventionisarequirementunderthedutytoprevent,ElSalvadorhasnotperformeditsrequiredduediligenceunderthisprong.AsElSalvador isrequiredtoprevent theproliferationofmachismoculture,itsinactionregardingmachismoculture,especiallywithinthespecializedcourtsandspecializedunitswithintheESPolice,isaninherentfailurebytheStatetopreventthesignificantriskfactorofgenderstereotypesforfemicide.

Aside from the pervasive gender stereotypes that aredetrimental to women, El Salvador has an additional area ofconcernthatisparticularlytargetedbytheduediligencestandard:impunity.262Asdiscussedabove,domesticlawsinElSalvadordonot function in the manner intended due to a strong sense ofimpunitycausedbygovernmentofficialsnotperformingtheirjobsas requiredby theES Femicide Laws.263Although impunitywasnotspecificallymentionedinthe2017CEDAWobservationreport,it was addressed in the 2008 CEDAW observation report. 264Moreover,numerouscommentatorspointtoimpunityasadrivingfactor for the rise in femicide rates in El Salvador due to itsprevalenceintheStateanditsvariousinstitutions.265Additionally,ElSalvadorhasbeenknowntohidereportsthatreflectnegativelyon its government by preventing these reports from beingpublished, includingreportsdiscussingthelackofconvictionsinfemicidecases.266Lastly,ithasbeenarguedthatimpunitycausesacomplete lack of trust by El Salvadoranwomen in El Salvador’sjudicial system, which is even more aggravated by ongoingmachismo influence in specialized units of the court and the ES

policeandthetryingoffemicidecasesbythejudicialsystem.SeeSarmientoetal.,supranote186,at26.

262. SeesupraPartII(A)andaccompanyingtextregardingimpunity.263. SeeUNWOMEN,supranote38(explainingthatimpunityforfemicideoccursin

77%offemicidecrimes).SeealsoMusalo,supranote10,at3.264. Concluding Observations 2008, supra note 109, at 5 (describing how weak

implementationofdomestic lawand inadequate investigationof femicidecasescreatesimpunityforperpetratorsofthisviolence).

265 . See supra Part I(A)(iii) and accompanying discussion of the prevalence ofimpunity in El Salvador today.See also InformationRegarding the Situation of ViolenceAgainst Women in El Salvador, ISDEMU, 46 (2018) [hereinafter Situation of Violence](describinghowonly9.5%ofwomenwhohaveexperiencedviolenceatsomepointintheirliveshavesoughthelpfromthestate).

266. Musalo,supranote10,at21.


Police. 267 Considering the pervasiveness of impunity in ElSalvador’s institutions, despite domestic and internationallegislationmeant to target thisphenomenon,ElSalvadorcannotpossibly adequatelyprevent the risk factors that cause femicideand,asaresult,hasnotmetitsduediligenceobligation.

Asnotedabove,theduediligencestandard,andparticularlythedutytoprevent,evaluatesthevariousStateimplementationscreated in thehopesofpreventing femicide.268This includes thecreationoflawsandtheirintegrationintoStateinstitutions.269ElSalvador has passed progressive domestic laws in an effort toaddressanderadicatefemicide.270The2017CEDAWobservationreport, however, expresses concern regarding a lack ofcommunication between institutions tasked with implementingprotocols established by the ES Femicide Laws.271Furthermore,scholars say that despite legislation creatingprotocolsmeant tohelp victims of DV and femicide, these protocols are seldomcommunicatedtopersonneloftheinstitutionsmeanttoimplementthesechanges,leavingtheESFemicideLaws,theirprovisions,andtheirprotocolsineffective.272

Anotherroadblockintheimplementationofdomesticlawisalack of funding. 273 Both the 2008 and 2017 CEDAW reportspronounce great concerns regarding inadequate funding for theimplementationoftheESFemicideLawsandtheStateinstitutionsassignedtoenforcethem.274ThisissueisevidencedbythelackoffundingoftheInstitutoSalvadoreñoparaelDesarrollodelaMujer

267.SeeBrigida,supranote25(describingthemachismoinfluencewithinthejudicialsystem the specialized courts were supposed to prevent). See also supra note 98 andaccompanyingtext(explainingthepurposeofthespecializedcourts).

268. SeesupraPartIV(B)(1)(a)andaccompanyingtextregardingthedutytoprevent.269. SeeSarmientoet.al,supranote186,at23 (describingthedutytoprotectas

including the adoption of legal frameworks and strengthening institutions taskedwithimplementingtheselegalframeworksinordertopreventactsoffemicide).DueDiligenceObligation,supranote246,at5(describingthatonestepofthedutytopreventistomodifylaws).

270. SeesupraPartI(B).271. ConcludingObservations 2017, supranote 14, at 3 (expressing concern that

thereisan“insufficientarticulationbetweenlegalinstrumentsandlimitedcoordinationbetweeninstitutionsinchargeofimplementation”).

272.Musalo,supranote10,at61.273. See ConcludingObservations2008, supranote109, at 3; see alsoConcluding

Observations2017,supranote14,at4.274. See ConcludingObservations2008, supranote109, at 3; see also Concluding

Observations2017,supranote14,at4.


(the “ISDEMU”), which enforces and implements these laws. 275Moreover, scholars as well as commentators have pointed tobudgetary issues as a causal factor in femicide laws not beingproperly implemented.276Thesesourcesacknowledgethata lackofproperimplementationattheStatelevelwillonlyleadtoevenless prevention of femicide, which will in turn lead to an evengreaterprevalenceoffemicideandgender-basedviolence.277Theimplementationofthelegalframeworkandpreventativemeasuresat all State institutional levels is required by the due diligencestandard,particularlybythedutytoprevent,andElSalvadorhasnotperformeditsrequiredduediligenceinthisarea.

b.ProblemswithinElSalvador’sJudicialBranch,Prosecutor’sOfficeandtheESPolice

Issueswithin El Salvador’s judicial branch, its Prosecutor’sOffice,andtheESPolicefurtherillustratethatElSalvadorhasnotmet its burden of performing due diligence in the prevention,investigation, and punishment of femicide, as well as providingfinancialreparationforthevictimofthecrime.WithrespecttoElSalvador’s judicial system, while the creation of the specializedcourtsisapositivestepinaddressingfemicide,thiscreationisnotsufficient to satisfy the due diligence standard because, asdiscussed above, this unit has been infiltrated by machismomentalities that influence the prosecution of femicide cases. 278

275. SeeConcludingObservations2008,supranote109,at3(“ConcernedthattheSalvadoranInstitutefortheAdvancementofWomenhasalackof...financialandhumanresources that make it difficult for them to effectively promote gender equality andprevent domestic violence and other inequalities”); see also Concluding Observations2017,supranote14,at4(expressingconcernforthebudgetaryneedsoftheISDEMUnotbeingmet).

276. See Voces, supranote 157 (“Twelve out of those 20 countries have failed toprovidenationalfundingtoimplementthelaws,demonstratingalackofpoliticalwill”).SeealsoMusalo,supranote10,at3(describinglackoffundingasareasonfordomesticlawsnotbeingproperlyimplementedinElSalvador).

277. Musalo, supra note 10, at 28 (describing how recent ES laws have not beenimplementedsuccessfully,andtherateoffemicidecontinuestorise).SeealsoElSalvador:Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women,ADVOCATES OF HUM. RTS. 3 (July 2016),https://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/el_salvador_loi_submission_july_2016.pdf [https://perma.cc/F9CW-5E7R] (“many serious problems remain with ElSalvador’s violence against women legislation and its implementation, resulting in asystemicfailuretoprotectvictimsafetyandpromoteoffenderaccountability”).

278. Seesupranote260andaccompanyingtext.


Thiscutstotheverycoreoftheintendedpurposeofthespecializedcourts, which is to train judges so they are not influenced bymachismocultureinordertoguaranteejusticeforthevictimsoffemicide.279Moreover,ithasbeenarguedthatanadditionalflawofthespecializedcourtistorequirecasestobeheardatthePeaceCourtbeforetheycanbeheardatthespecializedcourt.280ForcingthesecasestobeginatthePeaceCourtleavesagreatermarginforerrorbecausethePeaceCourtdoesnothavetheparticulartrainingthatthespecializedcourtsdo,281whichcanleadtojudgmentsthatare rendered with machismo influence and patriarchal notionsthataredetrimentaltoavictim’saccesstojustice.282Additionally,another weakness in the specialized courts is that they lackjurisdiction over sexual and intrafamilial violence, which arefrequentlylinkedwithfemicide.283Thespecializedcourts’lackofjurisdictionseverelylimitsthepositiveimpactthesecourtscouldhaveincasesregardingsexualandintrafamilialviolencethat,ifnotaddressed adequately, could lead to femicide.284Such significantflaws leave these specialized courts not effective in preventingfuture femicides by prosecuting the perpetrators of this crimebecausecasesinvolvingsexualandintrafamilialviolencegotothePeace Court, instead of the specialized court, even if the caseinvolvesfemicide.

WithrespecttoElSalvador’sProsecutor’sOffice,althoughaspecializedunitwithintheProsecutor’sOfficehasbeencreatedtoaddressfemicide,theestablishmentofthisunit,likethespecializedcourts,isnotsufficientforElSalvadortosatisfytheduediligencestandard. Despite the existence of femicide protocols, these

279. See Brigida, supranote 25 (describing the training judges in the specialized

courtreceive,includingresistingmachismocultureandlookingatDVandfemicidecaseswitha“genderlens”tobetterguaranteejusticeforvictims).SeealsoMoloney,supranote25(“Expertssaywomen’scourtswithfemalejudgeswhohavebeenspeciallytrainedingender violence and law are likely to be more supportive of victims, which couldstrengthenprosecution”).

280. Musalo,supranote10,at26.281. Id.282. Id.283 . Musalo, supra note 100 and accompanying text regarding intrafamilial and

sexualviolence.284. Musalo,supranote10,at26.


protocolsarenotfollowedbyamajorityofprosecutors.285Infact,manyprosecutorshavenotreceivedtrainingforhowtoproperlypracticetheseprotocols.286Thisfailuretouseprotocols,aswellasthefailuretotrainontheseprotocols,leavesprosecutorsincapableofproperlyprosecutingcasesoffemicide.Asthisisarequirementfor the duty to prevent, El Salvador has yet again not met itsrequiredduediligence.Moreover,thislackofimplementationandtraining further inhibits El Salvador’s investigation andpunishmentoffemicide.

Additionally, data covering the prosecution of femicidereflects a large disparity between cases reported and casesdecided.287Specifically,onaverage,only28.4percentoffemicidecases that have been initiated have resulted in sentencing. 288Additionally, more than seventy-five percent of femicide casesnevermake it tocourtandonlysevenpercentof femicidecasesresult in theconvictionof theperpetrator.289Thesestatisticsareanalarmingdisplayofinjusticeandareindicativeofaclearfailureon the part of El Salvador to properly investigate femicide andpunishtheperpetratorsofthiscrime.

With regard to the ES Police, El Salvador has created aspecializedunitwithinthepolice forcetaskedwith investigatingcases of femicide.290However, notwithstanding the existence ofthisunit, theESPolicehaveoften failedtoact in femicidecases,evenwhenabusehasbeen reportedandprotectiveordershavebeen administered. 291 These women are a part of the generalpublic that the ES Police are assigned to protect, and this is a

285. Musalo,supranote10,at23.SeealsoConcludingObservations2017,supranote14, at 5 (describing “Limited application of the Protocol for the Investigation ofFeminicide”).

286. Id.287. Seeinfranote288andaccompanyingtext.288. SituationofViolence,supranote265,at78. SeealsoConcludingObservations

2017,supranote14,at5(describingalackofprosecutionoffemicidecasesdespiterisingratesoffemicide).

289. Donovan,supranote8;Nugent,supranote32.SeealsoConcludingObservations2017, supra note 14. ‘The 2017 CEDAW observation report also discusses a lack ofconvictionsincasesoffemicide.Id.at5.

290. SeesupraPartI(C)(ii)anddiscussionofNCP’sspecializedunit.291. See supra Introductionanddiscussionof thecaseofGracielaEugeniaChávez

Ramírez.SeealsoConcludingObservations2017,supranote14,at5(describing“limitedenforcementofprotectionorders”).The2017CEDAWobservationreportalsodiscussesageneral insufficiency in the protection of victims of DV and femicide, particularlywithregardtovictimsofgangviolence.Id.


blatantdisregardfortheimpendingdangerthatavictimofDVorfemicide faces. Cases like Graziela Eugenia Chávez Ramírez’sshowcase that El Salvador has not met its due diligencerequirement to prevent femicide because the ES Police hadcountlessopportunitiestopreventGraziela’smurderandothers,but they chose not to. 292Similar to Lenahan, where the UnitedStatesdidnotperformitsduediligencebasedonthefailureofthepolicetoproperlyinvestigateandpreventthemurderofLenahan’sthreedaughters,ElSalvador,throughtheESPolice,hasnotmetitsburden to properly investigate or prevent the femicides ofcountlesswomen.Thislackofinvestigationandpreventionleadsto a failure to punish, because without properly investigatingcrimesoffemicide,theperpetratorofthatcrimeismorelikelytogofree.293SuchachainreactionepitomizesafailureonthepartofElSalvador,throughtheESPolice,toperformitsduediligencetoinvestigateandpunishfemicide.

The failure of El Salvador’s specialized courts, Prosecutor’sOffice,andESPolicetoprevent, investigate,andpunishfemicideleads to the ultimate failure of the last requirement of duediligence: the duty to guarantee reparations for the victims offemicideandDV.Afailuretopreventleadstoanincreaseincasesoffemicide,which,becauseofinadequateinvestigation,leadstoafailure to punish the perpetrators of femicide.294This failure topunishperpetratorsoffemicidedeniesthevictimofallpotentialreparationsbecausemostvictimsnevergettheirdayincourtand

292. GlobalStudyonHomicide:Gender-RelatedKillingofWomenandGirls,U.N.,OFF.

ONDRUGS&CRIME55(Nov.2018)[hereinafterGlobalStudyonHomicide](“Thekillingofwomen by their partner is often the culmination of long-term violence and can beprevented”).

293. Sarmientoet.al,supranote186,at26(“Theobligationtoinvestigatehastwoaims:topreventtherepetitionoftheactsinthefutureandtoprovidejusticeinindividualcases”). ZarizanaAbdulAziz& JanineMoussa,DueDiligenceFramework,DUEDILIGENCEPROJECT 23,https://www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/Due%20Diligence%20Framework%20Report%20final.pdf [https://perma.cc/NU8S-DBE5] (last visited May 1, 2020)(describing that “holistic and comprehensive laws” that involve prevention andinvestigationcandeterperpetratorsfromcommittingoffensesastheywouldbe“certainthattheiractions[would]bepunished”).

294. ThecaseofGrazielaEugeniaChávezRamírez’sisaprimeexampleofthiscyclebecauseElSalvadorfailedtopreventDVwithregardstoGraziela’scasewhencopsdidnotarrive for previous calls, which led to Graziela’s murder. See supra Introduction anddiscussionofthecaseofGracielaEugeniaChávezRamírez.


if theydo, it isunlikely the courtwill rule in their favor.295Asaresult, instead of victims receiving reparations that make themwhole andhelp free themof theviolent circumstances inwhichthey live, they are left in the same violent circumstances, if notworse,becausereportingabuseoftenleadstoretaliation.296Duetothisdominoeffect,ElSalvadoratthemostbasiclevelhasfailedtomeetthisaspectoftheduediligencerequirement.

Ultimately,theduediligencestandardishighlydependentonState action, and it demands that States take steps towards theprevention,punishment,anderadicationof femicide.297AlthoughElSalvadorhastakenactionthroughitscreationofthespecializedcourtsandspecializedunitswithintheProsecutor’sOfficeandtheESPolice,theseinstitutionsaresosignificantlyflawedastorenderEl Salvador’s judicial system inadequate in handling femicide.Consequently,thecaseofElSalvadoranditsfemicideepidemicisaclearfailuretoperformitsduediligencetoprevent,investigate,punish,andprovidereparationsforthevictimsof femicide.Asaresult, El Salvador has denied these victims their fundamentalrightstolifeandequalprotectionunderthelaw.

c.EnforcementMeasurestobeTakenasaResultofaFindingofLackofDueDiligence

AdecisionrenderedbytheInter-AmericanCommissionandother international judicial bodies can lead to real change in ElSalvadorandcanleadtoenforcementofthefundamentalrightstolifeandequalprotectionunder the law for femicidevictimsandtheir families. The Inter-American Commission has previouslymadeobservationsaboutElSalvadorandthefemicideepidemic,and it hasmade recommendations for how the State canmake

295. Seesupranote257andaccompanyingtext.296. PatriciaClarembaux&AldumenaToral,InElSalvador,ViolenceisDrivingGirls

toKillThemselves,PULITZERCTR.(May15,2019),https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/el-salvador-violence-driving-girls-kill-themselves [https://perma.cc/8SAA-C3U4](describinghowpeopleoftendonotreportabuseoutoffearofretaliation).SeealsoLobo-Guerrero,supranote116(describinghowthepoliceareincapableofprotectingvictimsaftertheyhavereportedabuse).

297. Sarmientoetal.,supranote186,at23-26.SeealsoLenahan(Gonzales),supranote173,at40(describingduediligenceasrequiringStatestotakeactionregardingthethreedutiesdiscussed).


changes.298However, because El Salvador has not been broughtinto the Inter-American Commission for a violation of humanrightsundertheAmericanDeclarationoftheRightsandDutiesofMan,CEDAW,thePPEVConvention,orforafemicidecase,theserecommendations are merely suggestions that are neitherpersuasivenorbindingonElSalvador.299

El Salvador iswithin the jurisdiction of the Inter-AmericanCommissionandcanbe taken to this judicialbodybyvictimsoffemicidewho’sfundamentalrightshavebeenviolated.300Inorderto file a petition, an individual must exhaust domestic judicialmeans before seeking adjudication from the Inter-AmericanCommission.301Exhaustingdomesticjudicialmeansrequiresthatanindividualfirstgototheirnation’scourtandreceivea“decisionoflastresort,”suchasarulingthatisnotfavorable,beforefilinga

298. SeePressRelease,Org.ofAm.States[OAS],ConclusionsandObservationson

the IACHR’s Working Visit to El Salvador (Jan 29, 2018)https://www.oas.org/en/iachr/media_center/PReleases/2018/011A.asp[https://perma.cc/YK76-NGXZ] [hereinafter Press Release OAS] (makingrecommendationsforElSalvadortotakeregardingfemicide,particularlywithregardtoimpunity).

299. See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), REFWORLD,https://www.refworld.org/publisher,IACHR,CASELAW,SLV,,,0.html[https://perma.cc/YCV2-MDXA](lastvisitedOct.23,2019)(showingthatElSalvadorhasneverbeenbroughttotheIACHRforafemicidecase).

300. See Inter-American Human Rights System, INT’L JUST. RESOURCE CTR.,https://ijrcenter.org/regional/inter-american-system/ [https://perma.cc/QM7A-PZEH](explaininghowtheIACHRhasjurisdictionovermembersoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates); see also Member States, ORG. OF AM. STS.,http://www.oas.org/en/member_states/default.asp [https://perma.cc/K5FM-F3SW](lastvisitedMay1,2020)(showingthatElSalvadorisamemberoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates).TheUnitedStateswasbroughttotheInter-AmericanCommissionfortheLenahancase,whichsuggeststhatElSalvadorcansimilarlybebroughttotheInter-American Commission by victims of femicide and their families. See InternationalCommission Finds United States Denied Justice to Colorado Domestic Violence Survivor,ACLU, https://aclu-co.org/international-commission-finds-united-states-denied-justice-to-colorado-domestic-violence-survivor/ [https://perma.cc/759Y-V6WX] (last visitedMay1,2020)(“Thecommissionisexpresslyauthorizedtoexamineallegationsofhumanrightsviolationsbyall35member-statesoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates,whichincludestheUnitedStates”withregardstotheLenahancase;thesamethingcanbesaidforacaseinvolvingElSalvadorifoneweretobebroughtforward).

301.Inter-AmericanCommissiononHum.Rts.,PetitionandCaseSystemInformationBrochure, ORG. OF AM. STATES 9 (2010)https://www.oas.org/en/iachr/docs/pdf/HowTo.pdf [https://perma.cc/SLC9-J289][hereinafterPetitionandCaseSystem Information] (“For theCommission tobeable toexamineapetition,onemusthaveexhausteddomesticjudicialremediesinkeepingwiththelegislationinforceintheStateinquestion”).


petitionwiththeInter-AmericanCommission.302Moreover,ifitisnotpossibletoexhaustjudicialmeans,thepetitionercanexplainthisimpossibilitytotheInter-AmericanCommissionandmaystillreceivejurisdictiontofileaclaimatthisCommissionunderoneoftheexceptionstotheexhaustionofjudicialmeansrequirement.303These exceptions include domestic laws not providing “dueprocess toprotect therights”ofvictimsthathavebeenviolated,situations inwhich the victim has not been given access to thejudicialsystemorhasbeenstoppedfromthem,orifthereisadelayintherenderingofajudgment“withnovalidreason.”304

ThisrequirementofexhaustingjudicialmeanswouldlikelybemetinElSalvadorbecausealargemajorityoffemicidecasesdonotreceiveconvictions,whichisa“decisionoflastresort”againstthevictim of the femicide. 305 Additionally, cases of femicide in ElSalvadorwouldalsolikelymeettheexceptionstotheexhaustionofjudicialmeansrequirementbecausemanyfemicidecasesnevermakeittocourt,asreconciliationoutsideofcourthaspreviouslybeenurgedbyElSalvador,whichcanbeseenaspreventingvictimsoffemicidefrompressingchargesthroughjudicialmeans.306Withthatbeingsaid,ifElSalvadorwerebroughttotheInter-AmericanCommissionduetoitscontraventionofoneoftheseinternationaltreaties for a femicide case, recommendations by the Inter-American Commission can become highly persuasive judgmentsthat the Statewill bemore likely to follow.307Thiswould placepressure on El Salvador to comply with the Inter-AmericanCommission’sdemands,whichwouldcreatefurtherincentiveforEl Salvador to uphold the laws that they have created and theinternationaltreatiestheyhaveratified.

These decisions become even more influential to Statesbecause of how connected our world is today. 308 With theinternationalcommunitywatchingwithamagnifyingglass,States

302. Id.303. Id.304. Id.305. SeesupraPartIII(B)(ii)(a).SeealsoPetitionandCaseSystemInformation,supra

note301,at9.306. SeesupraPartIII(B)(ii)(a).307. See Bettinger-Lopez, supra note 183 (describing the persuasiveness of

judgementsrenderedbyinternationaljudicialbodies).308. Bettinger-Lopez, supra note 169 and accompanying discussion of

interconnectivity.


feel theweight of theworld on their shoulders to complywiththese international judicial bodies. 309 As a result, States like ElSalvadorcertainlydonotwanttobeknownasthecountrythathasviolatedwomen’shumanrightsand failed to takeaction.310Thisnotion echoes the common enforcement mechanism of publicshaming,whichisoneofthemostpopularformsofenforcementinhuman rights violations. 311 This mechanism involvesgovernmentalorganizationsandNGOs,aswellas themediaandthe public at large, shaming a State that is considered to beviolating human rights. 312 Shaming methods include publiclyidentifyingtheStateasahumanrightsviolatorbothdomesticallyand internationally, spreading the State’s reputation as one thatdoesnotcomplywithinternationalobligations,andexcludingorentirely removing the State from international organizations.313Thismulti-dimensionalapproachtoshamingaimsatcoercingthenon-conforming State to comply with international law and towarnotherpotentialnon-conformingStatesaboutthecostofsuchnon-compliance in order to deter potential future breaches ofinternationallaw.314

IfElSalvadorcontinuedtoviolateinternationalhumanrightslaws despite a decision rendered by the Inter-AmericanCommission, public shamingwould likely be a powerful tool in

309. JamesCavallaro&StephanieErinBrewer,ReevaluatingRegionalHumanRightsLitigationintheTwenty-FirstCentury:TheCaseoftheInterAmericanCourt,102AM.J.INT’LL.768,792(2008)(“ExperienceindicatesthatadvancementofhumanrightsinmanyLatinAmericancountriesismostlikelywhenpositivemediacoverage,publicsupport,and/orinternationalpressurecanbebroughttobearonagivenissue[heardbyaninternationalcourtorjudicialbody]”).

310. Bettinger-Lopez,supranote169,at64(describinghowembarrassingitisforaStatetobeconsideredaviolatorofhumanrights).

311. SeeLouisHenkin,HumanRights:IdeologyandAspiration,RealityandProspect,REALIZINGHUMANRIGHTS:MOVINGFROMINSPIRATIONTOIMPACT1,24–25(SamanthaPowers& Graham Allison eds., 2000) (describing how public shame can be caused by“intergovernmentalandgovernmentalpoliciesandactionscombine[d]withthoseofNGOsand the public media, and in many countries also public opinion”). See also How isInternationalLawEnforced?,GLOBALIZATION101,https://www.globalization101.org/how-is-international-law-enforced/ [https://perma.cc/RF82-BDKF] (last visited Oct. 23,2019).

312. Henkin,supranote311.313. Prof.SandeepGopalan&Dr.RoslynFuller,EnforcingInternationalLaw:States,

IOs,andCourtsasShamingReferenceGroups,39BROOK.J.INT’LL.73,75(2014).GopalanandFulleralsoexplainthatStatesmayrefusetoengageininternationalrelationswiththeoffendingState.Id.

314. Id.at76.


forcing El Salvador to comply with these laws. Domesticgovernmental organizations and NGOs within El Salvador havealreadyexpressedgraveconcernfortheriseinfemicideandhavetakeninitiativestofightthisincrease,despitesuchhumanrightsdefenders being harassed for vocalizing their advocacy. 315Additionally, the internationalcommunityhasalreadyexpressedconcernaboutthefemicideepidemicinElSalvador,whichcanbeseenthroughextensivecoverageinthemedia.316Thisactivismatthedomestic levelandcoverageat the international levelwouldincreasewitharulingbytheInter-AmericanCommission,andthemessageof thisactivismandcoveragewouldonlybecomemoresevereandcriticalofElSalvadorifitchosenottocomplywiththeInter-American Commission’s recommendations. Furthermore, arecognitionofahumanrightsviolationat the international levelwouldbolstertheeffortsofhumanrightsdefendersandgivethemtheencouragementneededtocarryontheiractivism.Moreover,this advocacy and coverage would certainly include labeling ElSalvadorasahumanrightsviolatorafteradecisionfromtheInter-AmericanCommissionisrenderedandnotrespected.Lastly,suchnegativecoveragecouldcauseotherStatestoceaserelationswithElSalvador,andcouldevenleadtoElSalvadorbeingexcludedfrominternationalbodiesitisamemberto,suchastheOAS.

V.CONCLUSIONUltimately, a decision from the Inter-AmericanCommission

would serve as the perfect international influence to coerce ElSalvadortocomplywiththeinternationallawsthatithasratified,as well as international customary law. Such a decision would

315. SeegenerallySituationofViolence,supranote265(showinganexampleofhow

ISDEMU, a governmental organization, has gathered and made public informationregardingElSalvadorand femicide);seealsoHelpORMUSAend femicide inElSalvador,DONOR DIRECT ACTION (July 3, 2018), https://donordirectaction.org/2018/07/help-ormusa-end-femicide-in-el-salvador/ [https://perma.cc/2H38-4W37] (providing anexampleforhowORMUSA,asanon-governmentalorganization,aimstoendfemicideinElSalvador). See also Press Release OAS, supra note 298 (describing how human rightsdefendershavebeenendangeredandkilledforexpressingtheirbeliefs).

316 . See, e.g., Anastasia Moloney, High-profile El Salvador femicide case exposesdeadlygenderviolence,REUTERS(Jan.21,2020),https://www.reuters.com/article/us-el-salvador-women-trial-trfn/high-profile-el-salvador-femicide-case-exposes-deadly-gender-violence-idUSKBN1ZK2VJ [https://perma.cc/AL79-Z5JD]; seealsoNugent, supranote32.


articulateexactlywhatElSalvadorhasdonewronginhandlingitsfemicideepidemic,whichwouldserveasasourceofguidanceforElSalvadorinmakingnecessarychanges.IfElSalvadorheedstheadvice of the Inter-American Commission and starts takingsufficient steps to properly address femicide, it would bealternativelypraisedasanupholderofhumanrights.Additionally,perhaps other international actors, such as States andinternational organizations, will donate to help propel ElSalvador’s efforts.317Thiswouldbeparticularly beneficial in thecaseofElSalvadorbecausefundingisacentralroadblockintheproper implementation and enforcement of domestic laws.318If,however, El Salvador is reluctant to make such changes, itspopulation as well as the international community at large canplacenecessarypressureonElSalvadortorespectandtakeactionin response to the Inter-American Commission’s decision. ThiscouldbetheexactpushthatElSalvadorneedstotrulyaddress,andultimatelyeradicate,femicide.

InvolvinginternationallawinElSalvador’sfemicideepidemicisnotonlycrucialtosavingthewomenofElSalvador,butiscrucialfor saving women across the globe, and particularly in LatinAmerica. These women also suffer at the hands of a machismoculturethatinfiltratesallaspectsoflife,perpetratorsoffemicidewhothriveinimpunity,andgovernmentsthatrefusetodomorethanenactineffective,unenforcedlegislation.Thesegovernmentslet the provisions of these laws, and the women in theirpopulations,falltothewayside.IfonecountrylikeElSalvadorisheld personally responsible for violating human rights, othernations will likely be deterred from committing the sameviolations.319Ultimately,thischainreactionofjusticecanleadnot

317 . See Prieto-Carron et al., supra note 42, at 36 (discussing how donations by

internationalactorscanhelppromotegenderequality).318. SeeVoces,supranote157.319. SeeVoces,supranote157(suggestingthatonecasewherePeruacknowledged

responsibility forviolatingawoman’shumanrightsandcompensatedthevictimof theviolationwouldlikelyleadtoothercountriestakingactionandchangingtheirways).Seealso Defending Regional Human Rights Protection Mechanisms: The Inter-AmericanCommission on Human Rights Under Attack, FREEDOM HOUSE (Nov. 8, 2012),https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/IACHR%20Policy%20Brief.pdfhttps://perma.cc/R9QP-9HLZ(“Itsresolutions,inconjunctionwithdecisionsoftheInter-AmericanCourtofhumanrights,havespurredlegalreformandtheintroductionofhumanrightsprotections inmanycountries.Moreover, itsmonitoringand reporting functions


only to the salvation of the women of El Salvador, but also tosalvationforallwomenintheinternationalcommunity.

haveservedtoholdstatespubliclyaccountableforhumanrightsabuses,andtopromotetheprotectionofhumanrightsaroundtheregion”).

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