Airway Management Aric Storck PGY-5 Dr. Mike Betzner July 20, 2005.
NOT IN ANY BACK YARD - Pratt InstituteNOT IN ANY BACK YARD ELIMINATING POWER PLANTS FROM THE SOUTH...
Transcript of NOT IN ANY BACK YARD - Pratt InstituteNOT IN ANY BACK YARD ELIMINATING POWER PLANTS FROM THE SOUTH...
NOT IN ANY BACK YARD ELIMINATING POWER PLANTS FROM THE SOUTH BRONX
ThomasStorckM.S.SustainableEnvironmentalSystems
ProgramsforSustainablePlanningandDevelopmentPrattInstitute
DemonstrationofProfessionalCompetence
May16th,2016
Advisor:AlecAppelbaumTechnicalAdvisor:CharlesKomanoff
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ABSTRACT
In2001,theNewYorkPowerAuthority(NYPA)installedfour47MWgas-firedturbinesinPort
Morris,TheBronx,aneighborhoodalreadysufferingfromsomeoftheworstasthmaandpovertyrates
inthecountry.Indoingso,NYPAcutregulatorycorners,exploitedloopholesandminimizedpublic
participation.Theseturbinescontinuetobere-permittedeveryfiveyears.TochallengeNYPA’sclaim
thatthesegasplantsareenvironmentallybeneficial,environmentaljusticecoalitionSouthBronxUnite
reachedouttoenergypolicy-analystandenvironmentalactivistCharlesKomanoffforadviceonhow
thesefourturbinescouldbereplacedwithcleanenergyorothercarbon-freesolutions.Thisreport
describeshowtheStatemanagedtoinstallpowerplantsinenvironmentaljusticecommunitiesby
underminingthelawsputinplacetoprotectpeoplefrompollutinginfrastructurebeforeevaluatingthe
capabilitiesofselectedalternativestoreplaceNYPA’sturbines,includingoffshorewind,solarPVand
demand-sidemanagement.
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INTRODUCTION
In2000,NewYorkStateofficialsagreedtoinstalltengas-firedturbinesacrossfourboroughsin
NewYorkCity(Parker,2003).TheBronxwasburdenedwithfourunits,morethanwereinstalledinany
otherborough,allconcentratedinPortMorris,acommunityalreadysufferingfromadisproportionate
share of environmental burdens andhome to someof the highest asthma rates in theUnited States
(Parker, 2003;Maantay, 2007). Leading theprojectwas TheNewYorkPowerAuthority (NYPA)1,who
met their self-imposeddeadline2byexploiting regulatory loopholes,avoidingadequateenvironmental
review and minimizing public participation, leaving communities feeling offended, undervalued and
discriminatedagainst (Sze,2007).Thepublicwas led tobelieve the turbineswould lastnomore than
three years, but local environment justice groups continue to fight for their removal (NewYork State
Assembly[NYSA],2001;Mark-Viverito,2015).
Inresponsetoconcernsfromresidentsabouttheirneighborhood’spoorairqualityexacerbated
bytheseplants,NYPAarguesthattheirgasturbinesarethecleanestandmostefficientintheCityand
that their removal would increase citywide pollution by forcing older, dirtier generators to meet
electricity demands instead (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation [NYSDEC],
2015).
My research for this report was gathered after South Bronx Unite, an environmental justice
coalitionofresidents,organizationsandalliesworkingtoprotectthefutureoftheSouthBronx,reached
out to energy policy-analyst and environmental activist Charles Komanoff3 for advice. Their question:
How could these plants be replaced with clean energy or other non-polluting strategies? (Johnson,
1TheNewYorkPowerAuthorityisastate-ownedutilityandthelargeststatepowerorganizationintheUnitedStates(NYPAwebsite).2June1st,20013CharlesKomanoffistheDirectorofbothKomanoffEnergyAssociates(www.komanoff.net)andtheCarbonTaxCenter(www.carbontax.org).Hehasservedasanexpertwitnessonissuesofenergypolicyandeconomics,includingConEdison’sEastRiverPowerPlantexpansionin2000.
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2016).Underadvisement fromMr.Komanoff, Ihaveprepared this report to serveSouthBronxUnite
andotherenergyandenvironmental justicegroupsinNewYorkCitybyidentifyinginterventionpoints
and exploring renewable energy and demand-side management strategies for replacing the four
turbinesinPortMorris,TheBronx.
PORTMORRIS,THEBRONX–SHOULDERINGTHEBURDENFORNEWYORKCITY
Withinthepoorestcongressionaldistrictinthecountryandthesouthernmostpeninsulaofthe
Bronx lies Port Morris, a minority neighborhood bordered by as many rivers as it is by highways
(Mueller,2016).Unfortunatelyforitsresidents,theareasalongthewaterfrontonceusedforrecreation
havesincebeenreplaced(andinsomecasesdestroyed)byindustry(Walshe,2015;Johnson,2016).The
warehouses,distributioncentersandwastetransferstationsthatnowlinetheneighborhood’sedgeare
extremely truck-intensive, accounting for over 15,000 diesel trucks trips a day through local streets
(Crean,2015; Johnson,2016).Nearlyone-thirdofNewYorkCity’ssolidwaste ishandled inTheSouth
Bronx (Institute, 2002). The City’s waste is no longer shipped away on barges – instead, it gets
transferred from large trucks to even larger trucks, burdening the community with pollutants from
diesel exhaust, the stench of garbage, and the danger and noise brought by their intrusion into
residentialareas(Crean,2015;Johnson,2016).
Consequently,SouthBronxresidentsbreathesomeoftheworstairincountry.Halfofthearea’s
pre-Kindergartento8thgradestudentsattendschoolslessthantwoblocksawayfromahighwayortruck
route (Institute, 2009). The asthmahospitalization rate for this same age group is three times higher
than the citywide average (King, 2015). Based on the findings from Institute (2009), New York
University’sSchoolofMedicineconcludedthatairpollutionreductionpoliciesshouldbeimplemented,
such as support for public transportation and creatingmore green space. Flying in the face of these
recommendations, City and State governments recently invested over $100 million to build a new
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operationscenterforFreshDirect,amajortruckingcompany,ononeofthelastremainingopenspaces
on PortMorris’swaterfront (NewYork State, 2012). The facility is expected to add a thousandmore
trucktripsaday(Johnson,2016).“EvenifallofFreshDirect’strucksranonwater,”notedJohnson(2016)
ofSouthBronxUnite,theaddedtrafficwillcauseothervehiclestoidlealongthehighwayssurrounding
theneighborhood,exacerbatingthepollutionfromexistingmobilesources.
Port Morris has very little green space, as demonstrated on this year’s annual Earth Day
Environmental Justice Waterfront Bike Tour lead by Mychal Johnson. Pulaski Park, their largest
recreationalspace,ismadeofconcrete,andthewaterfrontareassurroundedtheneighborhoodareno
longer accessible to thepublic. The toureventuallybroughtus towhatused tobe theEast132ndSt
pier,whereSouthBronxUnite’sDannyChervoni–alocalresidentfor60years–recalledhowvaluable
thedestinationwasforthecommunityandhowhewouldgotheretoswimasayoungkid.Thepierwas
destroyed in1989whena severedgas linecausedadeadlyexplosion,explained Johnson.Peoplecan
stillmanagetoreachthewater.Thatafternoonagroupofmenwereouttherefishing,butonlyafter
slipping throughabarbedwire fencenowblocking theoldpier’s remains.TheHellGatepowerplant,
whichincludestwoofNYPA’sturbines,isdirectlyadjacenttothepier.
ELECTRICITYSYSTEMS–NEWYORK
PeakDemand
Electricitydemandcanbecategorizedasbaseloadorpeakload.AsdescribedinFox-Penner
(2014),demandlevelsfluctuatethroughouttheday,butbaseloadistheamountthatisalwaysneeded
–thelowestpointonthedemandcurve.Peakloadincludesthepartthatfluctuatesbetweenthebase
loadandthehighestpointofthedemandcurve(seebelow).OverthecourseofayearinNewYork,
peakloadmayreachitshighestpointonaveryhotdayinthesummer,orafteraseriesofexceptionally
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hotandhumiddays(Fox-Penner,2014;Audin,2016).Thismomentiscalledpeakdemand,and
determineshowmuchgenerationcapacitywillberequiredforthatyear.
PeakingPlants
Fox-Penner(2014)describeshowpowerplantsthatservethebaseloadaredesignedtooperate
continuouslyathighoutputandhavelowincrementalcostsperunitofelectricity.Asdemandincreases,
intermediatepowerplantsmustbeturnedontoprovidepowerforconsumers,increasingthecostper
unitofelectricityforconsumers.Whendemandapproachespeaklevels,thelastpowerplantsthatmay
needtobeturnedonaretypicallythemostexpensiveandaredesignedtorunnomorethanafew
hundredhoursayear.Theseareknownaspeakingplants,or“peakers,”andtypicallyusenaturalgasto
runcombustionturbinessimilartojetengines(Fox-Penner,2014).
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CapacityRequirements
Thelevelofinstalledgenerationcapacityrequiredtomaintainreliability4isdeterminedbypeak
demand.NewYorkStatehasamarginoferrorsupplyrequirementof18%ofprojectedpeakdemand,a
cushionbetweentheState’speakdemandandtotalcapacity(Parker,2003;Gold,2015).Becauseofthe
limited capacity of transmission lines from outside its borders, New York City has a separate
requirement togenerateat least80%of itspeakelectricdemandwithin the fiveboroughs (NewYork
CityEnergyPolicyTaskForce [NYCEPTF],2004).Themaximumcapacitiesof transmission lines feeding
into the City are: 3,700 MW via Westchester; 1,000 MW via New Jersey; 300 MW via Long Island
(NYCEPTF,2004).Newlinesaredifficulttositebecauseofpopulationdensity,highpropertyvaluesand
theextendedtimetoreceivepermitapprovals(Sze,2007).Becauseitspeakdemandishigherthanwhat
theselinescancarry,NewYorkCityisconsideredaloadpocket(NYCEPTF,2004).
THEPORTMORRISTURBINES
The turbines in the SouthBronx are simple-cycle gas turbines, often characterized aspeaking
plants.EachisownedandoperatedbytheNewYorkPowerAuthorityanddesignedtoproduceupto47
MWofelectricityatambienttemperaturesbelow100°F,withanetoutputcapabilityof44MW(3MW
areneededforon-siteoperations)(Parker,2003).Siteswithdualgeneratorshaveatotalcapacityof94
MWwith a net output capability of 88MW. The four units are located on two sites, both along the
waterfront in PortMorris. The Hell Gate Plant houses two units and can be found at Locust Avenue
betweenEast132ndandEast134thStreets(Robbins,2016).Afewblocksawayontheoppositesideof
theRandall’s IslandConnectoroverpass, twounits form theHarlemRiverYardPlant (Robbins, 2016).
4NewYorkStateReliabilityCouncil(2016)definesreliabilityusingthefollowingtwoterms:1)Adequacy–“theabilityoftheelectricsystemstosupplytheaggregateelectricaldemandandenergyrequirementsoftheircustomersatalltimes,takingintoaccountscheduledandreasonablyexpectedunscheduledoutagesofsystemelements”and2)Security–“theabilityoftheelectricsystemstowithstandsuddendisturbancessuchaselectricshortcircuitsorunanticipatedlossofsystemelements.”
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TheywereinstalledinJune2001,alongwithsix
othergasturbinesspreadacrossfourboroughs
(see right): two units were installed in Sunset
Park, Brooklyn at 23rd Street and 3rd Avenue;
one inWilliamsburg, Brooklyn atNorth 1st and
RiverStreets;twoat42-30VernonBoulevardin
Long Island City, Queens; and one at 143
Edgewater Street in Staten Island.An eleventh
unitwasalsoinstalledoutsideofNewYorkCity
inBrentwood,LongIsland(UPROSE,2001).
THESITINGPROCESS
ThefollowingsectiondescribeshowNewYorkStateofficialsinstalledgasturbinesinNewYork
Citybyexploitingloopholesandunderminingthelawsputinplacetoprotectthoseaffected.Thestory
illustrateshowpowerfulgroupsareabletonotonlybendthelawstotheirconvenience,butalsoinvent
theirownrationalitybydeterminingwhatinformationispresentedasfact.
Attheendofsummer2000,theNewYorkStatePublicServiceCommission(PSC)5,theNewYork
PowerAuthority(NYPA)andtheNewYorkIndependentSystemOperator(NYISO)6forecasteda315MW
supplyshortfallforsummer2001(Parker,2003).Withinamonth,NYPApurchased11simple-cyclegas
turbinesfromGeneralElectricfor$510milliondollars(NYCA,2001).ThetenturbinesforNewYorkCity
5TheNewYorkPSCoverseesandregulatesallutilitiesintheState,andisresponsibleforensuringanadequatesupplyofelectricity(NYCA,2001).6NYISOcontrolstheenergymarketsinNewYorkState.Theyacceptbidsfrompowerproducesonaday-aheadbasisanddecidewhichplantsturnonandinwhatorder(NYCEPTF,2004).
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totaled440MW,andNYPAwasintentoninstallingthembyJune1st,2001(Parker,2003).Thefirstwave
of the California Electricity Crisis had hit only a few months prior, and the State used the fear of
California-style blackouts to justify moving these generators through the siting process as fast as
possible(Johnson,2001).TheprojectwascalledPowerNow!,appropriateforthespeedatwhichitwas
completed(Parker,2003).
State Assembly members were skeptical about NYPA’s intentions. They suspected the
PowerNow! project was primarily motivated to lower electricity prices7, not to meet reliability
requirements (NYSA, 2001). At a public hearing in March 2001, NYPA President Eugene Zeltmann
responded to these accusation and assured Assembly members that the project is an emergency
measure toensure reliability and that the turbineswill only runduringon-peakperiods: “inOctober,
November,through…March,April,…theseunitssimplywillnotrun.Andthey’renotgoingtoruninthe
evening in the summer timeseitherbecause that isnotwhat thepeak load is” (NYSA,2001).But the
datashowsotherwise.During2015,only45%oftheannualloadgeneratedbythefourturbinesinthe
South Bronx was during peak periods8 (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2016). At a public
hearing,PresidentZeltmannadmitted that thegeneratorswouldbebid into themarketeachday,no
matterwhatthecapacityneed(NYPA,2001).
One tactic by which the PowerNow! Project saved time was dodging environmental review.
According to New York State’s then primary law dealing with electric power plant siting, known as
ArticleXof thePublicServiceLaw,environmental review isalwaysrequiredwhensitinganewpower
plant(Parker,2003).Generatorsinexcessof80MWwerepursuanttoArticleXwhilethosewithlower
capacity,toSEQRA(Parker,2003).InthecaseofNYPA’sunits,siteswithasingleturbine(47MW)were
7NYSA(2001),p.203:“CHAIRMANBRODSKY:Thisisaboutprice,andthisisabouttheadministration’sattempttodealwiththepriceissuebyusingastatewidesubsidytodealwiththepricespikeinNewYorkCity”.BecausetheconstructionandoperatingcostsofNYPA’sgeneratorsarepickedupbytheState’sratepayers,theelectricityproducescanbebidatalowerprices,causingotherpowerproducerstolowertheircoststoremaincompetitive.8MaythroughSeptember,12:00pm–6:00pm
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tobereviewedunderSEQRAandsiteswithdualturbines(94MW),suchastheonesnowoccupyingPort
Morris, would have been subject to Article X, a more rigorous review process (Sze, 2007). NYPA
petitionedtheSitingBoard9,askingtoavoidArticleXbyagreeingtoa“legallybindingcommitment”not
to run the units above 79.9MW (NYSA, 2001). But Parker (2003) points out thatwhen stating their
decision,theSitingBoardchangedthestatutorylanguagefrom“generatingcapacity”to“netgenerating
capacity”. Since 3MWout of each turbine’s capacity is used for onsite operations, the commitment
agreedtobyNYPAactuallyallowseachsitetogenerateupto85.9MW,aviolationofthelawaccording
toArticleX.TheSitingBoardagreed,thustriggeringenvironmentalreviewunderSEQRAforallofNYPA’s
gasturbines(Parker,2003).
NYPAwasthe leadagencyfor itsenvironmentalreviewprocess,andfourdaysaftertheSiting
Board’sArticleXwaiver,theyissuedanegativedeclaration,thusremovingtheobligationtopreparean
environmental impact statement (EIS) (Sze, 2007). To determine whether the turbines would
disproportionally affect low-incomeorminority communities, theStateDepartmentof Environmental
Conservation (DEC), the agency responsible for issuing air emissions permits, requested that NYPA
prepare an “environmental justice” analysis along with its permit application (Sze, 2007). The
environmental consulting firmAKRF prepared an assessment, butNYPA only released it after several
Freedomof InformationActrequestsandone lawsuit ledbyNewYorkLawyersforthePublic Interest
(NYLPI)(Silvercup,2001;Sze,2007).Whenreleased,NYPA(2001)revealedthatalloftheareaschosen
byNYPAhadhigherpoverty ratesandproportionsofminorities than thecitywideaverage.NewYork
City averageswere18.9%below thepoverty line, 28.8%black and23.7% Latino. By comparison, The
Harlem River Yard site’s were 51% in poverty, 36.9% black and 64.7% Latino. At Hell Gate, the
populationwas44.1%inpoverty,48.5%blackand52.3%Latino(NYPA,2001).
9TheNewYorkStateBoardonElectricGenerationSitingandtheEnvironment,or“SitingBoard”,iswithintheDepartmentofPublicServicebutincludesmembersfrommultipleNewYorkStateagencies.TheBoardisresponsibleforauthorizingpowerplantsitings(NYSA,2001).
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Localcommunitiesandtheiralliesfeltangry,takenadvantageofanddiscriminatedagainst,but
the State’s secretive, top-down approach made it difficult for the public to participate in the siting
process.Sze(2007)describesthesequenceofeventsasfollows:TwodaysafterNYPAissuedanegative
declaration for the project, on the day before Thanksgiving, the NYS Department of Environmental
Conservation (DEC) issued draft air permits for public review. The DEC eliminated the possibility for
activists to support their allies atmeetings in other boroughs by scheduling the Bronx, Brooklyn and
Queenspublichearingsonthesameday,at thesametime.TheSitingBoard,at therequestofNYPA,
shortened thepublic commentperiod from twenty-one to tendays. Further compromising thepublic
reviewprocesswasthedecisiontosetthepubliccommentsdeadlineforDecember22nd,2000,three
daysbeforeChristmas.Withintwoweeks,NYPAhadslippedthroughtheenvironmentalreviewprocess
andwereissuedregulatoryairpermits(Sze,2007).
Thosecommunitiesthatdidspeakoutagainsttheproject’sfast-trackedapproachwereaccused
ofbeingselfishforputtingcitizensinharm’swayiftheplantswerenotinstalledbyNYPA’sself-imposed
deadline:“Everyday’sdelaywillpushNewYorkCityonedayclosertoCalifornia,”thePowerAuthority
saidinawrittenstatementafteracoalitionofneighborhoodandenvironmentalgroupsrepresentedby
New York Lawyers for the Public Interest (NYLPI) sued the Pataki administration for illegally plowing
through siting regulations (Johnson, 2001). When Judge Lawrence Knipel ruled in favor of NYPA,
McKinley(2001)reportedthattheAuthority’sspokesmanMichaelPetraliacalledthedecisionarelief,so
that“wecankeepthelightsonforthepeopleofNewYorkCity.”MayorRudolphGiulianirespondedto
therulingwithevenmoregravity:“Peopleactuallydie,”hewarnedopponentsoftheplantsduringhis
weeklyradioaddress.“Youhavearisktohumanlife.Soweshouldnotallowthat.”(McKinley,2001).
MayorGiuliani’sstatementsimplythattherewerenoalternativestoensuringreliabilitybesides
building these plants and that therewas no doubtNew York Citywas facing an otherwise inevitable
crisis. But because NYPA removed their obligation to complete an environmental impact statement,
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theywerenotrequiredtoprovetheestimated315MWsupplyshortfall(Sze,2007).Opponentsofthe
project,communitymembersandelectedofficialsalike,citedevidencethattheState’snumbersdidnot
addup (NYSA,2001).One reason: the State ignored the valueofpeakdemand reduction inensuring
reliability. By January 2001, the Public Service Commission had increased funding for the System
BenefitsCharge(SBC),aprogramoffermonetaryincentivesforenergyefficiency,from$78.1millionto
$150million(SBC,2014).TheNewYorkStateEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAuthority(NYSERDA)
projectedtheseincentiveswouldreducetheState’speakdemandby250–300MWbysummer2001
(NYSA,2001).Whenaskedatapublichearingwhythedemandreductionprojectionswerenotincluded
in their capacity assessment, PSC Director Howard Tarler explained that demand side management
projects are unreliable because they depend largely on consumer behavior. Unsatisfied, State
Assemblyman Richard Brodsky, then Chairman of the Committee on Environmental Conservation,
responded,“Icouldunderstandyoudon’twanttoputthefull250or300in.Icannotunderstandzero.”
(NYSA,2001).
TheState’sassessmentofavailablegenerationcapacitywasquestionedaswell.AshokGupta,
energyanalystfortheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil,conductedadetailedanalysischallengingthe
315MW shortfall and found 527MW10 of available capacity not included in PSC’s estimates (Parker,
2003). The PSC and NYPA produced no equivalent analysis (Parker, 2003). Although previous power
plant siting lawshadstricterneeds requirements,ArticleX requirednoanalysisofneed for increased
megawattsaslongasnewgeneratorscontributetocompetition(Sze,2007).
MayorGiuliani’sdismissal of the consequencesof air pollutionandgreenhousegasemissions
highlights a much deeper issue surrounding energy policy – that of the unequal attention given to
spectacularandunspectaculartime.Asfarasthepublicwastold,thisprojectwasnecessarytoavoidan
10Theadditionalcapacitycamefromthefollowingfacilities:Astoria(170MW),increasedcapacityofexistingsources(157MW),aKeySpansite(40MW),LindenCogeneration(70MW),ConEdUnit10(60MW)andanincreasedcapacityofConEdGowanus(30MW)(Parker,2003).
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otherwiseinevitablecatastrophiceventthatcouldcostNewYorkStatemillionsorbillionsordollarsand
possiblyhumanlives(Sze,2007).Butthedeathanddestructionrelatedtoclimatechangeisframedin
much longer terms, with much more complex causal relationships, that it typically goes unnoticed,
untreatedormisunderstood.Similarly,thoughonasmallerscale,victimsof localizedairpollutionalso
sufferfromthismisunderstandingoflong-termandcumulativedamage(Nixon,2011).
ENERGYPOLICYTODAY
Despiteattemptstominimizedebate,environmentaljusticegroupssuchasCommunitiesUnited
for Responsible Energy (CURE), Organization of Waterfront Neighborhoods (OWN) and UPROSE
managed to insert themselves into theprocess andwere able to spark apublic debate about energy
justice (Sze, 2007). In June 2001, the Brooklyn Appellate Court ruled in favor of community groups’
appealofJudgeKnipel’srulingandorderedNYPAtocompleteanenvironmentalimpactstudy,andone
thatincludedananalysisoftheplants’PM2.511output(UPROSE,2001).
Althoughtheplantsarestillinoperation,asSze(2007)pointsout,theeffortsbyenvironmental
groupshadsignificantinfluenceonenergypolicyandcontributedtopublicskepticismaboutnewpower
plantconstruction.Someofthegroups leadingthefightagainstNYPA’splants in2000and2001were
appointedin2003toMayorBloomberg’sEnergyTaskForce,includingCURE,GailSuchmanofNYLPIand
Ashok Gupta of NRDC (NYCEPTF, 2004). The task force was formed after another blackout – the
northeastinAugust2003–butthistimethoseinvolvedwereabletoinsertintothereportstrategiesof
energyconservationandgreenbuildingdesign (Sze,2007).According toCURE, itwas the first“public
recognitionthatthereisnohystericalenergycrisis”(Sze,2007).
11Fineparticulatematterwithadiametersmallerthan2.5microns.PM2.5issmallenoughtotravelintorespiratorytractsandreachthelungsandcanworsenmedicalconditionssuchasasthmaandheartdisease(NewYorkPowerAuthority[NYPA],2002).
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Energypolicy inNewYorklooksremarkablydifferent in2016thanitdidfifteenyearsprior.At
thestatelevel,GovernorAndrewCuomo’snewCleanEnergyStandardwillestablishamandateof50%
cleanelectricityinNewYorkby2030(NewYorkState[NYS],2016).Hiscurrentenergyplan,Reforming
theEnergyVision(REV),focusesprimarilyonincreasingrenewables,minimizingfossilfueldependency,
reducingpeakdemandandprotectingthehealthandwelfareofNewYorkers(NYS,2016).MayorBillde
Blasio’sgoals focuson lessdependencyonfossil fuelsaswell.His2015updatetoMayorBloomberg’s
greenhousegasemissionreductionplansetatargetof80%12by2050(Mayor’sOffice,2015).Thatsame
year,theMayorannouncedhisplantopowerallmunicipalbuildings,mostofwhicharenowservedby
NYPA,with100%renewableelectricity(OfficeoftheMayor,2016).
ALTERNATIVES
Thefollowingsectionisanassessmentofaselectfewrenewableenergyanddemandside
managementstrategiesandeach’sabilitytoreplacethemegawatts(MW)andmegawatt-hours(MWh)
nowprovidedbythefourturbinesintheBronx.NYPA’spowerplantsarevalueintwoways:1)the
electricitytheygenerateand2)theircontributiontoareliablesupplysystem.
Theamountofelectricityprovidedcanbeexpressedasmegawatt-hours(MWh),andequalsthe
grossloadminustheloadneededforon-siteoperations.Thecombinedannualelectricityproduction
fromthefourturbineshasbeenfairlyconsistentacrossthefourmostrecentyears13,averagingabout
100,000MWh,or100gigawatt-hours(GWh)peryear(EPA,2016).Theircontributiontoareliable
electricitysystemcanbeexpressedintermsoftheircapacity.Together,theyprovide160MW14thatis
availableifweneedit.Myassessmentofalternativeswillusethesevalues–160MWand100GWh–as
targetsfortheirreplacement.
12Reducedfrom2005levels.132012-201514Eachsiteiscappedat79.9MW(Parker,2003)
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Beforegoingintothesecalculations,it’simportanttounderstandtwoconcepts:capacityfactor
and capacity value. Capacity factor means what a resource is actually producing versus its potential
productionaccording to its capacity (Komanoff,2016a).Capacity value is importantwhenconsidering
variableresourceslikewindandsolar.Unlikeagasturbine,thewindandthesuncannotbeturnedon
when needed, so an equal amount of capacity of one of these variable resources does contribute
equallytotheState’sreliabilityrequirements(NewYorkIndependentSystemOperator[NYISO],2010).
Capacityvaluethencanbeusedasaconversionfactor.
OffshoreWind
On March 16, 2016 the Department of Interior (DOI) announced that the Bureau of Ocean
EnergyManagement(BOEM)hasdesignatedforoffshorewinddevelopmenta127squaremileareaoff
LongIsland,13milesfromtheCityofLongBeach(BureauofOceanEnergyManagement[BOEM],2016).
TheDOIbrokethenewsfollowinganannouncementthattheObamaadministrationhaddecidednotto
allowoilorgasdrillingoffthemid-andsouthAtlanticcoast(U.S.,2016).Thedesignatedareaisbased
onaproposal in2011fromtheNewYorkPowerAuthority tobuilda700MWwindfarm inthesame
area using 194 turbines, each with a potential to generate 3.6 MW (BOEM 2016). “New York has
tremendousoffshorewindpotential,”accordingtoSecretaryoftheInteriorSallyJewell(BOEM,2016).
By someestimates,anoffshorewind farm this size couldprovideelectricity forup to300,000homes
(Schlossberg,2016).
AccordingtoNYISO(2010),thecapacityvalueofanoffshorewindfarminNewYorkisbetween
0.2and0.3,meaning1MWofwindcapacityhasbeentreated inpower-systemplanningasproviding
the samepeak-reliability increment as only 0.2-0.3MWof existing fossil fuel capacity. However, it is
possiblethatadvancesinbothturbinetechnologyandpower-systemoptimizationwillallowtheNYISO
toincreaseitscapacityvaluetowindresources(Komanoff,2016b).Nevertheless,thevaluefromNYISO
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(2010) suggests that a 700 MW offshore wind farm would allow 140-210 MW to be removed.
ConsideringthatthefourturbinesinPortMorrisexceededacombinedgrossloadof140MWforalmost
300hoursover thecourseof2015, itmayappear that thiswindprojectalonemaynotbeenoughto
replaceallfourplants(EPA,2016).
According to Long Island (2016), a 350MWoffshorewind farmoperating at 40% its capacity
wouldgenerate1,226,000MWhperyear.Itfollows,then,thata700MWfarmwiththesamecapacity
factorwouldgenerateabout2,452,000MWhperyear–twenty-fivetimesmorethanthefourturbines
combined.
The lowcapacityofoffshorewindpowercanbepartiallyattributedtothedifficultytopredict
wind speeds. Also, NYPA’s turbines tend to operatemore frequently during peak hours (EPA, 2016).
Whileoffshorewindisbetterthanonshoreforpeakpowerreplacement,simulationsfromNYISO(2010)
suggestthatwindfarmsaremoreproductiveduringwinterandatnight.InNewYorkCity,winterpeaks
areprojectedtodecreaseoverthenexttenyears,andsummerpeaksprojectedtoincrease,soamore
peak-coincidentresourcemaybebettersuitedtoreplaceNYPA’sgasturbines(Gold,2015).
SolarPV
Solar power is also a variable resource, but more coincident with peak demand than wind.
AccordingtoPerez(2008),atthecurrentlevelofsolarintegrationinthedownstateNewYorkarea,solar
photovoltaics (PV) oriented southwest and tilted 30° can achieve a 70% capacity value. Using these
configurations,itwouldtakeabout230MWofinstalledsolarPVtomatchthecontributiontoreliability
fromthefourturbinesintheBronx.
Tocalculateouthowmanymegawattsofsolarphotovoltaics(PVs)wouldbeneededtomatch
theannualnetloadfromtheBronxpeakers15,Iusedhourlycapacityfactordatafromareportprepared
15100GWh
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fortheNewYorkCityEconomicDevelopmentCorporation(NYCEDC)byBrightPower(2009).Becauseof
variations in solar radiation throughout thedayandyear, installed solarPV’s capacity factorvariesas
well. Using month averages for each one-hour interval, I calculated that producing 100 GWh of
electricity would require approximately 70MW of installed solar capacity (Bright Power, 2009; EPA,
2016).That’sabouttwiceasmuchastheCity’scurrentinstalledcapacityasofOctober2015(NewYork
City[NYC],2015).Solaroutputpeaksaroundnoon,whilethehourintervalwiththehighestgeneration
fromtheturbinesisbetween5:00and6:00PM(Bright,2009;United,2016).
Using the same assumptions asNYC (2015), I calculated that approximately 8,750,000 square
feetofusable roofareawouldbeneeded to install70MWof solarPV inNewYorkCity (NYC,2015).
Such capacity couldbe achievebyutilizing all thepossible roof spaceeastofHalleck St and southof
RyawaAveinHuntsPoint,alongthewaterfrontfromStonyPointtoTiffanyStbutsoutheastofthetrain
tracks and LeggettAve, along the entire Bronx Killwaterfront southof 132nd St, andonRikers Island
(NYC,2015)(seebelow).
18
While70MWofsolarwouldbeenoughtoreplacethemegawatt-hoursfromthefourturbines,
itwould likely not be enough to replace their reliability. In fact, themorewind and solar power are
integrated into the grid, the more we may need to rely of gas-fired turbines to cope with their
intermittency (Wesoff, 2011). Unfortunately, storage on such a large scale may not be feasible for
decades (Fox-Penner,2014).Gas turbinescanbe firedupanddownquickly,making themvaluable to
pickuptheslackwhenthewindstopsblowingorthesunstopsshining(Wesoff,2011).Thiscouldcause
anetincreaseinoutputfromtheremainingsixturbines,mostofwhichareinlow-incomeandminority
communities(NYPA,2001).
Renewableenergycaneliminategreenhousegasemissionsbyforcingfossilfuelplantstorunat
lower capacity, thus making the plants less profitable their energy more expensive for consumers
(World,2016).Iffossilfuelplantshavetoremainonline,consumersstillhavetopaythatcapacitycost
(ClimateWire,2013).Whileit’simportantforcleanenergytobecheaperthanhigh-carbonenergy,there
shouldbemechanisms inplace toavoidhigherprices forourmostenergy-burdenconsumers. Lower-
incomecommunitiesmightnothavethemeanstochoosebetweenenergysources,butincentivescould
beputintoplacetomakerenewableenergyamoreviableoptionforthosewhootherwisecan’tafford
it.
Demand-SideManagement
Considering their size, the South Bronx turbines are much more valuable in terms of their
reliability than they are in the energy they provide. Over the last four years16 they have averaged a
capacityfactorof7%.ConsideringthechallengesofensuringreliabilitywithoffshorewindandsolarPV,
itmaybemoreeffectivetoutilizestrategiesthatfocusonreducingpeakdemand.ConEdisonandthe
New York State Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) have a program to do just that –
162012-2015
19
replacing power plantswith demand reduction (Audin, 2016). Inspired by the possible closing of the
Indian Point Energy Center, a 2,000MW nuclear power plant, Con Edison and NYSERDA started the
Demand Management Program (DMP) in July 2014, which enhances incentives for Con Edison
customers who install energy efficiency technologies (Demand, 2016). Eligible projects and their
increasedincentivesarelistedbelow:
The program’s target is to achieve a 125 MW reduction in peak demand by June 1st, 2016
(ConsolidatedEdison[ConEd],2016).Coned(2016)showsthatapprovedenergyefficiencyanddemand
reduction projects had already exceeded the 125 MW target by 10 MW. About 110 MW had been
committedfor$134millionin incentivesand17MWachievedfor$17million.About$13millionhave
beenapprovedforanexpected8.4MWreductionfromcombinedheatandpowerprojects.ConEdison
andNYSERDAanticipatethatthesenumberswilldropfromsomeprojectsdroppingoutoftheprogram,
but part of the reason projectsmay drop out is because theymay not have time to fully implement
thembeforeJune1st(ConEd,2016).Atthisrateofreturnoninvestment,it’squitepossiblethata2-year
extensionoftheDMPalonecouldbeenoughtoeliminatetheneedforallfourBronxturbines.According
toAudin(2016),memberoftheAssociationofEnergyEngineers’(AEE)HallofFame,1993International
Energy Manager of the Year and president of Energywiz, Inc., “the most powerful, immediate, and
20
probably cost-effectiveway to cutpeakdemandat this time is to extend the [DMP]…Extending that
deadlineforanother2years(ormore)wouldhelpgreatlytowardthedevelopmentoflargeprojectsfor
cuttingenduserdemand.”
Butreducingpeakdemandby160MWbyextendingtheseincentivesmaynotaccountforthe
megawatt-hoursprovidedbytheseturbines.Demand-responsecommitmentshaveahighcapacityvalue
potential, depending on the duration and number of calls17, but energy use reduction is limited to
periods of peak demand (New York Independent System Operator [NYISO], 2012). Thermal energy
storage,whichutilizescheaperbaseloadpoweratnighttomakeicetocoolbuildingsduringtheday,is
effective at reducing peak demandbutmay actually increase the total amount of electricity required
(Komanoff,2016b).Efficientlighting,however,iseffectiveatreducingbothMWandMWh.Infact,the
analysisbyHingeetal.(2012)foundthata160MWpeakelectricdemandreductioncouldbeachievedif
all the easily accommodating New York City office space18 were retrofitted with comprehensive,
advanceddaylightingcontrols.Theanalysisalsofoundthatthis levelofpeakdemandreductionwould
accountfor340GWhofelectricitysavings.
17AccordingtoNYISO(2012),1,800MWofdemand-responsepenetrationcanreachacapacityvalueofnearly100%ifthenumberofcallsreaches30daysayearatalengthof10hourseach.18114millionsquarefeet(Hingeetal.,2012).
21
CONCLUSION
This report evaluates only a few alternatives for ensuring electricity reliability, but those
selectedofferawiderangeofstrengths–fromoffshorewind,whichismuchmorepowerfulthanit is
reliable, to thermalenergy storage,whichcanprovide reliablepeak reductionpreciselywhenneeded
butmaynothelptoreduceenergyusage.Dependingonwhatmaybeneededmost(MWorMWh)or
whatprogramsarealready inplaceversuswhatcanbeexpandedor implemented, thisassessment is
meant to provide critical tools to be used towards recommending a plan for replacing the four gas
turbinesintheSouthBronx.ThemethodsIusedcanalsobeappliedtootherfossilfuelplants.
While synthesizing my findings, I was reminded of Bent Flyvbjerg’s essay Bringing Power to
Planning Research is which he writes, “Power has a clear tendency to dominate rationality in the
dynamicandoverlappingrelationshipbetweenthetwo.ParaphrasingPascal,onecouldsaythatpower
has a rationality that rationality doesnot know.” (Flyvbjerg, 2012). I havemadean attemptwith this
papertoexploretherelationshipbetweenpowerandrationality,andtoshowthatwhileeachcanlead
totheother,thosewhohavepowerhavetoabilitytoinventtheirownrationality.Ihopethesefindings
canhelpclosethatgap.
22
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