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Coated 200 mg tablets of generic ibuprofen, a

common NSAID

NSAID identification on label of

generic ibuprofen, an OTC NSAID

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviatedto NSAIDs /ˈɛnsɛd/ EN-sed), also called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics (NSAIAs) or nonsteroidalanti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs), are a class ofdrugs that provides analgesic (pain-killing) and antipyretic(fever-reducing) effects, and, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects.

The term nonsteroidal distinguishes these drugs fromsteroids, which, among a broad range of other effects, have asimilar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. Asanalgesics, NSAIDs are unusual in that they are non-narcotic andthus are used as a non-addictive alternative to narcotics.

The most prominent members of this group of drugs, Aspirin,ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most

countries.[1] Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally notconsidered an NSAID because it has only little anti-inflammatoryactivity. It treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the

central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the body.[2]

Most NSAIDs inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) andcyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and thereby, the synthesis ofprostaglandins and thromboxanes. It is thought that inhibitingCOX-2 leads to the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyreticeffects and that those NSAIDs also inhibiting COX-1, particularly

aspirin, may cause gastrointestinal bleeding and ulcers.[3]

Contents

1 Medical uses2 Contraindications

3 Adverse effects

3.1 Combinational risk

3.2 Cardiovascular3.3 Possible erectile dysfunction risk

3.4 Gastrointestinal

3.5 Inflammatory bowel disease3.6 Renal

3.7 Photosensitivity

3.8 During pregnancy

3.9 Other

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3.10 Drug interactions4 Mechanism of action

4.1 Antipyretic activity

5 Classification

5.1 Salicylates5.2 Propionic acid derivatives

5.3 Acetic acid derivatives

5.4 Enolic acid (Oxicam) derivatives5.5 Anthranilic acid derivatives (Fenamates)

5.6 Selective COX-2 inhibitors (Coxibs)

5.7 Sulfonanilides5.8 Others

5.9 Chirality

5.10 Main practical differences

6 Pharmacokinetics7 History

8 Veterinary use

9 References

Medical uses

NSAIDs are usually used for the treatment of acute or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation arepresent. Research continues into their potential for prevention of colorectal cancer.

NSAIDs are generally used for the symptomatic relief of the following conditions:[4][5]

Osteoarthritis[5][6]

Rheumatoid arthritis[7]

Mild-to-moderate pain due to inflammation and tissue injury[5]

Low back pain[5][8]

Inflammatory arthropathies (e.g., ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis)

Tennis elbow[9]

Headache[5]

migraine[4]

Acute gout[4]

Dysmenorrhoea (menstrual pain)[4]

Metastatic bone pain[4]

Postoperative pain[4]

Muscle stiffness and pain due to Parkinson's disease[4]

Pyrexia (fever)[4]

Ileus[4]

Renal colic[4]

They are also given to neonate infants whose ductus arteriosus is not closed within 24 hours of birth[4]

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Aspirin, the only NSAID able to irreversibly inhibit COX-1, is also indicated for inhibition of plateletaggregation. This is useful in the management of arterial thrombosis and prevention of adversecardiovascular events. Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation by inhibiting the action of thromboxane A2.

Contraindications

NSAIDs may be used with caution by people with the following conditions:[5]

Irritable bowel syndrome[5]

Persons who are over age 50, and who have a family history of GI problems[5]

Persons who have had past GI problems from NSAID use[5]

NSAIDs should usually be avoided by people with the following conditions:[5]

Adverse effects

The widespread use of NSAIDs has meant that the adverse effects of these drugs have become increasingly

common. Use of NSAIDs increases risk of having a range of gastrointestinal (GI) problems.[10] When

NSAIDs are used for pain management after surgery they cause increased risk of kidney problems.[11]

An estimated 10-20% of NSAID patients experience dyspepsia. In the 1990s high doses of prescription

NSAIDs were associated with serious upper gastrointestinal adverse events, including bleeding.[12] Over thepast decade, deaths associated with gastric bleeding have declined.

NSAIDs, like all drugs, may interact with other medications. For example, concurrent use of NSAIDs andquinolones may increase the risk of quinolones' adverse central nervous system effects, including

seizure.[13][14]

Combinational risk

They are also given to neonate infants whose ductus arteriosus is not closed within 24 hours of birth

Peptic ulcer or stomach bleeding[5]

Uncontrolled hypertension[5]

Kidney disease[5]

Past transient ischemic attack (excluding aspirin)[5]

Past stroke (excluding aspirin)[5]

Past myocardial infarction (excluding aspirin)[5]

Coronary artery disease (excluding aspirin)[5]

Undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery[5]

Taking aspirin for heart[5]

In third trimester of pregnancy[5]

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If a COX-2 inhibitor is taken, a traditional NSAID (prescription or over-the-counter) should not be taken at

the same time.[15] In addition, people on daily aspirin therapy (e.g., for reducing cardiovascular risk) mustbe careful if they also use other NSAIDs, as these may inhibit the cardioprotective effects of aspirin.

Rofecoxib (Vioxx) was shown to produce significantly fewer gastrointestinal ADRs compared with

naproxen.[16] This study, the VIGOR trial, raised the issue of the cardiovascular safety of the coxibs. Astatistically insignificant increase in the incidence of myocardial infarctions was observed in patients onrofecoxib. Further data, from the APPROVe trial, showed a statistically significant relative risk of

cardiovascular events of 1.97 versus placebo[17]—which caused a worldwide withdrawal of rofecoxib inOctober 2004.

Use of methotrexate together with NSAIDS in rheumatoid arthritis is safe, if adequate monitoring is

done.[18]

Cardiovascular

NSAIDs aside from aspirin, both newer selective COX-2 inhibitors and traditional anti-inflammatories,

increase the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke.[19][20] They are not recommended in those who have

had a previous heart attack as they increase the risk of death and / or recurrent MI.[21] Evidence indicates

that naproxen may be the least harmful out of these.[20][22]

NSAIDs aside from (low-dose) aspirin are associated with a doubled risk of heart failure in people without a

history of cardiac disease.[22] In people with such a history, use of NSAIDs (aside from low-dose aspirin)

was associated with a more than 10-fold increase in heart failure.[23] If this link is proven causal,researchers estimate that NSAIDs would be responsible for up to 20 percent of hospital admissions forcongestive heart failure. In people with heart failure, NSAIDs increase mortality risk (hazard ratio) byapproximately 1.2-1.3 for naproxen and ibuprofen, 1.7 for rofecoxib and celecoxib, and 2.1 for

diclofenac.[24]

On 9 July 2015, the FDA toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated withnonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). Aspirin is an NSAID but is not affected by the new

warnings.[25]

Possible erectile dysfunction risk

A 2005 Finnish study linked long term (over 3 months) use of NSAIDs with an increased risk of erectile

dysfunction.[26] This study was correlational only, and depended solely on self-reports (questionnaires).

A 2011 publication[27] in the Journal of Urology received widespread publicity.[28] According to this study,men who used NSAIDs regularly were at significantly increased risk of erectile dysfunction. A link betweenNSAID use and erectile dysfunction still existed after controlling for several conditions. However, the studywas observational and not controlled, with low original participation rate, potential participation bias, and

other uncontrolled factors. The authors warned against drawing any conclusion regarding cause.[29]

Gastrointestinal

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The main adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with NSAID use relate to direct and indirect irritation ofthe gastrointestinal (GI) tract. NSAIDs cause a dual assault on the GI tract: the acidic molecules directlyirritate the gastric mucosa, and inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 reduces the levels of protectiveprostaglandins. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis in the GI tract causes increased gastric acid secretion,diminished bicarbonate secretion, diminished mucus secretion and diminished trophic effects on epithelialmucosa.

Common gastrointestinal ADRs include:[4]

Nausea/VomitingDyspepsia

Gastric ulceration/bleeding.[30]

Diarrhea

Clinical NSAID ulcers are related to the systemic effects of NSAID administration. Such damage occursirrespective of the route of administration of the NSAID (e.g., oral, rectal, or parenteral) and can occur even

in patients with achlorhydria.[31]

Ulceration risk increases with therapy duration, and with higher doses. To minimise GI ADRs, it is prudentto use the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time—a practice that studies show is often notfollowed. Recent studies show that over 50% of patients who take NSAIDs have sustained some mucosal

damage to their small intestine.[32]

There are also some differences in the propensity of individual agents to cause gastrointestinal ADRs.Indomethacin, ketoprofen and piroxicam appear to have the highest prevalence of gastric ADRs, while

ibuprofen (lower doses) and diclofenac appear to have lower rates.[4]

Certain NSAIDs, such as aspirin, have been marketed in enteric-coated formulations that manufacturersclaim reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal ADRs. Similarly, some believe that rectal formulations mayreduce gastrointestinal ADRs. However, considering the mechanism of such ADRs, and in clinical practice,

these formulations have not demonstrated a reduced risk of GI ulceration.[4]

Commonly, gastric (but not necessarily intestinal) adverse effects can be reduced through suppressing acidproduction, by concomitant use of a proton pump inhibitor, e.g., omeprazole, esomeprazole; or theprostaglandin analogue misoprostol. Misoprostol is itself associated with a high incidence of gastrointestinalADRs (diarrhea). While these techniques may be effective, they are expensive for maintenance therapy.

Inflammatory bowel disease

NSAIDs should be used with caution in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease orulcerative colitis) due to their tendency to cause gastric bleeding and form ulceration in the gastric lining.Pain relievers such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) or drugs containing codeine (whichslows down bowel activity) are safer medications for pain relief in IBD.

Renal

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NSAIDs are also associated with a relatively high incidence of renal adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Themechanism of these renal ADRs is due to changes in renal haemodynamics (kidney blood flow), ordinarilymediated by prostaglandins, which are affected by NSAIDs. Prostaglandins normally cause vasodilation ofthe afferent arterioles of the glomeruli. This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and glomerularfiltration rate (GFR), an indicator of renal function. This is particularly important in renal failure where thekidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevatedlevels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferentarteriole it normally constricts. Prostaglandins serve to dilate the afferent arteriole; by blocking thisprostaglandin-mediated effect, particularly in renal failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of theafferent arteriole and decreased RPF (renal perfusion pressure).

Common ADRs associated with altered renal function include:[4]

Salt (Sodium) and fluid retentionHypertension (high blood pressure)

These agents may also cause renal impairment, especially in combination with other nephrotoxic agents.Renal failure is especially a risk if the patient is also concomitantly taking an ACE inhibitor (which removesangiotensin II's vasoconstriction of the efferent arteriole) and a diuretic (which drops plasma volume, and

thereby RPF)—the so-called "triple whammy" effect.[33]

In rarer instances NSAIDs may also cause more severe renal conditions:[4]

Interstitial nephritisNephrotic syndromeAcute renal failureAcute tubular necrosis

NSAIDs in combination with excessive use of phenacetin and/or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may lead to

analgesic nephropathy.[34]

Photosensitivity

Photosensitivity is a commonly overlooked adverse effect of many of the NSAIDs.[35] The 2-arylpropionicacids are the most likely to produce photosensitivity reactions, but other NSAIDs have also been implicatedincluding piroxicam, diclofenac and benzydamine.

Benoxaprofen, since withdrawn due to its hepatotoxicity, was the most photoactive NSAID observed. Themechanism of photosensitivity, responsible for the high photoactivity of the 2-arylpropionic acids, is theready decarboxylation of the carboxylic acid moiety. The specific absorbance characteristics of the differentchromophoric 2-aryl substituents, affects the decarboxylation mechanism. While ibuprofen has weakabsorption, it has been reported as a weak photosensitising agent.

During pregnancy

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NSAIDs are not recommended during pregnancy, particularly during the third trimester. While NSAIDs as aclass are not direct teratogens, they may cause premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus and renal

ADRs in the fetus. Additionally, they are linked with premature birth[36] and miscarriage.[37][38] Aspirin,

however, is used together with heparin in pregnant women with antiphospholipid antibodies.[39]

Additionally, Indomethacin is used in pregnancy to treat polyhydramnios by reducing fetal urine productionvia inhibiting fetal renal blood flow.

In contrast, paracetamol (acetaminophen) is regarded as being safe and well-tolerated during pregnancy,but Leffers et al. released a study in 2010 indicating that there may be associated male infertility in the

unborn.[40][41] Doses should be taken as prescribed, due to risk of hepatotoxicity with overdoses.[42]

In France, the country's health agency contraindicates the use of NSAIDs, including aspirin, after the sixth

month of pregnancy.[43]

Other

Common adverse drug reactions (ADR), other than listed above, include: raised liver enzymes, headache,

dizziness.[4] Uncommon ADRs include: hyperkalaemia, confusion, bronchospasm, rash.[4] Rapid and severeswelling of the face and/or body. Ibuprofen may also rarely cause irritable bowel syndrome symptoms.NSAIDs are also implicated in some cases of Stevens–Johnson syndrome.

Most NSAIDs penetrate poorly into the central nervous system (CNS). However, the COX enzymes areexpressed constitutively in some areas of the CNS, meaning that even limited penetration may cause adverseeffects such as somnolence and dizziness.

In very rare cases, ibuprofen can cause aseptic meningitis.[44]

As with other drugs, allergies to NSAIDs might exist. While many allergies are specific to one NSAID, up to 1

in 5 people may have unpredictable cross-reactive allergic responses to other NSAIDs as well.[45]

Drug interactions

NSAIDs reduce renal blood flow and thereby decrease the efficacy of diuretics, and inhibit the elimination of

lithium and methotrexate.[46]

NSAIDs cause hypocoagulability, which may be serious when combined with other drugs that also decrease

blood clotting, such as warfarin.[46]

NSAIDs may aggravate hypertension (high blood pressure) and thereby antagonize the effect of

antihypertensives,[46] such as ACE Inhibitors.[47]

NSAIDs may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRI antidepressants[48][49]

Various widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) enhance endocannabinoid signaling by

blocking the anandamide-degrading membrane enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH).[50]

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Mechanism of action

Most NSAIDs act as nonselective inhibitors of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), inhibiting both thecyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. This inhibition is competitivelyreversible (albeit at varying degrees of reversibility), as opposed to the mechanism of aspirin, which is

irreversible inhibition.[51] COX catalyzes the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxane fromarachidonic acid (itself derived from the cellular phospholipid bilayer by phospholipase A2). Prostaglandins

act (among other things) as messenger molecules in the process of inflammation. This mechanism of actionwas elucidated by John Vane (1927–2004), who received a Nobel Prize for his work (see Mechanism ofaction of aspirin).

COX-1 is a constitutively expressed enzyme with a "house-keeping" role in regulating many normalphysiological processes. One of these is in the stomach lining, where prostaglandins serve a protective role,preventing the stomach mucosa from being eroded by its own acid. COX-2 is an enzyme facultativelyexpressed in inflammation, and it is inhibition of COX-2 that produces the desirable effects of NSAIDs.

When nonselective COX-1/COX-2 inhibitors (such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen) lower stomachprostaglandin levels, ulcers of the stomach or duodenum internal bleeding can result.

NSAIDs have been studied in various assays to understand how they affect each of these enzymes. While the

assays reveal differences, unfortunately different assays provide differing ratios.[52]

The discovery of COX-2 led to research to development of selective COX-2 inhibiting drugs that do notcause gastric problems characteristic of older NSAIDs.

Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is not considered an NSAID because it has little anti-inflammatory activity. Ittreats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the

body.[2]

However, many aspects of the mechanism of action of NSAIDs remain unexplained, and for this reasonfurther COX pathways are hypothesized. The COX-3 pathway was believed to fill some of this gap but recentfindings make it appear unlikely that it plays any significant role in humans and alternative explanation

models are proposed.[2]

NSAIDs are also used in the acute pain caused by gout because they inhibit urate crystal phagocytosis

besides inhibition of prostaglandin synthase.[53]

Antipyretic activity

NSAIDS have antipyretic activity and can be used to treat fever.[54][55] Fever is caused by elevated levelsof prostaglandin E2, which alters the firing rate of neurons within the hypothalamus that control

thermoregulation.[54][56] Antipyretics work by inhibiting the enzyme COX, which causes the general

inhibition of prostanoid biosynthesis (PGE2) within the hypothalamus.[54][55] PGE2 signals to the

hypothalamus to increase the body's thermal set point.[55][57] Ibuprofen has been shown more effective as

an antipyretic than paracetamol (acetaminophen).[56][58] Arachidonic acid is the precursor substrate forcyclooxygenase leading to the production of prostaglandins F, D & E.

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Classification

NSAIDs can be classified based on their chemical structure or mechanism of action. Older NSAIDs wereknown long before their mechanism of action was elucidated and were for this reason classified by chemicalstructure or origin. Newer substances are more often classified by mechanism of action.

Salicylates

Propionic acid derivatives

Acetic acid derivatives

Enolic acid (Oxicam) derivatives

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)Diflunisal (Dolobid)Salicylic acid and other salicylates

Salsalate (Disalcid)

Ibuprofen[59]

DexibuprofenNaproxenFenoprofenKetoprofenDexketoprofen

FlurbiprofenOxaprozinLoxoprofen

indomethacinTolmetinSulindacEtodolacKetorolacDiclofenacAceclofenacNabumetone (drug itself is non-acidic but the active, principal metabolite has a carboxylic acid group)

PiroxicamMeloxicamTenoxicamDroxicamLornoxicamIsoxicam

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Anthranilic acid derivatives (Fenamates)

The following NSAIDs are derived from fenamic acid. which is a derivative of anthranilic acid,[60]:235 which

in turn is a nitrogen isostere of salicylic acid, which is the active metabolite of aspirin.[60]:235[61]:17

Selective COX-2 inhibitors (Coxibs)

Sulfonanilides

Nimesulide (systemic preparations are banned by several countries for the potential risk ofhepatotoxicity)

Others

ClonixinLicofelone acts by inhibiting LOX (lipooxygenase) & COX and hence known as 5-LOX/COX inhibitor

H-harpagide in Figwort[65] or Devil's Claw[66]

Chirality

Most NSAIDs are chiral molecules (diclofenac is a notable exception). However, the majority are prepared ina racemic mixture. Typically, only a single enantiomer is pharmacologically active. For some drugs (typicallyprofens), an isomerase enzyme in vivo converts the inactive enantiomer into the active form, although itsactivity varies widely in individuals. This phenomenon is likely responsible for the poor correlation betweenNSAID efficacy and plasma concentration observed in older studies, when specific analysis of the activeenantiomer was not performed.

IsoxicamPhenylbutazone (Bute)

Mefenamic acidMeclofenamic acidFlufenamic acidTolfenamic acid

Celecoxib (FDA alert[62])

Rofecoxib (withdrawn from market[63])

Valdecoxib (withdrawn from market[64])Parecoxib FDA withdrawn, licenced in the EULumiracoxib TGA cancelled registrationEtoricoxib not FDA approved, licenced in the EUFirocoxib used in dogs and horses

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Ibuprofen and ketoprofen are now available in single, active enantiomer preparations (dexibuprofen anddexketoprofen), which purport to offer quicker onset and an improved side-effect profile. Naproxen hasalways been marketed as the single active enantiomer.

Main practical differences

NSAIDs within a group tend to have similar characteristics and tolerability. There is little difference in

clinical efficacy among the NSAIDs when used at equivalent doses.[67] Rather, differences amongcompounds usually relate to dosing regimens (related to the compound's elimination half-life), route ofadministration, and tolerability profile.

Regarding adverse effects, selective COX-2 inhibitors have lower risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, but asubstantially more increased risk of myocardial infarction than the increased risk from nonselective

inhibitors.[67] Some data also supports that the partially selective nabumetone is less likely to cause

gastrointestinal events.[67] The nonselective naproxen appears risk-neutral with regard to cardiovascular

events.[67]

A consumer report noted that ibuprofen, naproxen, and salsalate are less expensive than other NSAIDs, and

essentially as effective and safe when used appropriately to treat osteoarthritis and pain.[68]

Pharmacokinetics

Most nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are weak acids, with a pKa of 3-5. They are absorbed well fromthe stomach and intestinal mucosa. They are highly protein-bound in plasma (typically >95%), usually toalbumin, so that their volume of distribution typically approximates to plasma volume. Most NSAIDs aremetabolised in the liver by oxidation and conjugation to inactive metabolites that typically are excreted inthe urine, though some drugs are partially excreted in bile. Metabolism may be abnormal in certain diseasestates, and accumulation may occur even with normal dosage.

Ibuprofen and diclofenac have short half-lives (2–3 hours). Some NSAIDs (typically oxicams) have very longhalf-lives (e.g. 20–60 hours).

History

From the era of Greek medicine to the mid-19th century, the discovery of medicinal agents was classed asan empirical art; folklore and mythological guidance were combined in deploying the vegetable and mineralproducts that made up the expansive pharmacopoeia of the time. Myrtle leaves were in use by 1500 BCE.

Hippocrates (460 – 377 BCE) first reported using willow bark[69] and in 30 BCE Celsus described the signsof inflammation and also used willow bark to mitigate them. On April 25, 1763, Edward Stone wrote to the

Royal Society describing his observations on the use of willow bark-based medicines in febrile patients.[70]

The active ingredient of willow bark, a glycoside called salicin, was first isolated by Johann Andreas Buchnerin 1827. By 1829, French chemist Henri Leroux had improved the extraction process to obtain about 30g of

purified salicin from 1.5 kg of bark.[70]

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One of the first advertisements for

Bayer Aspirin, published in The New

York Times in 1917

By hydrolysis, salicin releases glucose and salicylic alcohol which can be converted into salicylic acid, both in

vivo and through chemical methods.[69] The acid is more effective than salicin and, in addition to its fever-reducing properties, is anti-inflammatory and analgesic. In 1869, Hermann Kolbe synthesised salicylate,

although it was too acidic for the gastric mucosa.[69] The reaction used to synthesise aromatic acid from a

phenol in the presence of CO2 is known as the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction.[71][72][73]

By 1897 the German chemist Felix Hoffmann and the Bayer company prompted a new age of pharmacologyby converting salicylic acid into acetylsalicylic acid—named aspirin by Heinrich Dreser. Other NSAIDs were

developed from the 1950s forward.[70]

In 2001, NSAIDs accounted for 70,000,000 prescriptions and 30

billion over-the-counter doses sold annually in the United States.[12]

Veterinary use

Research supports the use of NSAIDs for the control of painassociated with veterinary procedures such as dehorning andcastration of calves. The best effect is obtained by combining a short-term local anesthetic such as lidocaine with an NSAID acting as alonger term analgesic. However, as different species have varyingreactions to different medications in the NSAID family, little of theexisting research data can be extrapolated to animal species otherthan those specifically studied, and the relevant government agencyin one area sometimes prohibits uses approved in other jurisdictions.

For example, ketoprofen's effects have been studied in horses morethan in ruminants but, due to controversy over its use in racehorses,veterinarians who treat livestock in the United States more

commonly prescribe flunixin meglumine, which, while labeled for use in such animals, is not indicated forpost-operative pain.

In the United States, meloxicam is approved for use only in canines, whereas (due to concerns about liver

damage) it carries warnings against its use in cats[74][75] except for one-time use during surgery.[76] Inspite of these warnings, meloxicam is frequently prescribed "off-label" for non-canine animals including cats

and livestock species.[77] In other countries, for example The European Union (EU), there is a label claimfor use in cats.

References

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(http://www.physsportsmed.com/index.php?article=1770). The Physician and Sports Medicine 38 (1): 132–138.

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(http://www.physsportsmed.com/index.php?article=1770). The Physician and Sports Medicine 38 (1): 132–138.doi:10.3810/psm.2010.04.1770 (https://dx.doi.org/10.3810%2Fpsm.2010.04.1770). PMID 20424410(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20424410).

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22 (2): 383–390. doi:10.1096/fj.07-8506com (https://dx.doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.07-8506com). PMID 17884974(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17884974).

3. Clive P. Page, Michael J. Curtis, Morley Sutter, Michael Walker, Brian Hoffman. Farmacología integrada(https://books.google.com/books?id=h7cxH6XH4-sC) (in Spanish). Published by Elsevier España, 1998. ISBN 84-8174-340-2

4. Simone Rossi, ed. (2006). Australian medicines handbook 2006. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook Pty Ltd.ISBN 0-9757919-2-3.

5. Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs (July 2013). "NSAIDs"(http://consumerhealthchoices.org/catalog/nsaids/). Yonkers, New York: Consumer Reports. Retrieved 12 February2014 |chapter= ignored (help)

6. Towheed TE, Maxwell L, Judd MG, Catton M, Hochberg MC, Wells G (2006). "Acetaminophen for osteoarthritis".Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD004257. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004257.pub2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD004257.pub2). PMID 16437479(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437479).

7. Gøtzsche PC (March 1989). "Methodology and overt and hidden bias in reports of 196 double-blind trials of

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74. "NADA 141-213: New Animal Drug Application Approval (for Metacam® (meloxicam) 0.5 mg/mL and 1.5 mg/mLOral Suspension)"(http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/Products/ApprovedAnimalDrugProducts/FOIADrugSummaries/ucm118006.pdf) (PDF). US Food and Drug Administration. 15 April 2003. Retrieved 24 July 2010.

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m118006.pdf) (PDF). US Food and Drug Administration. 15 April 2003. Retrieved 24 July 2010.75. Metacam Client Information Sheet

(http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/Products/ApprovedAnimalDrugProducts/DrugLabels/UCM050394.pdf), product description: "Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug for oral use in dogs only", and in the "What IsMetacam" section in bold-face type: "Do not use in cats.", January 2005.

76. Metacam 5 mg/mL Solution for Injection, Supplemental Approval(http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/Products/ApprovedAnimalDrugProducts/FOIADrugSummaries/ucm118027.pdf) 28 October 2004.

77. Off-label use discussed in: Arnold Plotnick MS, DVM, ACVIM, ABVP, Pain Management using Metacam(http://www.manhattancats.com/Articles/pain.html), and Stein, Robert, Perioperative Pain Managemment(http://www.vasg.org/perioperative_pain_management_part_iv.htm) Part IV, Looking Beyond Butorphanol,September 2006.