Non-Human Rights-Holders and the Hypocrisy of Fundamental ... · continue to evolve until the...
Transcript of Non-Human Rights-Holders and the Hypocrisy of Fundamental ... · continue to evolve until the...
Pre-Conference Presentation
Non-Human Rights-Holders and the
Hypocrisy of Fundamental Rights Law
by Ankita Shanker
I n th i s ses s i on , Ank i ta d i scus se s the d i s c repanc y be tween those who ho l dfundamenta l r i gh t s and those whose r igh t s a re fo rma l l y recogn i sed andlega l l y p ro tec ted . I n do ing so , she exposes an egreg ious gap in the lawbe tween i t s unde r l y i ng va lues and i t s e f f i cac y (o r l ac k thereo f ) i n upho ld ingthem through i t s p rov i s i ons . F i r s t , she exp la ins why an ima l s havef undamenta l r i gh t s and what th i s means . Next , she ou t l i nes how therecogn i t i on and pro tec t i on o f fundamenta l r i gh t s and assoc ia ted no t i onshave evo l ved over t ime . Th i s evo lu t i on has reac hed the po in t where a l lhuman be ings are bene f i c i a r ie s , bu t non -human an ima l s a re s t i l li nexp l i cab l y exc luded f rom i t s scope . Ank i ta argues tha t the law shou ldcon t inue to evo l ve unt i l t he fundamenta l r i gh t s o f a l l r i gh ts - ho lde r s , humanand non -human , a re recogn i sed and protec ted . F ina l l y , she br i e f l y addres se swhy we need to re spec t an ima l r i gh t s , no t j u s t qua an ima l r i gh t s , bu t a l soas a means to so l ve a number o f the wor ld ’s most p re s s ing p rob lems , manyo f wh i c h pose an ex i s ten t i a l r i sk to humans as we l l .
1
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
KEY TERMS
• Non-Human Animals (“Animals”)
• Human Animals (“Humans”)
• Fundamental Rights (“FRs”)
• Sentience
• Exploitation2
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
WE NEED TO TALK ABOUT ANIMAL RIGHTS.
2 select examples of arguments that demonstrate why:
• “My personal choice [to exploit animals] should be respected.”
• How does the choice to exploit another trump the victim’s choice to not be
exploited?
• “The animals [I exploit] are treated well.”
• Even if that were true (and it almost never is), how does that justify the
exploitation?
“The scale, gravity, and legality of animal exploitation makes it the prime
contender for the worst abuse in the world today.”
“Animal welfare treats the symptoms of animal abuse, but the only way to
eradicate the disease is to cure the underlying condition.” 3
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
WHO HOLDS FRS?
“All sentient beings have fundamental rights in order to protect
the interests that are perceived through their consciousness.
The nature and content of these rights are relevant to protecting
these interests, and the maximum limits of these rights are
determined by the minimum requirements to protect the
corresponding rights of other rights-holders.”
4
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
WHY?
“[…] the question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they
suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being?” (Jeremy
Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (first printed
1780, London: printed for T. Payne, and son, at the Mews Gate, published 1789, p.
cccix)
5
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• Premise 1: Humans have FRs.
• Premise II: Animals are like humans.
• Else,→ Questioning animal sentience
• Premise III: Like things are to be treated alike.
• Else,→Adopting supremacist notions
• Conclusion: Since humans have FRs, so do animals.
6
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
WHOSE FRS ARE RECOGNISED AND PROTECTED?
“It often happens that the universal belief of one age of mankind — a belief
from which no one was, nor without an extraordinary effort of genius and
courage, could at that time be free — becomes to a subsequent age so
palpable an absurdity, that the only difficulty then is to imagine how such a
thing can ever have appeared credible.” (John S. Mill, Principles of Political
Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy. (first published 1848,
London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer1871), p. 3)
7
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Select examples from early human rights documents:
• Magna Carta (England 1215);
• Broadest protection to the “free man”
• Partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in 1968) and serfs (serfdom
abolished in 1574).
• Declaration of Independence (US 1776); Constitution (US 1787); Bill of Rights
(US 1791)
• Allegedly protected “all men” on an equal basis
• … implicitly partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in late 20th C)
and excl. enslaved persons (slavery abolished in 1865, and equal rights protection for
African Americans in 1968)
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France 1789)
• Broadest protection to active citizens
• Implicitly partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in late 20th C) and
non-propertied men, and excl. enslaved people (slavery abolished in 1784 and then
again in 1848)
8
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• “Preserving the status quo is obviously beneficial for oppressors, but itis a weak reason to deny the oppressed their rights.”
• Select examples of triggers that prompted the expansion of humanrights protections:
• Women’s rights movements
• Abolitionist movements
• Civil rights movements
• Rebellions/revolts/wars
• Law and policy changes:
• International declarations (e.g., ADRDM 1948, UDHR 1948, ASEAN HumanRights Declaration 2012)
• International treaties (e.g., ECHR 1950, ICCPR 1966, ICESCR 1966, ACHR1969,ACHPR 1981,ArabCHR 2004)
• Domestic laws and policies9
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
“[…] the time shall come when all men […] will be content with a vegetable
diet and will think on the murder of animals as now they think on the murder
of men.” (Dmitry S. Merezhkovsky, The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (first
published 1900, translated from the original Russian by Herbert Trench, New York
and London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons 1912), p. 226)
10
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
PROBLEM?
Rights-Holders
Beneficiaries of Rights
Recognitonand Protection
11
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
MORE PROBLEMS?
• Human health
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Zoonoses
• Individual health conditions
• The environment
• Anthropocene extinction
• Environmental degradation
• Food availability
12
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
HUMAN HEALTH: ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE AND ZOONOSES
• “Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global threat of increasing concern. […]
two-thirds of the estimated future growth of usage of antimicrobials is estimated to
be within the animal production sector” (FAO, “Antimicrobial Resistance: Animal
production” (FAO)).
• Zoonotic diseases are increasing rapidly, and human activities, such as animal
product consumption, animal agriculture, domestication and selective breeding
of animals, taming of animals, encroachment into wildlife, loss of biodiversity,
climate change, etc. are the main drivers of zoonosis (UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016
Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016), pp. 19, 22-23).
• “The greatest risk for zoonotic disease transmission occurs at the human-animal
interface through direct or indirect human exposure to animals, their products (e.g.
meat, milk, eggs..) and/or their environments” (WHO, “Zoonoses and the
environment” (WHO)). 13
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
“On average, one new infectious disease emerges in humans every four
months” (UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental
Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016), p. 18).
14
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Pathogens/Diseases/
Illnesses/Deaths
Affecting Humans
Number/Percentage
Attributable to
Zoonoses/Orginating in
Animals
Source(s)
Deaths/year millionsWHO EMRO, Sixty-first session of
the Regional Committee for the
Eastern Mediterranean: Zoonotic
disease: emerging public health
threats in the Region (WHO EMRO
2014), p. 1
Illnesses/year 1 billion
New pathogens detected in
past 30 years
75%
Emerging infectious
diseases
75%UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report:
Emerging Issues of Environmental
Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016),
p.18Infectious diseases 60%
HUMAN HEALTH: INDIVIDUAL HEALTH CONDITIONS
Various independent organisations have found causal links between the
consumption of animal products (meat, fish, dairy, and eggs) and serious
and even fatal human health conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease,
cancer (bowel, breast, ovarian, lung, prostrate, stomach), cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, neurotoxicity, osteoporosis, etc. (See, e.g., American
Cancer Society; Cancer Council; Cancer Research UK, German Cancer Research
Centre, International Agency for Cancer Research; National Cancer Institute;
Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine; World Cancer Research Fund;
World Health Organization).
15
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
“The risk increases with the amount of meat consumed, but the data available
for evaluation did not permit a conclusion about whether a safe level exists”(WHO, “Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat”
(WHO 26 October 2015)).16
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Substance(s) Carcinogenic Classification Source(s)
Chinese-style salted fish Group 1 (carcinogenic)
- links with cancer as
conclusively established as
for tobacco or asbestos
- established links to
colorectal cancer
- possible links to stomach
and bowel cancers
IARC, “Red Meat and Processed Meat”
in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of
Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 114,
Lyon: IARC, WHO 2018); “Personal
Habits and Indoor Combustions” in
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of
Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 100E,
Lyon: IARC, WHO 2012), pp. 501-510;
“Some Naturally Occurring Substances:
Food Items and Constituents,
Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and
Mycotoxins” in IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to
Humans (vol. 56, Lyon: IARC, WHO
1993), pp. 41-82; WHO, “Q&A on the
carcinogenicity of the consumption of
red meat and processed meat” (WHO
26 October 2015)
Processed meat
Red meat Group 2A (probably
carcinogenic)
- probable links to colorectal
cancer
- possible links to stomach
and bowel cancers
17
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Substance Issue(s) Source(s)
Dairy
products
- Not or minimally linked with benefit to bone
health
- Linked with weakened bones, fractures, and
increased risk of prostate cancer and earlier
death
Diane Feskanich et al., “Milk Consumption During Teenage Years and Risk of Hip
Fractures in Older Adults” (January 2014) 168:1 JAMA Pediatrics 54; “New Review Finds
Dairy Products Linked to Prostate Cancer” (PCRM 22 April 2019), referring to Dagfinn
Aune et al., “Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and
meta-analysis of cohort studies” (January 2015) 101:1 AJCN 87; Yan Song et al., “Whole
milk intake is associated with prostate cancer-specific mortality among U.S. male
physicians” (February 2013) 143:2 JN 189
Eggs - Strongly linked with cardiovascular disease “80
percent higher coronary artery calcium scores,
a measure of heart disease risk”
- Linked with high cholesterol
- Increased “risk for diabetes by 68 [to 165]
percent”
- Increased “risk for a deadly form of prostate
cancer by 81 percent”
“Eggs Increase Risk for Heart Disease” (PCRM 1 July 2015), referring to Yuni Choi et al.,
“Egg consumption and coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic men and women”
(1 August 2015) 241:2 Atherosclerosis 305; “Health Concerns With Eggs: Eating Eggs Can
Be Hazardous to Your Health” (PCRM), referring to Yuehua Li et al., “Egg consumption
and risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes: A meta-analysis” (1 August 2013)
229:2 Atherosclerosis 524; “Eggs and Cholesterol Associated With Gestational Diabetes
Risk” (PCRM 12 April 2011), referring to Chunfang Qiu et al., “Risk of Gestational
Diabetes Mellitus in Relation to Maternal Egg and Cholesterol Intake” (15 March 2011)
173:6 AJE 649; “Eating Eggs Linked to Cancer” (PCRM 3 October 2011), referring to
Erin L. Richman et al., “Egg, Red Meat, and Poultry Intake and Risk of Lethal Prostate
Cancer in the Prostate-Specific Antigen-Era: Incidence and Survival” (December 2011)
4:12 AACR 2110
Meat (red or
white)
- Linked with high cholesterol Nathalie Bergeron et al., “Effects of red meat, white meat, and nonmeat protein sources
on atherogenic lipoprotein measures in the context of low compared with high
saturated fat intake: a randomized controlled trial” (2019) 110(1) AJCN 24
Seafood - Linked with toxicity from environmental
contaminants (e.g., neurological toxicity from
methylmercury)
“Chapter 4: Health Risks Associated with Seafood Consumption” in Committee on
Nutrient Relationships in Seafood: Selections to Balance Benefits and Risks Food and
Nutrition Board, Malden C. Nesheim & Ann L. Yaktine, Editors (eds.), Seafood Choices:
Balancing Benefits and Risks (Washington: NAP 2007)
• Blue zones are regions where residents on average live the longest and
healthiest lives (Dan Buettner, “The Secrets of Long Life” (National Geographic
November 2005); Michel Poulain et al., “Identification of a geographic area
characterized by extreme longevity in the Sardinia island: the AKEA study”
(2004) 39(9) Exp Gerontol 1423; Blue Zones, “History of Blue Zones” (Blue
Zones).
• Blue zone diets are primarily, if not exclusively, (95-100%, in fact!) plant-
based (Buettner, Ibid.; Poulain et al., Ibid.; Blue Zones, “Blue Zones Food
Guidelines” (Blue Zones).
• “The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted” concluded
that whole-food, plant-based diets are better for health (Jill Edwards,
“The China Study: 3 Lessons We Need to Know” (T. Colin Campbell Centre for
Nutrition Studies 21 November 2018); T. Colin Campbell & Thomas M. Campbell
II, The China study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and
the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health (Dallas:
BenBella Books 2005).
18
THE ENVIRONMENT: ANTHROPOCENE EXTINCTION
• 25% of life on earth, i.e., 1 billion species, are under threat of global extinction
as a result of human actions (Sandra Díaz et al., Report of the Plenary of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on
the work of its seventh session Addendum: Summary for policymakers of the global
assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 29 May 2019), p 4).
• “The rate of global change in nature during the past 50 years is unprecedented in
human history. The direct drivers of change in nature with the largest global impact
have been (starting with those with most impact): changes in land and sea use; direct
exploitation of organisms; climate change; pollution; and invasion of alien species”
(Ibid., p. 4).19
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
THE ENVIRONMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
• “The destructive impact of animal agriculture on our environment far
exceeds that of any other technology on Earth” (UNEP, “Tackling the world’s
most urgent problem: meat” (UNEP 26 September 2018)).
• “The greenhouse gas footprint of animal agriculture rivals that that of every
car, truck, bus, ship, airplane, and rocket ship combined” (Ibid.).
• “Animal agriculture is the leading cause of species extinction, ocean dead
zones, water pollution, and habitat destruction” (Cowspiracy, “The Facts”
(Cowspiracy), referring to various sources).20
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Some statistics gathered from the websites of Our World in Data and
Cowspiracy (and supplemented by additional calculations and
conversions) (Hannah Ritchie & Max Roser, “Environmental impacts of food
production” (Our World In Data 2020); Cowspiracy,“The Facts” (Cowspiracy)):
21
Land Use (incl. Deforestation) Percentage Share of Animal
Agriculture
Source(s)
Direct agricultural land use (i.e., excl.
crops fed to “livestock”)
77%
(Data source: FAO)Global protein supply 37%
Global calorie supply 18%
Earth’s total land 45% Phillip Thornton et al., “Livestock and climate
change” (November 2011) 3 ILRI1, p. 1
Destruction of the Amazon
Rainforest (1-2 acres cleared/second
→ loss of c.137 species of flora and
fauna/day)
91% Sergio Margulis, World Bank Working Paper No.
22: Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian
Amazon (World Bank 2003), p. 9; Cowspiracy,
“The Facts” (Cowspiracy), referring to various
sources
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
22
Water Use Percentage Share of
Animal Agriculture
Source(s)
Global freshwater
consumption
20%-33% Mesfin M. Mekonnen & Arjen Y.
Hoekstra, “A Global Assessment of
the Water Footprint of Farm Animal
Products” (2012) 15 Ecosystems 401,
p. 409
Greenhouse Gas
Emissions
Percentage Share of
Animal Agriculture
Source(s)
Global greenhouse
emissions from food
production (i.e., excl.
supply chain
contributions)
65% Joseph Poore & Thomas Nemecek,
“Reducing food’s environmental
impacts through producers and
consumers” (2018) 360:6392 Science
987
Global greenhouse gas
emissions
51% FAO, "Livestock's Long Shadow:
environmental issues and options"
(Rome: FAO 2006); Robert
Goodland & Jeff Anhang, "Livestock
and Climate Change: What if the key
actors in climate change are...cows,
pigs and chickens?”
(November/December 2009) 22(6)
WorldWatch 10
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
Some more statistics gathered (and supplemented by additional
calculations and conversions):
23
Impact on Oceans
and Ocean Life
Percentage/Volume Source(s)
Fully exploited
monitored marine fish
stocks (as of 2018)
90%
(of which 29% were
overfished or depleted)
Mukhisa Kituyi & Peter
Thomson, “90% of fish stocks
are used up – fisheries
subsidies must stop emptying
the ocean” (WEF 13 July 2018);
FAO,“Fisheries” (FAO)
Annual discards in
global marine capture
40% (by number)
80% (by weight)
Cowspiracy, “The Facts”
(Cowspiracy), referring to
various sources, incl. “9.
Discard and bycatch in Shrimp
trawl fisheries" in Ivor Clucas,
A Study of the Options for
Utilization of Bycatch and
Discards from Marine Capture
Fisheries (Rome: FAO 1997)
Ghost fishing gear (as of
1997)
640,000 metric tonnes
or 10% of marine litter
Graeme Macfadyen et al.,
“Abandoned, lost or otherwise
discarded fishing gear” (Rome:
UNEP, FAO 2009), p. 11ff.© 2020 Ankita Shanker
FOOD AVAILABILITY
Some statistics gathered from the website of Cowspiracy (Cowspiracy, “The Facts” (Cowspiracy),
referring to various sources):
• Humans grow enough food to feed 10 billion humans.
• At least 50% of all grain grown worldwide is fed to animals reared as “livestock”.
• 82% of starving human children live in countries where food is fed to animals that are
eaten by Western countries.
24
DailyWorldwide
Consumption
Humans Cows
• Water (by
volume)
5.2 billion gallons 45 billion gallons
• Food (by weight) 21 billion pounds 135 billion pounds
Food
production
Plant-Based
Food
Beef
• On 1.5
acres of
land (by
weight)
37,000
pounds
375 pounds
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
SOLUTION?
• Societal level: End exploitation of animals and their habitats
• Individual level: End our participation in such (aka “go vegan”)
“Veganism is a way of living which seeks to exclude, as far as is possible
and practicable, all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for
food, clothing or any other purpose” (The Vegan Society, “Definition of
Veganism” (TheVegan Society)).
• “Veganism is our future, because it is the only way we will have a
future.”25
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
REFERENCES
• African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Union 1981)
• American Convention on Human Rights (Organization of American States 1969)
• American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man (Organization of American States 1948)
• Arab Charter on Human Rights (League of Arab States 2004)
• ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (Association of Southeast Asian Nations 2012)
• Aune, D. et al., “Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of
cohort studies” (January 2015) 101:1 American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87
• Bentham, J., An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (first printed 1780, London: printed for T.
Payne, and Son, at the Mews Gate, published 1789)
• Bergeron, N. et al., “Effects of red meat, white meat, and nonmeat protein sources on atherogenic lipoprotein
measures in the context of low compared with high saturated fat intake: a randomized controlled trial”
(2019) 110(1) The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 24
• Blue Zones, “Food Guidelines” (Blue Zones).
• Blue Zones, “History of Blue Zones” (Blue Zones)
• Buettner, D., “The Secrets of Long Life” (National Geographic November 2005) 26
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• Campbell, T.C. & Campbell, T. M., The China study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and
the Startling Implications for Diet,Weight Loss and Long-term Health (Dallas: BenBella Books 2005)
• Choi, Y. et al., “Egg consumption and coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic men and women” (1
August 2015) 241:2 Atherosclerosis 305
• Clucas, I., A Study of the Options for Utilization of Bycatch and Discards from Marine Capture Fisheries (Rome:
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 1997)
• Committee on Nutrient Relationships in Seafood: Selections to Balance Benefits and Risks Food and
Nutrition Board; Nesheim, M.C. & Yaktine, A.L. (eds.), Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks (Institute of
Medicine of the National Academies) (Washington: The National Academies Press 2007)
• Cowspiracy, “The Facts” (Cowspiracy)
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France 1789)
• Díaz, S. et al., Report of the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services on the work of its seventh session Addendum: Summary for policymakers of the global
assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services 29 May 2019)
• Edwards, J., “The China Study: 3 Lessons We Need to Know” (T. Colin Campbell Centre for Nutrition Studies 21
November 2018)
• European Convention on Human Rights (Council of Europe 1950)
• Feskanich, D. et al., “Milk Consumption During Teenage Years and Risk of Hip Fractures in Older Adults”
(January 2014) 168:1 JAMA Pediatrics 54
• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, "Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues
and Options" (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2006)
• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “Antimicrobial Resistance: Animal production”
(Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations)27
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “Fisheries” (Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations)
• Goodland, R. & Anhang, J. “Livestock and Climate Change: What if the key actors in climate change are...cows,
pigs and chickens?” (November/December 2009) 22(6) WorldWatch 10
• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Personal Habits and Indoor Combustions” in IARC Monographs
on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 100E, Lyon: International Agency for Research on
Cancer, World Health Organization 2012)
• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Red Meat and Processed Meat” in IARC Monographs on the
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 114, Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World
Health Organization 2018)
• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and
Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins” in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of
Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 56, Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health
Organization 1993)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (United Nations1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (United Nations1966)
• Kituyi M. & Thomson, P., “90% of fish stocks are used up – fisheries subsidies must stop emptying the ocean”
(World Economic Forum13 July 2018)
• Li, Y. et al., “Egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes: A meta-analysis” (1 August
2013) 229:2 Atherosclerosis 524
• Macfadyen G. et al., “Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear” (Rome: United Nations
Environment Programme; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2009)
• Magna Carta (England 1215)
• Margulis, S., World Bank Working Paper No. 22: Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (Washington:
World Bank 2003)28
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• Mekonnen, M.M. & Hoekstra, A.Y., “A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products”
(2012) 15 Ecosystems 401
• Merezhkovsky, D. S., The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (first published 1900, translated from the original
Russian by Herbert Trench, New York and London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons 1912)
• Mill, J.S. Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy. (originally published
1848, London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer 1871)
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eating Eggs Linked to Cancer” (Physicians Committee for
Responsible Medicine 3 October 2011)
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eggs and Cholesterol Associated With Gestational Diabetes
Risk” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 12 April 2011)
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eggs Increase Risk for Heart Disease” (Physicians Committee
for Responsible Medicine 1 July 2015)
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Health Concerns With Eggs: Eating Eggs Can Be Hazardous
to Your Health” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine )
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “New Review Finds Dairy Products Linked to Prostate
Cancer” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 22 April 2019)
• Poore, J. & Nemecek, T., “Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers” (2018)
360:6392 Science 987
• Poulain, M. et al., “Identification of a geographic area characterized by extreme longevity in the Sardinia island:
the AKEA study” (2004) 39(9) Experimental Gerontology 1423
• Qiu, C. et al., “Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Relation to Maternal Egg and Cholesterol Intake” (15
March 2011) 173:6 American Journal of Epidemiology 649
• Richman, E.L. et al., “Egg, Red Meat, and Poultry Intake and Risk of Lethal Prostate Cancer in the Prostate-
Specific Antigen-Era: Incidence and Survival” (December 2011) 4:12 American Association for Cancer Research
2110
• Ripstein, A., “Beyond the Harm Principle” (2006) 34:3 Philosophy & Public Affairs 215
29
© 2020 Ankita Shanker
• Ritchie, H. & Roser, M., “Environmental impacts of food production” (Our World In Data 2020)
• Roda, P. (ed.) et al., “A third assessment of global marine fisheries discards. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Technical Paper” (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2019)
• Song, Y. et al., “Whole milk intake is associated with prostate cancer-specific mortality among U.S. male
physicians” (February 2013) 143:2 The Journal of Nutrition 189
• The Bill of Rights (United States of America 1791)
• The Constitution of the United States (United States of America 1787)
• The Declaration of Independence (United States of America1776)
• The Vegan Society, “Definition of Veganism” (The Vegan Society)
• The Vegan Society, “The Dairy Industry” (The Vegan Society)
• The Vegan Society, “Why Go Vegan” (The Vegan Society)
• Thornton, P. et al., “Livestock and climate change” (November 2011) 3 Livestock Xchange: International Livestock
Research Institute 1, p. 1
• United Nations Environment Programme, “Tackling the world’s most urgent problem: meat” (United Nations
Environment Programme 26 September 2018)
• United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental
Concern (Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme 2016)
• Universal Declaration on Human Rights (United Nations 1948)
• World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Sixty-first session of the Regional
Committee for the Eastern Mediterranean: Zoonotic disease: emerging public health threats in the Region (World
Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean 2014)
• World Health Organization, “Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed
meat” (World Health Organization 26 October 2015)
• World Health Organization, “Zoonoses and the environment” (World Health Organization)
30
© 2020 Ankita Shanker