Norms and Individuation in Chopin's Sonatas (Zofia Helman)

8/9/2019 Norms and Individuation in Chopin's Sonatas (Zofia Helman)

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the Trio in G Minor, and the Concerto in E Minor) the recapitulations contain a reversed key relationship

between the themes presented in the expositions. Andrzej Chodkowski[8]also states that the

construction of the sonata-allegro form in the early works of Chopin (i.e., the Sonata in C Minor and the

Trio in G Minor) was the result of a fully purposeful compositional design; this approach allows one to

interpret these works as much more than just examples of an unskillful application of the sonata form

model.

Regardless of the evaluation of the form of these works, one should point out the temporal gap

between the creation of the Concerto in E Minor, Op. 11 (1830) and the Sonata in B-flat Minor

(1837-39). TheAllegro de Concertin A Major, Op. 46 (1834-41) does not provide a sufficient basis fordrawing conclusions about transformations in Chopin's style, though it could at least support the thesis

that there is a definite continuity in Chopin's interest in the sonata form. The next three sonatas belong

to the late period of Chopin's compositional output and all the scholars agree that those pieces

significantly differ from their predecessors; the differences are noticeable in architectural conceptions,

types of dramaturgy, and musical language. Moreover, the sonatas' artistic value is incomparably

higher. Opieski (1929, 161) considers the absence of the main theme in the recapitulation to be the

most characteristic element of Chopin's late sonatas. Protopopov (1967, 128-9) agrees with Opieski

and expands this idea by proposing the existence of a specific kind of bi-partite structure as an

essential, basic aspect of the sonatas' construction. [9]The first part of this construction consists of

the exposition, while the second part combines the development and recapitulation. This bi-partite

outline stems from "the transformation of values of the classic tri-partite sonata form, resulting from the

romantic pathos, filled with emotion" (ibidem, 28). Could these sonatas be understood solely asreplications of a single, "Chopinesque" formal scheme? Chomiski observed not only similarities, but

also transformations of the model that permit us to notice a certain evolutionary line of development.

The differences in presenting expositions and the ways of treating final movements could be seen as

proofs of an evolutionary theory. [10]Chomiski also treats the Sonata in G Minor, Op. 65 as a further

instance of formal expansion with its overall construction and variances in the structuring of themes.

Even if the Sonata in G Minor, with its musical isomorphisms, did not exemplify the elementary concept

of a thematic conflict, the unification of motivic substance still marked a historic development in the

evolution of this form. According to Chomiski, this unification led to Chopin's reliance on the "principe

cyclique" in shaping the form of this work. [11]This principle, noticed also by Leichtentritt in Chopin's

Sonatas in B-flat Minor and in B Minor, allowed these scholars to defuse accusations against Chopin

regarding the absence of organic qualities in his music.[12]

Chomiski attempted to find a new explanation for changes in Chopin's model of the sonata form,remaining profoundly dissatisfied with simplistic interpretations stemming from the notion of a romantic

transformation of classical principles. The Polish scholar explained Chopin's use of cantilena and the

nocturne-like themes as being directly influenced by the specific socio-demographic situation of his time

(i.e., the creation of a middle-class that revelled in reading sentimental poetry). [13]Finally, Chomiski

justified the "pessimistic" and unified character of the Sonata in G Minor by tragic occurrences in

Chopin's life at the time of this works's creation. The scholar concluded that such pessimism was

compensated for by the use of thematic conflict and an optimistic resolution in the work's finale. [14]In

both cases it is extremely difficult to agree with the author's proposal of an immediate connection

between "external occurrences" (communal or private) and transformations of the musical form.

Such general conclusions, not reaching beyond the musical sphere, focused on romantic

transformations of the classic sonata form in Chopin's works as well as on the appearance of future-

oriented trends in these compositions ("principe cyclique"). These evolutionary theoretical

interpretations explain neither the true nature of choices made by Chopin himself nor their causes.

Arguing from a point of view centering on the elucidation of changes in Chopin's individual style, the

authors either assembled theories of the style's growth, peak, and collapse (i.e., Opieski), or

confirmed a constant growth leading to future changes (Chomiski).

Examples of a different approach to the 19th-century sonata form can be found in the writings of

Newman (1969) and Rosen (1988). [15]Newman, while describing the greatest sonata composers

after Beethoven, i.e., Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, and Brahms, did not attempt to build a linear

theory of growth, highlighting instead different approaches to the sonata form (e.g., "Process," "Mold,"

and "Unicum"). He qualifies Chopin's Sonata in B Minor as a "Unicum," since in this work the composer

radically departed from the classical standards.[16]Rosen, in turn, maintains that at the time of the

codification of sonata form in theoretical works (1830-40) it was impossible to talk about expansion ofthe form, but only about influences of the musical language on the form. For Rosen, the point of

reference was provided by a theoretical scheme, not the works of a given composer's predecessors.

[17]An ongoing controversy still surrounds the issue of whether such schemes (perpetuated via the

system of compositional education) influenced the theoretical writings of Reicha (1824-26), Czerny

sh Music Journal 3.1.00: Zofia Helman - "Norms and Individuation ... http://www.usc.edu/dept/polish_music/PMJ/issue/3.1.00/helman.html

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(1849), and A. B. Marx (1845) before the final codification of the theoretical frameworks of the sonata-

allegro form and the sonata cycle.[18]This problem becomes especially important with reference to

Chopin's compositions in sonata form created before 1830.

Numerous descriptions of the sonata form existed in the 18th century, e.g., in the Versuch einer

Anleitung zur Compositionof H. Ch. Koch (1796), or the Elementi teorico-pratici di musicaof F.

Galeazzi (1796). [19]A characteristic element of both of those theories is that the first movement of a

sonata is treated as a two-part form and described as an instance of a distinctive tonal organization

(Dahlhaus 1978).[20]In Koch's rhetorical conception of form, the criteria for articulating formal divisions

are the rhythm of phrases, periodic structure, cadential extensions, etc. Only in the 19th century,especially in the theoretical writings of A. B. Marx, the "point of gravity" relocates to the concept of the

theme. Thematic conflict in the exposition, its transformations in development, and resolution in the

recapitulation became the most important components of the theory. The tri-partite construction

established by Marx, became a foundation for the "science" of musical forms later on. In the

descriptions of Czerny and Reicha, however, the sonata form consisted of two sections with the

second section further divided into two segments. In his treatise, Reicha does not introduce the term

"sonata form," using the term "La grande coupe binaire" instead. [21]Its scheme is described below in

Tables 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 1 (see Figure 1 below).

In his theory, Reicha established the location of themes in the exposition as well as the scheme of key

relationships that later appeared in academic studies of the sonata form: major tonic - major dominant

in the major keys, and Minor tonic - parallel major tonicin the minor keys. He claimed that the finalcadence of the exposition should be in the dominant and the whole exposition should be repeated. The

development and recapitulation created one section divided into two segments. The end of the

development, while preparing for the return of the first theme should also be based on the dominant

key. The first theme could be shortened, or transposed to a different key (i.e., a Minor subdominant).

According to Reicha, one could transpose the transitions, but the main key should predominate and the

second theme should be also be presented in the main key. Reicha further stated that the

recapitulation could start with the "seconde idee," where the first theme then became the basis for

further development. [22]He recognized a distinction between the "idee mere" and the "idee

accessoire," in which the first term referred to the main themes (both first and second), while the

second term described material appearing in the transitions and epilogues. Finally, the theoretician set

the durational ratio between the two large-scale sections of the "grande coupe binaire" as 1:2 or even

1:3 (obviously without considering the repetitions).

Theoretical findings referring to the form of the first movement in a sonata cycle undoubtedly reflected

compositional practice at the turn of the 19th century. While Reicha drew his examples mostly from the

music of Haydn and Mozart, the Majority of models in the theory of A. B. Marx were provided by the

sonatas of Beethoven. Earlier, in the 18th century, the unified sonata-allegro form that would be

universally used in the first part of the cycle did not yet exist (see Rosen); [23]moreover, it would have

been extremely difficult to conceive of the gradual development of the sonata-allegro model that was

adopted later. A significant feature defining early-classical sonata forms is the polarizing of tonalities in

the exposition (major tonic and major dominant or minor tonic and parallel major tonic), which seems

far more appropriate and better justified than the principle of thematic dualism (see Dahlhaus 1978).

[23]24Even in the so-called monothematic sonatas and symphonies of Haydn the area of the dominant

(or the parallel in minor) constitutes a dissonant area in the exposition; the second theme may appear

in the main key, if the key of the dominant becomes the basis for the epilogue.

While centering our attention on the transformations in Chopin's approach to the sonata genre as

presented in his output, I would like first to point out the connections and tensions emerging between

the norms and their individual realizations. I do not equate this norm with the abstract theoretical


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constructions, but following Leonard Meyer (1989) I assume that the norms exist as a result of musical

experiences (the knowledge of styles inherited from the past) and that they constitute a particular

repertoire of possibilities that are at the disposal of the composer who makes particular, conscious

selections from this reportoire.25[24]In every style and in every epoch, to continue Meyer's thought,

there exists a certain repertoire of universally applicable means and a certain, limited number of rules

which define a given style. However, the number of compositional strategies is infinite, and therefore

various realizations of the same norms may exist within the confines of one style. Individuation, on the

other hand, is connected with individual solutions that are a result of the conscious activities of a

composer, which are, nonetheless, not entirely free. Instead, they are somehow connected to the

found norms, appearing, as it were, as their new realizations, modifications or expansions. Thesenorms do not have to lead to the creation of a new universal norm, or to the change of style, since they

could remain solely among the aspects and characteristics of a compositional idiom.

It is obviously very difficult to reconstruct, on the basis of the analysis or secondary sources, Chopin's

creative thinking and the degree of his theoretical awareness. It is also difficult to ascertain what in his

style stems from an intuitive acceptance of tradition and what stems from a creative transformation of

this tradition, or is even an original compositional gesture. Finally, it is still more difficult to point to the

reasons for these transformations, and to answer the question of whether these transformations are a

result of internal laws of development of musical style, or whether they emerged under the influence of

external factors. All the statements and solutions presented here have only an approximate,

hypothetical character.

II.

All the authors of studies of Chopin's sonatas suggest the existence of a connection between his

Sonata in C Minor and Elsner's compositional school. Rosen expresses doubt as tho whether the

essence of the sonata form as such was comprehended in the Warsaw school: "They evidently did not

have very clear ideas about sonatas art there in Warsaw" (Rosen 1988). [26]Opieski assumes that

the point of departure for Elsner's composition teaching was the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart, not

those of Beethoven. One should add that Elsner based his teaching in a greater measure on the

compositional practice of these classical composers than on the codified descriptions of the sonata

form by, for instance, Koch, Galeazzi, or Gervasoni. [27]In any case, Elsner's own compositions,which confirm the universal practice, testify to his awareness of the sonata form. Alina Nowak-

Romanowicz,[28]points to the classical regularity of Elsner's sonata structures, providing proof that in

the Warsaw Szkoa Gwna Muzyki [Main Music School] the principles of the sonata form were very

well known, despite Rosen's suspicions. This regularity pertains to the clear division of the form, the

schematic nature of the period structure and the tonal relationship between the themes in the

exposition and in the recapitulation (major tonicmajor dominant in the exposition and the unification of

the key scheme in the recapitulation with a return to the main key). The characteristic details of

Elsner's sonatas, emphasized by Nowak-Romanowicz are also the motivic kinship of the main and

secondary themes and the appearance, directly after the presentation of the first theme, of a "new"

thematic idea also in the principal keythis gesture is probably borrowed from Mozart (actually it is

derived from the practice of the Italian masters). It is significant, in any case, that a "second thought" of

the main theme ["secondo motivo"] appears in the model of the sonata form described by Galeazzi.

[29]

Therefore, sources for the non-schematic nature of Chopin's Sonata in C Minor can not be discovered

in his educational gaps or lack of knowledge about the works of the classical masters. On the one

hand, the formal scheme had not yet been sanctioned by theory to the degree that it would be later,

especially after the publication of the studies by Reicha, Czerny, and, in particular, A. B. Marx. [30]On

the other hand, there is no reason to consider a sonata composed in 1829 from the point of view of

18th-century music theory. It is known that Chopin tried to avoid ready-made solutions and that he was

not forced to follow them by Elsner.[31]

The most striking feature of Chopin's Sonata in C Minora feature which is also the most divergent

from the normsis not the assumed monothematic character but rather the absence of key changes in

the exposition. The second characteristic feature, which stems from the first, is the lack of prominenceof the second theme, i.e., its absorption by the unified motivic stream. This feature has caused

differences in the interpretation of the exposition by a number of Polish scholars (e.g., Chomiski and

Gob).[32]The same aspect of this piece also led to claims that Chopin did not understand the sonata

form. Despite their differences, both Chomiski and Goab point out that the basic material for the

sonata is provided by two motives appearing in the first measures of the introduction and labeled here


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as motives aand b(See Example 1 or a larger image).

The first section of the exposition (mm. 17-24) is based on motive bwhile the second section (mm.

25-30) on motive a. Both sections are in the same key. In mm. 31-43 a repetition of these sections

occurs with small modifications. While not denying the segmentation of form into phases proposed byGob, we should complement his segmentation by a statement that the main theme consists of two

parts in the same key, similar to the examples from Italian masters mentioned earlier, to the schema

proposed by Galeazzi, and to works by Mozart and Elsner. The transition is based on harmonic

progressions and chromatic passages. New material, which could be interpreted as the traditional

second theme, enters at m. 59, also in the key of C Minor. This material, however, does not introduce

distinctly contrasting elements, but rather indicates a transitory character; the same character can be

distinguished in the closing group. We should note that Reicha points to the possibility that a second

theme may belong to the idea-type he called idees accessoires. [33]Therefore, in this case Chopin

does not transcend the received norms, even though these were not the norms of the sonata form

universally accepted later. Nonetheless, the absence of key contrast in the exposition may be

surprising, especially since Chopin moves this contrast to the recapitulation. The key scheme of the

exposition and the recapitulation in this work is as follows (See Figure 2 or a larger image):

Figure 2 (Table 4): Captions for columns: Introduction / Main theme, motive b/ Main theme, motive a/

Transition / Second Theme / Epilogue. Captions for rows: Exposition / Recapitulation.

The keys appearing in the recapitulation (minor dominant and its parallel minor) are not distant, but they

are typical for the development, rather than the recapitulation. One may conclude (similarly to Reicha'sconception), that in Chopin's Sonata in C Minor the development and the recapitulation constitute one,

integral whole. The novelty introduced by Chopin was the absence of key contrast in the exposition,

which was compensated for by the differentiation between the thematic parts (tonally stable) and the

transitory parts (tonally unstable). In its proportions, the Sonata in C Minor does not differ from

classical sonatas, i.e., the development and the recapitulation together form the longer part (not

counting the repeats) in the proportion of 1:2. Each segment of the form takes about one-third of the

whole ;the recapitulation is somewhat shorter and begins roughly three-fourths through the movement

(the repeated exposition lasts for 89 measures; the development for 90 measures and the

recapitulation for 70 measures). When one takes into account the repetitions, the formal proportion

between the exposition, on the one hand, and the development and recapitulation on the other is 1:1

(178 measures versus 160 measures).

Chopin's subsequent works in sonata form confirm his knowledge of classical rules and proportions ofform, and confirm that this knowledge was coupled with a conscious avoidance of typical tonal

contrasts in the exposition. In the Trio in G Minor for violin, cello and piano, Op. 8, the first theme also

consists of two parts related to each other in terms of their motivic content. Both parts appear in the

main key of G Minor (mm. 1-8 and mm. 9-28). The transition based on harmonic progressions does not

introduce a modulation; also the second theme (mm. 53-60), while more prominently marked than in

the Sonata in C Minor (but short, consisting of 8 measures only), does not bring tonal contrast. In the

closing section of the exposition, however, the second idea from the first theme appears in the key of

E-flat Major in the antecedent and in the key of G Minor in the consequent. This gesture resembles one

used by Haydn.[34]In the recapitulation both parts of the main theme return according to the rulesin

G Minorwhile the second theme (actually an incomplete form of it) is in D Minor, and the second

appearance of the first theme takes place in the key of B-flat Major. Only in the coda is there a unity of

keys.

Already in the Sonata in C Minor Chopin revealed his ability to derive themes from basic motivic cells.

This fact, perhaps, reveals his connection to the North German sonata tradition, which was

characterized by the unity of thematic material and homogeneity of expression, while maintaining an

individuality of themes and the potential for development. [35]Also in the Trio, despite a more distinct


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segmentation of the form, the tendency towards unity is maintained; especially in the themes of the first

movement. Also, in the subsequent movement, the same motivic cells are repeated: (a) the

introductory motive, ascending on the scale degrees (and in inversion, creating a characteristic

cadential formula), (b) the intervals of the fourth and the fifth which provide the basis of the second

idea in the main theme and the second theme in the finale. (see Example 2 or a larger image):

Chopin introduced key contrasts for the first time between themes in the exposition of the Piano

Concerto in F Minor, Op. 21 (1829); moreover, the contrasts follow classical rules: F Minor for the firstsubject and A-flat Major for the second subject. However, in the recapitulation, after the first theme

which is shortened to mere four measures, the second theme enters in the same key as in the

exposition (!), only in the closing segment does it modulate to F Minor. In the Piano Concerto in E

Minor, the second theme appears in E Major, that is again in a key traditionally reserved for the

recapitulation. This theme appears in the recapitulation in the key of G Major; thus Chopin completely

reverses the relationship between exposition and recapitulation.

A question arises whether these kinds of innovations in the domain of tonal relationships in the sonata

form may be justified by artistic reasons, or whether they should be seen as proof of a lack of

professionalism and craftsmanship. Obviously, Chopin's indifference to, or contrariness toward, tonal

contrasts may have been a result of his boredom with the rules and a conscious attempt at breaking

them. Here, I will quote a fragment of Chopin's letter to Tytus Wojciechowskia letter concerning not

the issues of form, but the instrumentation of the Concerto in E Minor, yet indicating this possibility: [36]

Perhaps it is a wrong thing, but why should one be ashamed of writing wrongly despite of

one's knowledge[Z. H.'s emphasis], only the result will show whether it was a mistake or

not. In this probably you may notice my inclination to do wrongly despite my will.

On the other hand, however, Chopin's setup clearly indicates his understanding of sonata-allegro as a

binary form, in which the recapitulation constitutes a continuation of the development, hence the

possibility of continuing a typical "developmental" gesture, i.e., transposition to a different key. In this

way, the recapitulation does not become a realm of literal repetitions of sections from the exposition.

The issue of key in Chopin's sonata allegro forms is also connected to another characteristic feature,

the expansion of the dimensions of the form, which was in turn influenced by the development of the

piano texture and instrumental virtuosity. The virtuosic, figurative sections required a counter-balance inthe form of more developed thematic fragments. According to the classical norms, the exposition was

not supposed to include developmental elements; for instance Reicha in his treatise does not

recommend such means. [37]Chopin expands the dimensions of the themes on the basis of an additive

principle, adding periods and, at times, introducing direct repetitions, as in the Sonata in C Minor. In all


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While discussing the group of Chopin's late sonatas (Sonata in B-flat Minor, Op. 35, Sonata in B Minor,

Op. 58, and the Sonata in G Minor for Piano and Cello,, Op. 65), one should take into consideration

the following factors: (1) common traits and differences with respect to the first group of works

adhering to model of the sonata form, (2) the existence of a formal invariant, Chopin's own model of

the sonata allegro form and the sonata cycle; (3) the issue of transformations of this model within

individual compositions.

It is easy to notice that certain external traits of the sonata, i.e., the four-movement cycle and the

structure of the sonata allegro form, do not change in the three late sonatas. Nonetheless, a different

model of the sonata allegro becomes stabilized in these works; this model is defined by such featuresas: proportions between components of the form (exposition, development, recapitulation), thematic

dualism, the particular character of the second theme, the tri-partite character of the exposition, the

beginning of the recapitulation from second-theme material, the return to the first theme at the end of

the recapitulation, the tonal relationships in the exposition and the recapitulation, the motivic unity of the

themes in the first movement and, possibly, in the whole cycle.

Three late sonatas display, above all, a distinct binary division with exact proportions. The exposition

constitutes the first part, the development and the recapitulation are the second part, divided into two

respective sections. This arrangement closely adheres to the theoretical conception of Reicha ("la

grande coupe binaire"); such a bi-partite character can also be noticed in the Sonata in C Minor and

the Trio (especially in the treatment of the recapitulation), but now the proportions of the parts are

changed. Also at this moment Chopin changes the guidelines proposed by Reicha. What matters in this

case is not the theoretical issue of the bi- or tri-partite nature of the whole sonata-allegro form (as is

well known, opinions are divided in this respect). The binary character of Chopin's sonata-allegro

seems intended because the proportions that are consequently applied in his works differ from the

proportions appearing in sonatas by others, both earlier composers and his contemporaries. Newman

includes the following table which presents the proportions between the exposition, development and

recapitulation in works by several romantic composers (See Figure 4 below or a larger image). [42]

The basis for these calculations was provided by the last two sonatas by Chopin. The dimensions of

the exposition in Chopin's works are evidently larger than in works by other composers; they approach

50% while works by others feature expositions that constitute about 40% of their length. It is

interesting to note that in subsequent sonatas by Chopin, the dimensions of the exposition increase, so

that in the Sonata in B-flat Minor there are 104 measures of exposition and 138 measures of

development with recapitulation (the exposition takes 43% of the whole work); in the Sonata in B Minor

the exposition lasts for 91 measures and the development plus recapitulation for 113 measures (the

exposition takes 44.6% of the duration of the piece); in the Sonata in G Minor the exposition lasts for

114 measures while the development with recapitulation for 122 (48%). Obviously the proportions are

changed even further if the repeats of the expositions are taken into account. In the traditional sonata

form (also in Chopin's sonatas in the 1820's) there is a proportion of 1:1 between the exposition andthe development with recapitulation (this proportion is most distinct in Schumann's music). In contrast,

in Chopin's sonatas a golden ratioappears, with greater or smaller differences of detail. For instance

in the Sonata in B Minor the point of the golden section falls on measure no. 181, that is the beginning

of the development (the whole lasts for 293 measures, the repeated exposition for 180 measures; 293

times 0.618 equals 181). In the Sonata in B-flat Minor, the difference between the point of the golden

section and the beginning of the development is 7 measures; in the Sonata in G Minor this difference is

14 measures. In addition, the golden section plays a certain role in the structure of the exposition: the

segment of the first theme is the shorter part while the segment of the second theme with the epilogue

is the longer part; this proportion is the most exactly articulated in the Sonata in B-flat Minor where the

exposition lasts for 104 measures, the point of the inverted golden section falls at 39,7 measure (104

times 0.382) and the second theme appears in m. 40. In the sonatas in B Minor and G Minor the

differences between the point of the inverted golden section and the entry of the second theme are 6

and 11 measures, respectively.

Beginning with the Sonata in B-flat Minor, Chopin's model of the sonata allegro contains certain

classical invariants, which belong to a well-grounded tradition, as well as individual features perhaps

not introduced by Chopin for the first time, but absorbed and adapted by him in such a fashion that


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these traits became elements of his personal compositional idiom. This model is repeated in the three

sonatas, though there are slight divergencies between them (See Figure 5 below or a larger

image).

Chopin's formal schema. First row: ExpositionDevelopmentRecapitulation; Second

row: 1st theme (minor tonic), 2nd theme (parallel major), epilogue (parallel major); in two

parts, ending on major dominant; 2nd theme (major tonic), epilogue (major tonic), a

reminiscence of 1st theme (major tonic).

All three sonatas are kept in minor keys, therefore the tonal relationships between the themes in the

expositions and in the recapitulations are also similar. It is important to notice what was earlier

emphasized by Rosen, that there is a regularity in key relationships that did not occur in Chopin's

earlier works. [43]The second theme appears in the exposition in the key of the parallel major; this

theme appears in the recapitulation in the key of the major tonic. Only in the Sonata in G Minor does

the epilogue appear in a key different from the second theme. The exposition ends with the chord of

the upper dominant to the main key (in the Sonata in B-flat Minor it is the dominant of the parallel

tonic). The development reveals a clear division into two parts, with internal differentiation into phrases;

it ends with a longer segment based on the function of the dominant to the main key, preparing for the

appearance of the recapitulation. After the repetition of the material from the second theme and theepilogue, a reminiscence of the first theme appears in the closing passages of the movement; this

reminiscence is, however, considerably abbreviated, and marked stretto(in the Sonata in B-flat Minor

and in G Minor).

In contrast to the Sonata in C Minor, both later piano sonatas strongly differentiate between the

character of the first and second themes; their manifest conflict is articulated by the contrast of modes

(major/minor), the tonal centers (minor tonic and its parallel), melodic material, texture, emotional

character, and even the formative principles. It is easy to conclude that the second theme in the

Sonatas in B-flat Minor and B Minor constitutes a certain novumin the sonata genre resulting from

Chopin's preference for crossing different genres, which was noted by earlier scholars, such as Zofia

Lissa. [44]Especially in the Sonata in B Minor the second theme has the clear features of a nocturne.

Chopin's themes do not belong to the category of the so-called "secondary themes" (in German:

"Nebensatz" or "Seitenthema"), but in respect to the function that they play in the whole, they are not in

any way less important than first themes; both themes could be called, to use Reicha's term, idee

mere. Thus, in the sonata allegro form Chopin defines a certain equilibrium between the expansive,

developmental first theme and the lyrical, cantabilesecond theme, which is constructed as a period

and shaped in a variational, rather then evolutionary, fashion.

The character of the second theme also defines the arrangement of the recapitulation which is typical

for Chopin. Beginning the recapitulation from the second theme while bypassing the first theme was not

Chopin's invention. Protopopov indicates that one may notice numerous such examples in pre-classical

sonatas, e.g., by Scarlatti. Chomiski enlists Weber's Sonata in C Major, Op. 24 as a pattern that

Chopin could have followed. [45]Nonetheless, already in his TraiteReicha mentions such a possibility.

The stereotypical explanation, cited by Reicha, connects the beginning of the recapitulation from the

second theme to the domination of the first theme in the development. This explanation does not seemto suffice in the case of Chopin's sonatasin the Sonata in B Minor, for instance, the second theme

also plays a significant role in the development. The reason for Chopin's atypical layout of the

recapitulation is rooted in the different dramaturgy of the form (which, by the way, varies from one

sonata to another). In the piano sonatas in B-flat Minor and in B Minor, the character of the

recapitulation stems from the stabilizing function of the second theme which removes the tensions and

conflicts of the development. The repetition of the first theme would bring a continuation of these

conflicts and not their solution; the conflict could not have been alleviated solely by the introduction of a

unified key. We should also remember that already in his first works in the sonata form, Chopin tried to

avoid exact repetitions in the recapitulation. In the later sonatas the elements of the first theme are

introduced only at the end of the recapitulation (in the stretto) and these elements bring in a recurrence

of increased dramatic tension leading toward the next part of the cycle.

It is obvious that in doing so, Chopin does not change the basic principle of dualism in the sonata

allegro form. He merely intensifies the contrasting character of the themes; moreover, the increased

dimensions and new character of the second theme (which is, as it were, "a form in a form") cause an

interruption in the dynamic development carried by the first theme. In the Sonata in B-flat Minor this

method of continuous "slowing down" or "halting" the expansive nature of the theme is obvious with all


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the elements of the allegro, even in its first four measures. The harmonic content of this section may be

reduced to the sequence of the major dominant of major dominant with an added sixth of the moving to

the Minor tonic. Other scholars have already pointed out the similarity of this gesture to the initial

measures of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111. [46]However, the "realization" is divergent

from the "implication" (to use expressions borrowed from Narmour, 1977).[47](See Example 3 below

or a larger image).

The fifth, C-sharp - G-sharp, superimposed on the E in the bass, harmonically means the alteration of

the fifth in the chord (G-sharp is a leading tone of A and C-sharp=D-flat ). In the presented textural

arrangement a consonant triadic sonority arises, C-sharpEG-sharp; its role is to counterbalance

the activity of the dissonant chord. This temporary stabilization on the consonant sonority still further

increases the character of tension. Thus, the principle is carried out in the whole movement of the

sonata. The increasing dynamic curve of the exposition is thus broken up through stabilization of the

secondary theme; it is only continued in the epilogue. The principle of slowing down and delaying of the

development also rules in the development; e.g., in the first segment, an interlacing of short, restless,

syncopated motives of the first theme and the motives from the introduction of a contrasting character.In the following segment (mm. 122-125, 130-133), the falling melodic line is juxtaposed with the

nervous rhythms in the left hand; and both four-measure units constitute a counterbalance to the

progressions that follow them and lead to a culmination. The recapitulation, with the predominance of

the second theme, introduces a certain equilibrium of two emotional qualities into this pattern.

The differences between the Sonata in B-flat Minor and the Sonata in B Minor define the essence of

transformation in Chopin's approach to the sonata form. The similarities between the realizations of the

model of the sonata-allegro itself are obvious, despite certain small differences, e.g., the use of

different harmonic functions in the closing section of the exposition. The second theme in the Sonata in

B Minor, for instance, articulates the same principles of dualism and contrast that engage all the

possible means as appeared in the Sonata in B-flat Minor. The basic difference lies in the transitions

between the themes. In the Sonata in B- flat Minor the transition is virtually non-existent: the expositionessentially consists of the juxtaposition of two thematic and tonal planes which are connected by a

short modulation. The expansiveness of the first theme in this work stems from its rhythmic and

dynamic features, not from its harmonic traits. In the Sonata in B Minor, however, the harmonic

evolution begins already at the closure of the first group of eight measures; after a fragment based on

chromatic juxtapositions of chords, the music transverses through the keys of B-flat Major, its Minor

parallel(G Minor) and, finally, the Major= subdominant in the key of E Minor, that is in the minor

dominant of the main key. The polyphonic transition remains in the key of D Minor (m. 23-28). It serves

as a intermediary between the first and the second theme; the entry of the latter is prepared by a

prolongation of the dominant. Rosen (1988, 390-392) indicates that this compositional strategy has a

different goal than a simple modulation to the second theme; here, the harmonic evolution becomes a

goal in itself and the transition acquires an independent character. [48]Simultaneously, chromaticism

strongly intensifies in these sections (see Gob).[49]Thus, Chopin extends the polarization of modes,

keys and expressions to the polarization of chromatic and diatonic textures. Rosen suggests that themodel for these aspects of Chopin's Sonata in B Minor was provided by Hummel's Sonata in F-sharp

Minor, Op. 81. In Hummel's work a harmonically-volatile segment appears between the first and the

second theme. However, Rosen's thesis that Chopin could have been influenced only by one, definite

model in this Sonata is not entirely convincing. In this period, the expanding harmonic means

contributed to the articulation of form by causing a greater "openness" of the first theme.

The closing segment of the exposition in the Sonata in B Minor is also transformed in comparison with

the Sonata in B-flat Minor. In the work composed earlier, the closing group increases tonal instability

and anxiety; in the Sonata in B Minor this role is taken over by the modulating transition based on

harmonic progressions and placed between the second theme and the epilogue. Simultaneously, the

epilogue itself, marked dolce, introduces an element of the cantilenacontinuing the mood of the

second subject. On the basis of these features Chomiski claims that "the bourgeois features of theSonata in B Minor are much more prominent than of the Sonata in B-flat Minor." [50]While this opinion

sounds very negative (and methodologically dated), it emphasizes the intensification of lyrical elements

in the Sonata in B Minor. In particular, the epilogue reveals more distinct thematic features and its role

stems from a different dramaturgy of the exposition than the one occurring in the Sonata in B-flat

Minor. The exposition is polarized into two parts, despite an apparent tri-partite division: the first theme


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and the transition have an expansive, open character and the second theme and the epilogue introduce

lyrical, nocturne-like features.

A similar polarization appears in the development. I t is, in principle, bi-partite, with an internal

differentiation of phrases. Whereas in the Sonata in B-flat Minor a culmination follows a phase of

increasing tension, then giving way to a gradual decrease of intensity, in the Sonata in B Minor a return

of the second, cantilene-like theme provides a surprise at the moment of the expected culmination.

Only the closing segment of the development follows a similar pattern to the one presented in the

Sonata in B-flat Minor: a wave of increased tension followed by a prolongation of the major dominant in

the key of the second theme of the recapitulation (B Major). Chominski assumes that at the momentwhen the key of B Major is reached in the development (m. 135) and when the motives from segments

of the main theme enter (m. 137) we are already dealing with the recapitulation, whichin his

interpretationbegins an abbreviated version of the first theme. [51]His conception is difficult to

accept because in all of Chopin's sonatas the recapitulation is always preceded by a extended

prolongation of the major dominant; in the Sonata in B Minor such a dominant prolongation occurs no

earlier than in mm. 142-150. To locate the beginning of the recapitulation at the moment indicated by

Chomiski would, therefore, be completely unjustified dramaturgically.

In addition, it is worthwhile to consider the harmonic structure of Chopin's developments. At first

approach, this structure seems to be very convoluted and very distant from theoretical premises.

Modulations, both in classical and early-romantic developments do not follow a free course, but

proceed according to a concrete plan, for instance by using related keys that are separated by the

intervals of the fifth or the third. In contrast to this model, Chopin's developments bewilder with sudden

modulatory turns and with establishing connections between distant keys. Nonetheless, one may find a

logic in his harmonic progressions. In important, crucial points of the development keys related to the

main key appear according to classical rules. For instance in the Sonata in B-flat Minor the

development begins in the key of F-sharp Minor (i.e., G-flat Minor) and the successive entries of new

segments are marked by the keys of C Minor, F Minor, G Minor, and finally C-flat Major (the lower

mediant of the subdominant in B-flat Major, i.e., the Neapolitan chord) preceding the emergence of the

dominant in B-flat Major. The tonal center is not stabilized between these nodal points and one may

note the incessant flow of the harmonic progressions (e.g., at the beginning of the development) or the

sequences of chords that are mostly related by thirds in the second part of the development.

In the Sonata in B Minor the first part of the development in particular belongs among the most

harmonically convoluted musical fragments in all of Chopin's works. Only its beginning includes relatedkeys: F-sharp Minor, B Minor, and G-sharp Minor. After that, there is a sudden enharmonic modulation

to F Major in m. 104; following a complicated chromatic passage through a series of keys on the flat

side (m. 106-109, see the passage and its harmonic reduction in Example 4 below), the music reaches

first the key of D-flat Major, in which the second theme appears, and finally the key of E-flat Major

(both keys are enharmonically connected to the main key of the Sonata). Therefore, in the second part

of the development (from the moment when the second theme appears) the tonal centers are

stabilized. In contrast, the first segment is generally unstable. This is one more proof for Chopin's

conscious creation of the dramaturgical conception of this work.

The chromatic passage mentioned above deserves a closer scrutiny; while this sequence of

arpeggiated chords seemingly does not have any functional connections, it actually represents a

chromatic passage of voices moving in a descending direction, the harmonization of this passage is

based on the enharmonic polyvalence of meanings of diminished chords and of chords with alteredfifths (See Example 4 below or a larger image):

IV.


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The Sonata in G Minor for piano and cello, composed shortly after the Sonata in B Minor again

bewilders with the diversity of its formal solutions while preserving the same, unchangeable

architectural framework. First of all, Chopin abandons the principle of sharply-delineated contrasts by

creating a sonata-allegro form that still includes many themes, yet is more homogeneous in its

expressive aspects. The main theme consists of two ideas in the same key of G Minor, both lyrical and

cantabile(mm. 1-20 and 24-41); these ideas are separated by a short transition. A delayed second

motive plays an essential role in their integration; this motive appears in m. 2 and 4 of the piano part,

m. 8 and 10 in the cello part, as well asin inversionas the motive opening the second thematic idea

in m. 24. One could say that in structuring the first theme Chopin returns to a formal conception fromthe first period of his creative output (the main theme consisting of two ideas in the same key; the

homogeneity of expression). The difference between the Sonata in G Minor and its predecessors lies

in the expansion of the theme into a whole thematic group, on the one hand, and on the transformation

of the syntax, on the other hand. Only at the beginning does one perceive the "pulsation" of segments

consisting of 2, 4 and 8 measures; such phrasing structure is typical in Chopin's music. In the following

passage the cadences are not simultaneous in the parts of the cello and the piano; at the same time,

Chopin avoids closing musical ideas with cadences that consist of the major dominant resolving to the

minor tonic. Moreover, he does not separate individual segments with pauses or rests, thus creating

fluid transitions between subsequent phrases. In Chopin literature this melodic continuumreceived the

name of Chopin's "unendliche Melodie" (term from Rothstein 1988). [52]The fluid motion is articulated,

to a large extent, by harmonic means; despite the general expansion of the repertoire of harmonic

means the elements of developmental harmony do not occur within the main theme (as they do in theSonata in B Minor).

The introduction of the second theme is both original and new. The arpeggiated transition, bringing in at

first a shift to the key of A-flat Major, ends with a return of the key of G Minor and a suspension of

motion on the major dominantthat is with a way of introducting a new theme that was characteristic

for Chopin. Meanwhile, however, an eight-measure modulatory passage appears after a pause (it is

again marked dolce); this passage leads to the key of the second theme, i.e., B Major. The entry of

the second theme in a key that has not been stabilized after the expected resolution of the dominant

brings in a degree of surprise; Chopin's way of beginning the theme with a modulatory passage is also

a new gesture. The second theme is marked by a noticeable intensification of harmonic motion, similar

to the one occuring in the transition to the second theme during the stabilization of the key of B-flat

Major (in mm. 84-87); a modulation to the key of D Minor follows and a new theme appears with an

expressive marking of dolcewhich is characteristic for most themes of this sonata. This time, however,

the epilogue of the exposition becomes a third theme: it is characterized by a greater independence

than the typical themes of closing groups (i.e., it is an "idee mere" and not an "idee accessoire").

Therefore, we are dealing with an exposition that includes three themes and three keys (G Minor

B-flat MajorD Minor). Expositions of a similar type occur already in Schubert's sonatas. [53]The

layout of the development in Chopin's Sonata in G Minor resembles the developments in both piano

sonatas by Chopin discussed earlier: the intensification towards the climax in the first phase, the

appearance of the second idea from the main theme in the key of D Minor at the climax (forte) followed

by the idea's transposition to the key of E Minor. The second wave of intensified tension leads to the

appearance of the first motive from the main theme in a strettofollowed by a phase of decrease

(diminuendo) based on the sustained dominant in A Minor that serves to prepare the recapitulation.

Here, Chopin repeats a gesture from the exposition. The key of A Minor does not turn out to be the key

of the recapitulation. The entry of the second theme after the return of the dominant Major in A Minorhas a modulatory character and leads to the tonic major, i.e., the key of G Major (in m. 185). The third

theme, however, recurs in the main key of G Minor. In this way, Chopin emphasizes the expressive

homogeneity of this movement. In the conclusionas in the previous sonatasthe initial ideas from the

main theme make a brief appearance in stretto. Even if the basic Chopinesque architectural model is

repeated in the Sonata in G Minor, its realization leads to a different internal form and to different

solutions of the dramatic flow of the work.

V.

The subsequent movements in the sonata cycle only seemingly are subjected to unified formalprinciples; in every sonata Chopin endows these movements with different characteristics. Thus, the

character of the scherzo is completely different in the Sonata in B-flat Minor (dramatic, filled with

contrasts, resembling self-standing scherzos by Chopin) than in the Sonata in B Minor (light,

ephemeral) or in the Sonata in G Minor (lyrical, without strong contrasts). The slow movements also


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reveal diverse physiognomies in each of these sonatas: a funeral march, a nocturne, and a brief

intermezzo in the Sonata in G Minor. In contrast, the finales of both piano sonatas, in B-flat Minor and

in B Minor, share many common features both with each other and with the sonata rondos from

Chopin's early period. Nonetheless, even in these works one may distinguish diverse formal solutions.

For instance a binary layout appears in the Sonata in B Minor (it occurs in Chopin's earlier music; see

Figure 6 below or a larger image).

However, in comparison with rondos from the Sonata in C Minor and the Trio in G Minor, in the Sonata

in B Minor themes do not appear in the main key and are presented in transposition to different keys (E

Minor and E-flat Major). Only towards the end does the main key return with its parallel Major variant,

G Major. In the Sonata in G Minor for Cello and Piano the rondo includes three different themes. (See

Figure 7 below or a larger image ):

At the same time, Chopin retains the principle of the sonata recapitulation, i.e., the main theme always

returns in the main key.

Only the Sonata in B-flat Minor features a finale that is structured in a different fashion; it is not

accidental that Schumann called it "a sphinx." Cholopov put forward a hypothesis that this finale

displays the characteristics of a rondo form. [54]It is difficult to agree with this hypothesis, even

though it would have confirmed the existence of a unified model of Chopin's finales which is presented

in my study. It is true that in the finale of the Sonata in B-flat Minor a binary arrangement appears,

because in m. 39, that is more or less in the middle of this movement, a kind of recapitulation emerges

with the repetition of the first eight measures of this movement. Thematic contrasts and changes of

texture occur in other rondos in Chopin's finales; however, the isomorphic finale of the Sonata in B- flat

Minor is closer to Chopin's evolutionary forms with a hidden periodicity, i.e., to certain preludes and

etudes that were composed at the same time (e.g. Prelude in E-flat Minor, and Prelude in E-flat Major

from, Op. 28, 1838-39; Etude in B Minor, Op. 25 no. 10, 1835-37).

The issue of integration of Chopin's sonata cycles often recurs in the literature of the subject. If these

sonatas were initially described as amalgams of non-related movements, later authors (e.g.

Leichentritt) began to discover their connections to the "principe cyclique." Opieski and Chomiski

reject Leichtentritt's thesis about the motivic unity of themes in the first movement of the Sonata in

B-flat Minor. [55]Meanwhile, the link of these themes via a motivic cell consisting of the intervals of

thirds and seconds seems distinct enough to not allow us to deny the possibility of its conscious use as

a means of integration, especially that this cell occurs in the Funeral Marchas well. Since the Funeral

Marchwas composed earlier than the other movements of this Sonata, it is highly probable that its

melodic line became the source for further thematic ideas. The connection of the beginning of the

Finale to the main motive of the whole sonata is more obvious; this connection was already pointed out

by scholars researching Chopin's sonatas. [56]In the Sonata in B Minor integration by means of

common intervallic cells plays perhaps a less prominent role; as Chomiski has already pointed out.[57]it appears more prominently in the Sonata in G Minor. In addition to the motive based on seconds

which connects all the movements in this sonata cycle, one may also emphasize the integrative role of

the rhythmic motive (Beethoven's "motive of fate") in the first and the last movements of the Sonata.

(See Figure 8 below or a larger image):


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The method of integrating thematic material with intervallic cells is derived from Beethoven and already

appeared in Chopin's early period. Therefore, it may be described as a characteristic stylistic feature,

even though it does not constitute a highly significant factor in the transformations of Chopin's style.

The Sonata in G Minor, for instance, does not constitute an apex in the development of the sonata form

in Chopin's music; it is only one of the varieties of Chopin's model of the sonata.

VI.

The analysis of Chopin's sonatas leads to the following conclusions:

In all of Chopin's sonatas the four-movement sonata cycle appears with a stable arrangements

of the movement and the sonata-allegro form featuring a classical division into a repeated

exposition followed by the development and recapitulation. There are no noticeable attempts at

breaking the norms of the genre.

1.

The internal organization of the form in the sonatas provides a basis for distinguishing two main

groups of Chopin's works: the first group including sonata cycles composed before 1830 and

the second consisting of three sonatas from the late period.

2.

In the early period Chopin alluded to various traditions of the sonata-allegro form while avoiding

the most common schema which was accepted by music theory. His individuality was expressedin his custom of maintaining the expositions in a unified key and of moving the tonal contrasts to

the recapitulation.

3.

The transformation of Chopin's style around the year 1837 probably resulted not from his return

to the sonata genre (that he had abandoned in the intervening years), but from the changes in

the internal organization of the sonata-allegro form and the simultaneous transformation of

musical language.

4.

In Chopin's late sonatas the model of the sonata-allegro form is stabilized; this model maintains

classical traits with a distinct binary division that is defined by the proportions of the forms, key

schemes, the habitual beginning of the recapitulation with the second theme, and the

appearance of reminiscences from the first theme at the end (in stretto).

5.

Almost all of Chopin's sonata cycles are marked, to a greater or smaller extent, by a tendency

to unify thematic material of the individual movements, or of the whole cycle with recurrent, brief

melodic cells.

6.


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Independently of the common model that provided a general, compositional framework, each of

Chopin's late sonatas is marked by its individual traits and constitutes a particular variant of the

model. The individuation is connected to the transformation of musical language in the late

period and to the dramatic conception of the sonata-allegro form and the whole sonata cycle.

7.

As one could assume, the transformation of Chopin's approach to the sonata form after 1837

resulted from an enrichment of Chopin's artistic experiences and a deepening of his musical

knowledge and his creative experiences after his departure for Paris. Chopin's creative

awareness, despite his attachment to tradition, was shaped by romantic tendencies that

inspired a novel way of thinking and stimulated the emergence of individual solutions andconcepts. The reasons for this stylistic transformation are, on the one hand, internal-musical and

linked to the domain of compositional invention; on the other, they belong in the ideological

atmosphere of Chopin's times and milieu. In respect to sonata forms, Chopin definitely remains

in the sphere of classical influences, in the domain of active norms. As a romantic creator,

however, he searched for new solutions. That is why each of his sonatas has an individual

dramatic form.

8.

Abstract

Author's BiographyPMJCurrent Issue

NOTES:

[1]. Zdzisaw Jachimecki, Chopin. Rys ycia i twrczoci[Chopin. An outline of life and works]

(Krakw: PWM, 1957); Henryk Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina, ich oceny i ich wartokonstrukcyjna"

[Chopin's sonatas, their evaluations and their constructive values], Kwartalnik Muzycznyno. 1 (1928)

and no. 2 (1929); Jzef Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina[Chopin's Sonatas] (Krakw: PWM, 1960). [Back]

[2]. Friedrich Niecks, Friedrich Chopin als Mensch und als Musiker, vol. 1-2 (Leipzig, 1890); James

Huneker, Chopin. The Man and His Music(New York, 1900); Vincent d'Indy, Cours de compositionmusicale, vol. 2 (Paris, 1909); Hugo Leichtentritt,Analyse der Chopin'schen Klavierwerken, vols. 1-2

(Berlin, 1921, 1922). [Back]

[3]. August Halm, Von zwei Kulturen der Musik(Munich, 1920); Ernst Kurth, Die romantische

Harmonik and ihre Krise in Wagners "Tristan"(Bern-Leipzig, 1920); Hans Mersmann,Angewandte

Musikasthetik(Berlin, 1926). [Back]

[4]. Jzef Chomiski, Preludia Chopina(Krakw: PWM, 1950); Sonaty Chopina(Krakw: PWM,

1960). [Back]

[5]. Niecks, Chopin als Mensch, 1890, vol. 2, 250; Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina," 1929, 159. [Back]

[6]. Jachimecki, Chopin, 1957, 279; Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 1960, 255, and 81. [Back]

[7]. Wodzimierz Protopopov, "Forma cyklu sonatowego w utworach F. Chopina," [The form of sonata

cycle in the works by Chopin], in Polsko-rosyjskie miscellanea muzyczne, Zofia Lissa, ed. (Krakw:

PWM, 1967), 128-129. [Back]

[8]. Andrzej Chodkowski, "Kilka uwag o Trio fortepianowym Fryderyka Chopina" [Some remarks about

Chopin's Piano Trio], Rocznik Chopinowskivol. 14 (1982). [Back]

[9]. Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina," 161. Wodzimierz Protopopov, "Nowa interpretacja klasycznych form

muzycznych w utworach Chopina" [New interpretation of classical musical forms in the works by

Chopin], Rocznik Chopinowski, vol. 19 (1987): 128-9, 26. [Back]

[10]. Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 276. [Back]


[12]. Leichtentritt,Analysevol. 2, 212 and 250. [Back]


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[13]. Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 176, 190, 195, 201, 249. [Back]

[14]. Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 259, 333. [Back]

[15]. William S. Newman, The Sonata since Beethoven. A History of the Sonata Idea, vol. 3 (Chapel

Hill: Prentice Hall, 1969); Charles Rosen, Sonata Forms(New York and London, 1988). [Back]

[16]. Newman, The Sonata, 109-113. [Back]

[17]. Rosen, Sonata Forms, 365. [Back]

[18]. Anton Reicha, Traite de haute composition musicale(Paris, 1824-26); Anton Reicha,

Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der musikalischen Composition, vol.4, trans. Carl Czerny (Wien: bei A.

Diabelli und Comp, 1834). Reicha, School of Practical Composition, vol. 1-3 (London, 1849); Adolf

Bernhard Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1845).

The term "sonata form" [Sonatenform) was introduced by Czerny in theAppendix of the Translator

[Zusatz des Ubersetzers) to the first part of his edition of the treatise by Reicha. This name refers

there to the whole sonata cycle and not to the form of the first movement of this cycle, even though

Czerny did include a concise description of its structure. The form "sonata form" in reference to the first

movement of the whole cycle was probably first used by A.B. Marx; see Ian Bent, "Analysis," in The

New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Stanley Sadie, ed. (London: McMillan, 1980), vol. 1.

[Back]

[19]. Heinrich Christoph Koch, Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition, Vol. 1-3 (Leipzig, Rudolstadt

1782, Leipzig 1787, Leipzig 1793; reprint Hildesheim 1969), 301; Francesco Galeazzi, Elementi

teorico-pratici di musica, vol. 2 (Rome, 1796). [Back]

[20]. Carl Dahlhaus, "Der rhetorische Formbegriff H. Ch. Kochs und die Theorie der Sonatenform,"

Archiv fur Musikwissenschaft35, no. 3 (1978): 155-177. [Back]

[21]. Reicha, Traite, vol. 4, 1158-1165. [Back]

[22]. Reicha, Traite, vol. 4, 1163, note. [Back]


[24]. Dahlhaus, "Der rhetorische Formbegriff." [Back]

[25]. Leonard B. Meyer, Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology (Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press, 1989). [Back]


[27]. Koch, Versuch; Galeazzi, Elementi; Carlo Gervasoni, La scuola della musica(Piacenza, 1800).

[Back]

[28]. Alina Nowak-Romanowicz, Jzef Elsner(Krakw: PWM, 1957), 41. [Back]

[29]. Nowak-Romanowicz, Elsner, 42. [Back]

[30]. It is doubtful whether Chopin knew Reicha's theory in the period of composing his Sonata in C

Minor. We have no testimonies to the fact that he learnt about it later, even though from his

correspondence with Elsner one may surmise that he was interested in Reicha. While classifying

Reicha in the comical category of "shrivelled bottoms" [suszone pupki], Chopin simultaneously stated

that "one can learn from their works." See: Bronis aw E. Sydow, ed., Korespondencja Fryderyka

Chopina[Correspondence of F.Ch.], vol. 1 (Warsaw: PIW, 1955), 193, 206. [Back]

[31]. On 27 November 1831 Elsner wrote to Chopin: "In teaching composition one does not need to

give recipes, in particular to the disciples whose abilities are apparent, let them find the rules by

themselves, so that at times they could transcend themselves, let them have means to discover what

was not discover as yet." See Sydow, Korespondencjavol. 1, 197. [Back]

[32]. Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina," 154; Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 28-50; Maciej Gob, Chromatyka

i tonalnow muzyce Chopina[Chromaticism and Tonality in Chopin's Music] (Krakw: Musica

Iagellonica, 1991), 104-108. [Back]


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[33]. Reicha, Traite, vol. 4, 1164. [Back]

[34]. Chopin later repeated this gesture in his Allegro de concertwhere both the first and second

themes appear in the key of A Major, while, after a figurative transition the first theme enters again in

the key of E Major, i.e. in the key of upper dominant. [Back]

[35]. Rosen, Sonata Forms, 133ff. [Back]

[36]. Sydow, Korespondencja, vol. 1, 125. [Back]

[37]. Reicha, Traite, 1159. [Back]

[38]. Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina," 154; Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 61-80. [Back]

[39]. Reicha, Traite, 1169. [Back]

[40]. Newman, The Sonata, 39. [Back]

[41]. For a discussion of Schumann's case see Newman, The Sonata, 41-42. [Back]

[42]. Newman, The Sonata, 148. [Back]


[44]. Zofia Lissa, ed., The Book of the First International Musicological Congress Devoted to the

Works of Frederick Chopin, Warsaw 16-22 February 1960 (Warsaw: PWN, 1963), 207-212. [Back]

[45]. Protopopov, "Nowa interpretacja," 26; Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 21. [Back]

[46]. Protopopov, "Nowa interpretacja," 27. [Back]

[47]. Eugene Narmour, Beyond Schenkerism: The Need for Alternatives in Music Analysis(Chicago,

London, 1977). [Back]

[48]. Rosen, Sonata Forms, 390-392. [Back]

[49]. Maciej Gob, Chromatyka, 171. [Back]


[51]. Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 212-123. [Back]

[52]. William Rothstein, "Phrase Rhythm in Chopin's Nocturnes and Mazurkas," in Chopin Studies, ed.

Jim Samson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). Jurij Cholopov, O zasadach kompozycji

Chopina: zagadka finau Sonaty b-moll, Rocznik Chopinowski, vol. 19 (1987). [Back]

[53]. See Rosen, Sonata Forms, 353-364. [Back]

[54]. Jurij Cholopov, "O zasadach kompozycji Chopina: Zagadka finalu Sonaty b-moll [About Chopin's

compositional principles: the mystery of the finale of the Sonata in B-flat Minor], Rocznik Chopinowskivol. 19 (1987: 233-234. [Back]

[55]. Opieski, "Sonaty Chopina," 68; Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 106-107. [Back]

[56]. See Leichentritt,Analyse, 212-213, 250ff. Also see Chomiski, Sonaty Chopina, 164; Cholopov,

"O zasadach," 220-221. [Back]

[57]. Chomiski, 1960, 305ff. [Back]

Copyright 2000 by Zofia Helman.

Editor: Maja Trochimczyk. Publisher: Polish Music Center

Design: Maja Trochimczyk & Marcin Depiski. Summer 2000.


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Norms and Individuation in Chopin's Sonatas (Zofia Helman)

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