Non-finite clauses and clauses without verbs

Main topics

1. Four kinds of non-finite clauses2. The form of non-finite clauses3. The functions of non-finite clauses4. The catenative construction5. Verbless clauses

Non-finite clauses

non-canonical clauses always subordinate The clause is non-finite if the verb is a gerund-participle, a

past-participle And also infinitival clauses are non-finite Can have special subordinators(to and for) Can lack overt subjects despite not being imperative When a non-finite clause has a personal pronoun as

subject, that pronoun generally does not have the nominative case-form

Under certain conditions may have a non-subject NP left understood

Four kinds of non-finite clause

CONSTRUCTION EXAMPLE VERB-FORM

i To-infinitival Liz wants to write a novel plain form ii Bare infinitival Liz might write a novel plain form iii Gerund-participial Liz dreams of writing a novel gerund participle iv Past participial Liz has written a novel past participle

The form of non-finite clauses

A predicate has the form of a VP headed by a secondary form of the verb

Do not have primary tenseSo they can never contain a modal auxiliaryAre normally embedded within a larger construction .There are likely to be aspects of the meaning that can

be figured out from this larger construction: i I remembered to talk to my doctor. ii I intended to talk to my doctor.

Subordinators in to-infinitivals: to and for

To-infinitivals are marked by the word „to” „to” is a member of the subordinator category When a to-infinitival contains a subject, it also contains the

clause subordinator „for” „for” appears at the beginning of the clause, right before the

subject:

i [For John to lose his temper like that] is highly unusual ii [We can’t afford [for everyone to travel business class].

Subjectless non-finites

Most non-finites have no overt subjectIn: „Liz wants to write a novel”, we take Liz as the subject not only of want but also of write.We speak of Liz as the understood subject,

because Liz is not actually present in the write clause

Interpreting subjectless clauses

1. syntactic determination(involves a grammatical linkage)

2. no syntactic determination(does not)

Syntactic determination

i Ed promised to resign from the board ii They called on Ed to resign from the board

• We can see what the understood subject must be by looking at a linguistic antecedent that appears in the matrix construction („Ed promised…” or „They called on Ed…”)

• Retrieval(=recovery) of the missing subject is determined by a rule referring to the syntactic structure

No syntactic determination

The meaning depends heavily on inference(=conclusion)

i It is unwise to go swimming straight after a meal ii It was unwise to invite Ed to the party

Non-finite clauses functioning as adjunct

i Having read the report, Mary was sure there had been a

miscarriage of justice

„Having read the report” is an adjunct „Mary was sure…..” Is a matrix clause the missing subject is retrievable by looking at the

subject of the matrix clause So we understand the sentence as saying that it

was Mary who read the report

Non finites with an overt subject

1. Infinitival clauses2. Gerund-participial as complement3. Gerund-participial as adjunct

1.Infinitival clauses

In to-infinitivals a personal pronoun always takes accusative form:

i [For them to refuse you a visa] was quite outrageous

ii All I want is [for us to be reunited]

2.Gerund-participials as complement

i She insisted on [my/me being present throughout the interview]. ii She insisted on [her father’s/her father being present throughout the

interview]. iii She insisted on [there being a counsellor present throughout the

interview].

Genitive and non-genitive subjects are possible The genitive is characteristic of formal style If a personal pronoun subject is not in the genitive, then it takes

accusative case(as with „me” in [i]) Some NPs(such as „there” in [iii]) cannot take genitive case at

all

3.Gerund-participials as adjunct

Genitive subjects are not permitted at all The choice is between nominative and accusative:

i She sought advice from Ed, [he being the most experienced of her colleagues].

ii She sought advice from Ed, [him being the most experienced of her colleagues].

Hollow non-finites

Incomplete structure- they have a hole somewhere inside them

Some non-subject element is missing yet recoverable from an antecedent expression

i The house will be ready [ for you to inspect__] in a few days. ii The new car took me quite a long time [to get used to__].

Properties of hollow non-finites:

Form: Predominantly to-infinitivals

Function of missing element: direct object or object of a preposition

Antecedent: a NP( often the matrix subject) or a nominal( head of the NP in which the hollow clause is embedded)

The functions of non-finite clauses:1)To infinitivals

subject To turn back now would be a mistake. Extraposed subject It would be a mistake to turn back now. Extraposed object We considered it sensible to take legal advice. Internal compl of verb Her parents [intend to buy her a car]. Comp Of preposition I go to the gym [in order to keep fit]. Adjunct in clause I go to the gym to keep fit. Comp Of noun It provides [an opportunity to broaden the mind]. Modifier in NP We found [a big box in which to keep the CDs]. We found [a big box to keep the CDs in]. Comp Of adjective He was [anxious to make a good impression]. Indirect comp He’s still [too young to be left alone].

2) Bare infinitivals A very limited set of functions They occur as internal complements of certain verbs with no subject

permitted

i You should take legal advice. [complement of modal auxiliary] ii I want you to help clear up the garage. [complement of help]iii All I did was ask a simple question [complement of specifying be]

3) Gerund-participials

Subject Bringing your dad in on the deal was a great idea. Extraposed subject It’s been a pleasure talking to you both. Object I find talking to Max rather stressful. Extraposed object He considers it a waste of time going to meetings. Internal comp of verb I remember telling you about her visit. Comp of preposition He insist [on checking everything himself]. Adjunct in clause Having read the paper, I can’t see why you care. Modifier in NP Who was [the doctor performing the operation]?

4) Past-participials Internal comp of verb She [has written another novel] I could [have you dismissed on the spot]

Modifier in NP [The guns stolen in the break-in] were recovered

The catenative construction The catenative construction is a repeatable construction in a way that enables us to form chains of verbs in

which all except the last have a non-finite complement

Most cases where a non-finite clause is an internal complement of a verb illustrate the catenative construction

A catenative verb is a verb that can link with other verbs to form a chain or series( seem, keep and many others)

A catenative verb (=chain verb) takes a non-finite clause as its complement. She seems to want to stop trying to avoid meeting him =catenative construction HEAD VERB COMPLEMENT Seems to want to stop trying to avoid meeting him Want to stop trying to avoid meeting him Stop trying to avoid meeting him Trying to avoid meeting him Avoid meeting him CATENATIVE VERBS CATENATIVE COMPLEMENTS

CATENETIVE VERB + CATENATIVE COMPLEMENT = CATENATIVE CONSTRUCTION

The catenative construction Simple catenative construction- there is never an intervening

NP(=subject of the non-finite clause)

Complex catenative construction- There is always an intervening NP

Exception: passive voice. There isn’t an intervening NP, but we treat it as a complex catenative(e.g. Sue was persuaded to read the report.)

SIMPLE CATENATIVE COMPLEX CATENATIVE• I promised to read the report. We persuaded Sue to read the report• Max regrets locking the door. I remember Sue locking the door • Pat got nominated for treasurer. He had Sue nominated for treasurer

The simple catenative construction

The non-finite clause has no subject and there is no intervening NP that is understood as the subject

But interpretation requires that we supply an understood or implicit subject:

1. I promised to read the report. 2. Max regrets locking the door.

The promise in the first example is about my reading the report.

Max’s regret in the second example is about Max’s having locked the door.

Ordinary subjects vs. raised subjects

The subject of the catenative verb in the simple catenative construction may be an ordinary subject or a raised subject.

ORDINARY SUBJECT RAISED SUBJECT• Sara wanted to convince Ed Sara seemed to convince Ed

An ordinary subject is semantically related to the verb(or VP)

A raised subject doesn’t have a direct semantic relation with the verb. Syntactically it is located in the matrix clause, but semantically it belongs in the embedded clause.

Two ways of testing for ordinary or raised subjects in catenative construction:

1. Using passive infinitivals 2. Using dummy pronouns

1. Using passive infinitivals We put the non-finite clause into the passive voice And switch the matrix clause subject with the infinitival clause

object

Matrix clause subject-------->infinitival clause object

Ordinary subject- different core meaning Raised subject- the core meaning will remain the same ORDINARY SUBJECT RAISED SUBJECT• Active non-finite clause Sara Wanted to convince Ed Sara seemed to convince Ed• Passive non-finite clause Ed wanted to be convinced by Sara Ed seemed to be convinced by Sara• Same meaning in both? NO YES

Using dummy pronouns We consider clauses with dummy pronouns as subjects „It” and „there”

Extraposition: It is likely that she’ll go. Existential: There is plenty of time. „It” and „there” CANNOT function as an ordinary subject to a

catenative verb ORDINARY SUBJECT RAISED SUBJECT

• Extrapositional it *It wants to be likely It seems to be likely that she’ll go. she’ll go• Existential there *There wants to be plenty There seems to be of time. Plenty of time• Dummy subjects allowed? NO YES

Gerund participials

ORDINARY SUBJECT RAISED SUBJECT• Ed regrets interrupting me Ed keeps interrupting me.• I regret being interrupted by Ed I keep being interrupted by Ed• *There regret being power black-outs There keep being power black- -outs

Regret takes an ordinary subject Keep is a raising verb

Auxiliary verbs

They take raised subjects Dare is exceptional

• Kim daren’t beat Sue. Kim may beat Sue. • Sue daren’t be beaten by Kim. Sue may be beaten by Kim.• *There daren’t be a reporter present. There may be a reporter present.

The complex catenative construction

Contain an intervening NP

Four subtypes:1. We arranged for them to meet the manager.2. We resented their being given extra privileges.3. We counted on them to support us.4. We believed them to be conspiring against us.

The distinction between ordinary and raised object

An ordinary object is semantically related to the matrix verb.

A raised object is not: it is located syntactically in the matrix clause but belongs semantically in the catenative complement

ORDINARY OBJECT RAISED OBJECTWe urged a specialist to examine Ed. We wanted a specialist to examine Ed.

Verbless clauses

1. verbless clauses functioning as complement to a preposition

2. verbless clauses functioning directly as adjuncts

1. Verbless clauses as complement to a preposition

There is no preposition that licenses ONLY a verbless clause as complement

With, without accept non-finite and verbless clauses Although, if, once, while accept finite, non-finite and verbless

clauses

i He’d been on the beach [without anyone noticing him] [non-finite] ii He’d been on the beach [without any sunscreen on]. [Verbless] iii [While I was working in Boston] I lived with my aunt [finite] iv [While working in Boston] I lived with my aunt. [non finite] v [While in Boston] I lived with my aunt. [verbless]

2. Verbless clauses functioning directly as adjuncts

Verbless clauses with a subject + predicate structure can function as adjuncts

i The meeting finally over, they all adjourned to the local cafe’.

ii The passengers, many of them quite elderly, were forced to line up in the sun.

Exercise 1.

Classify the following catenative constructions as simple or complex.

i They invited me to join the board. ii I forgot to put the oven on. iii I promised them to be back by six. iv Ed was told by his doctor to do exercises.

Exercise 1.Classify the following catenative constructions as

simple or complex.

i They invited me to join the board. –COMPLEX CATENATIVE( „me”) ii I forgot to put the oven on. – SIMPLE CATENATIVE ( there is no an intervening NP) iii I promised them to be back by six.- COMPLEX CATENATIVE(„them”) iv Ed was told by his doctor to do exercises. COMPLEX CATENATIVE (passive voice)

Thank You